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Selecting a Nondestructive Testing

Method: Eddy Current Testing
The easy-to-use, affordable, off-the-shelf equipment available for this
mature technology can be used to detect many types of discontinuities
H. THOMAS YOLKEN
The following article is the third installment of a series
dedicated to the subject of nondestructive examination published in
the AMMTIAC Quarterly. The AMMTIAC Quarterly is
published by the Advanced Materials, Manufacturing, and Testing
Information Analysis Center (AMMTIAC), which is a U.S.
Department of Defense-sponsored Information Analysis Center.

ven though eddy current testing is one of the oldest nondestructive evaluation methods, it was not widely understood and did not reach full, widespread use until the
1980s (Ref. 1). Whereas portable ultrasonic instrumentation
offering considerable versatility for nondestructive testing
(NDT) has been available since the 1960s, comparable eddy current testing equipment was not widely available until the 1980s.
In addition, eddy current theory did not become available until
the late 1970s. Now, excellent tutorial information is available for
scientists and engineers without advanced degrees.

History of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing (Fig. 1) has its roots in discoveries that
were made in the 1800s. The most fundamental breakthrough
was the discovery of electromagnetism by Hans Christian
Orstead in 1820. About a decade later in 1831, Michael Faraday
discovered electromagnetic induction1. Then in 1834, Heinrich
Lenz developed the principle that defines how the electromagnetic properties of a test object are communicated back to the
test system. And, finally, James Maxwell, who is famous for his
defining equations of electromagnetic theory, discovered eddy
currents in 1864.
D. E. Hughes was the first to use eddy current testing in 1879
to conduct metallurgical sorting tests2. More than a half century later, eddy current testing made a leap forward when
Friedrich Foerster developed and marketed practical eddy current testing equipment in the 1940s. His major contributions led
to the development of the impedance plane display, which greatly aided presentation of test information. In addition, he formulated the Law of Similarity, which enables eddy current test
results to be duplicated under a wide variety of test situations.
An equipment manufacturer, Intercontrolle of France, made
the next major advancement in 1974, when the company developed multifrequency testing. Driving the device at multiple frequencies enabled eddy current testing to overcome the major
limitation of having to interpret eddy current signals from a single display. Multifrequency methods can also optimize conflict-

Fig. 1 Eddy current inspection of an F-16 Fighting Falcon

aircraft. NDT is responsible for early engine wear detection to
accomplish missions in a more cost-effective way.

ing test variables such as sensitivity and penetration. The development of microprocessor-based eddy current instruments in
the 1980s greatly enhanced the potential and user-friendliness
of the method, and allowed for the development of automated
eddy current inspection equipment. Finally, at the turn of the
1. Electromagnetic induction is the generation of an electrical
voltage across a conducting material through stimulation by an
applied alternating magnetic field.
2. Tests used to quickly sort metal alloys with differing chemical or
alloying compositions.

H. THOMAS YOLKEN is with TRI/Austin, Austin, Tex.

Reprinted with permission from AMMTIAC Quarterly, 2007, 1(4): 711; http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly.
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Fig. 2 Four types of eddy current instruments. A A simple arrangement, in which voltage across the coil is monitored; B typical
impedance bridge; C impedance bridge with dual coils; D impedance bridge with dual coils and a reference sample in the second
coil (Ref. 2). (Reprinted with permission of ASM International. All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org.)

Fig. 3 A senior airman uses eddy current to locate surface

cracks on a C-5 flange. (Photo taken by Staff Sgt. Matt McGovern
and provided courtesy of the U.S. Air Force.)

Fig. 4 A Royal Air Force airman checks for potential flaws on

an aircraft using eddy current. (Photo taken by Staff Sgt.
Rhiannon Willard and provided courtesy of the U.S. Air Force.)

century in the late 1990s and early 2000s, giant magnetoresistive3 sensors were utilized to allow multifrequency techniques at
very low frequencies to probe for flaws deep in multilayer metallic aircraft structures.

Physical Principles

3. Giant magnetoresistance is a phenomenon where the

application of a magnetic field reduces the electrical resistance of
certain materials by a significant margin.
4. An eddy current is an electrical current that flows in a circular
path or loop and is induced by an applied magnetic field.

Eddy current NDT is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction for inducing eddy currents4 in a material or part
placed in or adjacent to one or more alternating flux field induction coils (Ref. 2). The system is operated at very low power levels to minimize heating and temperature changes. The loop currents induced in the material produce an additional magnetic
field, and a sensor is used to measure the total magnetic field
near the specimen. The value of the total magnetic field depends
on several factors including the following:
Geometry of the induction coil

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Filed
Transverse Notch

Milled or
Electrical Discharge
Machined Longitudinal Notch

Milled or
Electrical Discharge
Machined Transverse Notch

Drilled Hole

Fig. 5 Several fabricated discontinuities used as reference standards in eddy current inspection (Ref. 2). (Reprinted with permission
of ASM International. All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org.)
Geometry of the specimen
Current and frequency in the coil
Electrical conductivity of the specimen
Magnetic permeability of the specimen.

How Eddy Current Testing Works

A crack in the surface, or near the surface of the specimen
interrupts the current flowing in the specimen (i.e., it locally
changes the electrical conductivity) and causes a change in the
adjacent magnetic field. The induction coil is scanned over the
specimen, and the magnetic field is measured by a sensor and
recorded. In another approach, there is no second or sensing
coil, and the reluctance5 is measured directly in the exciting or
induction coil to locate a crack.
Figure 2 shows the principal elements of four types of typical
eddy current systems. Figure 2A shows a simple arrangement,
in which voltage across the coil is monitored. Figure 2B shows
a typical impedance bridge. Figure 2C shows an impedance
bridge with dual coils, and Fig. 2D shows an impedance bridge
with dual coils and a reference sample in the second cell.
The location of the eddy currents in the specimen in the z, or
depth direction, is a function of the frequency. As the frequency
is increased, the eddy currents are increasingly concentrated
near the surface of the specimen, and as the frequency is
decreased the eddy currents increase their penetration into the
specimen. Employing a variety of frequencies to probe different
depths in the specimen can be very useful for analyzing a
greater volume of the specimen.

Types of Discontinuities
There are a number of different discontinuities that can be
detected with eddy current NDT. In metallic structures, welds,
fatigue cracks, voids, hidden corrosion and stress corrosion
cracks can be detected (Fig. 3), and the size of such defects can
also be determined. The geometry of the part and the defect
location dictate the size of the flaw that can be detected. For
example, automated and manual eddy current inspection of gas
turbine engine disks can reliably detect cracks as small as 0.023
in. in length in bolt holes of seventh stage compressor disks
(Ref. 3). Defects such as delaminations, voids, and broken fibers
from impact damage can be detected in graphite epoxy composites. While in carbon/carbon composites for high-temperature use, eddy current NDT can be used to determine the thickness of the silicon carbide (SiC) coating used on carbon/carbon
composite for oxidation protection. In addition, voids caused by
oxidation between the SiC coating and the carbon/carbon base
can be detected and carbon loss due to oxidation can be deter5. Reluctance in a magnetic system is akin to resistance in an
electrical system.

Fig. 6 A U.S. Air Force airman nondestructive inspection

apprentice checks for defects on a training aircraft part by
performing an eddy current inspection. (Photo taken by Staff Sgt.
Michael B. Keller and provided courtesy of the U.S. Air Force.)

mined using eddy current NDT. Eddy current NDT can be used
on conducting materials including metals, alloys, carbon/epoxy
composites, carbon/carbon composites, and metallic matrix
composites.

Inspection Requirements
There are no special facility requirements for eddy current
NDT, and portable instrumentation is available for field applications such as aircraft inspection, as shown in Fig. 4. Rugged
eddy current equipment is also available for use in manufacturing environments to inspect metallic products as they are being
processed. There is no special material preparation for testing,
but a smooth surface produces optimum results. Eddy current

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Direct
Tube OD

Tube ID

Coupling
Zone

Remote
Field Zone

Detector Array

Exciter Coil

Fig. 7 Schematic showing location of remote-field zone in relation to exciter coil and direct coupling zone (Ref. 2). (Reprinted with
permission of ASM International. All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org.)

Fig. 8 Standard depths of penetration as a function of

frequencies used in eddy current inspection for several metals of
various electrical conductivities (Ref. 2). (Reprinted with
permission of ASM International. All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org.)
equipment is calibrated using physical calibration standards
made of the same material with the same geometry as the part
to be tested. Electrodischarge machining (EDM) notches,
drilled holes, etc., can serve as flaws, and several sizes should
be used to encompass the actual flaw sizes expected. Figure 5
shows several fabricated discontinuities used as standards in
eddy current inspection.
Real flaws such as fatigue cracks, stress corrosion cracks,
etc., are required for improved accuracy in sizing of defects. The
distance of the inspection coil from the surface of the sample,
called liftoff, must also be carefully controlled. The interpretation of results using modern, computer-based eddy current
equipment is straightforward with both a display screen showing the results and the computer recording the data.

Practical Considerations
Commercial, off-the-shelf eddy current equipment is available that is very portable and user-friendly. Training for the
eddy current testing technique is somewhat straightforward
Fig. 6. However, certified NDT inspectors are either recommended or required and the training for a certified inspector
involves more in-depth training than just how to use the instrument and interpret the results. In the United States, eddy current inspectors can be certified by NAS 410 from the Aerospace
Industries Association of America or by the American Society
for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT). Eddy current instruments
range in cost from about $10,000 to about $30,000.
In addition to conventional eddy current NDT techniques,

Fig. 9 Detection of crack in second layer by scanning over

fasteners with a 15-mm (0.6-in.) probe at 1 kHz. A Scanning
procedure; B no crack response; C crack response (Ref. 4).
(Copyright 2004 The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, Inc. Reprinted with permission from NDT Handbook,
third edition, Vol. 5, Electromagnetic Testing.)
remote field eddy current inspection capability was developed to
inspect tubular metallic products from the inside of the tube.
This technique, illustrated in Fig. 7, provides a means of inspecting the outside of the tube wall with only an interior eddy current probe. The technique is applicable to any metallic material,
but has been primarily applied to ferromagnetic materials since
the wall of the tube must be magnetically saturated. The outside

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Fig. 10 Typical applications for low-frequency eddy current testing. A Interstitial corrosion; B thinning (Ref. 4). (Copyright 2004
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. Reprinted with permission from NDT Handbook, third edition, Vol. 5,
Electromagnetic Testing.)

Table 1 Eddy Current Summar y

Discontinuity types (e.g., what types the method can detect)

Cracks
Holes
Corrosion
Damage in C/C composites
Depends on geometry, etc., but down to 0.020 in. for jet turbine engine
fatigue cracks at or near the surface
Material must be electrically conducting
Depth of inspection limited by frequency of eddy currents used
Not effective for cracks deep in thick-sectioned metallic structures
Can detect discontinuities that do not break the surface
Quantitative flaw sizing
Can be automated for repetitive inspections
Usually required, with commercial or military training schools available
Depends on application
Certification available through the American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT)
Except for very simple equipment, must have computer control and
data logging. Automated scanning is also available. Single frequency or
multifrequency equipment is available.
Can be labor intensive if used manually on large areas such as airplane
skins and rivets. Equipment costs vary from a modest amount to
$100,000 or more.

Size of discontinuities
Limitations

Advantages

Inspector training (level and/or availability)

Inspector certification required

Equipment

Relative cost of inspections

of the tube or pipe can be inspected for corrosion/erosion wall

thinning, pitting, and cracks. The technique is equally sensitive
to axial and circumferential flaws. The major disadvantage is
that when applied to nonmagnetic materials, the sensitivity is
generally decreased.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Eddy

Current Testing
There are several advantages to using the method of eddy
current testing. These typically include
Reasonable cost
Availability of a wide variety of commercial, off-the-shelf
instruments
Automation potential
Good sensitivity to small flaws at or near the surface of the
sample
Capability for quantitative flaw sizing
Portable equipment
The disadvantages of eddy current NDT include the lack of
capability to detect flaws that are deep in thick-section metallic
structures and the restriction for application to only conducting
materials. Figure 8 gives the standard depths of penetration of
eddy currents as a function of frequency for several metals of
various electrical conductivities.

Selected Examples of Eddy Current

Applications
Eddy current NDT is widely used to inspect for corrosion
and cracking in airplane wing skins at rivet holes and in aircraft
frames (Ref. 4). Modern commercial eddy current instrumentation capable of operating down to 60 Hz with small eddy current
probes is now available to detect small fatigue cracks below the
surface in aircraft airframes with more sensitivity than X-ray
radiography. Fatigue cracks can also be detected in layered
structures such as an aircraft window belt splice, which is illustrated in Fig. 9A. The technique produces easily interpreted
crack responses on a screen display, as shown in Fig. 9B, C.
These cracks were detected in the first row of rivets above
the longitudinal belt splice of aircraft windows. The cracks initiated at the fastener holes in the internal (second layer) skin and
grew in a longitudinal direction. Corrosion of multilayer aircraft
skins can also be readily detected with eddy current techniques,
as shown in Fig. 10.
Eddy current techniques are also in widespread use to detect
fatigue cracks in critical aircraft jet engines components, such as
blades and turbine disk during overhaul. For discontinuities
more than 0.07-in.- (1.8-mm-) long fluorescent penetrant inspection will usually suffice. However, for cracks below 0.07 in. (1.8
mm) in length, eddy current NDT is usually required.

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Conclusions
Eddy current NDT is a mature technology with widespread
availability of user-friendly, affordable, commercial, off-the-shelf
equipment. It can be used on conducting materials and can detect
many types of discontinuities. Eddy current testing has enjoyed
considerable success in a number of applications including, for
example, inspection of nuclear reactor heat exchanger tubes, aircraft engine and metal skin components, and in the manufacturing
plant inspection of a variety of metallic components. In addition,
eddy current NDT is widely used to inspect welds along with X-ray
radiography and ultrasonic testing.
References
1. Hellier, C. J. 2001. Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation,
Eddy Current Testing. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, pp.
8.18.7.
2. ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 17, Nondestructive
Inspection and Quality Control, Eddy Current Inspection. 1989.
Metals Park, Ohio: ASM International, pp. 164194.
3. Nondestructive Evaluation Capabilities Data Book, 3rd
Edition, Appendix A, Eddy Current Inspection, NTIAC, DB-9702, November 1997.
4. Hagemaier, D. J. 2004. Low frequency eddy current testing
of aircraft structures. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, 3rd Ed.,
Vol. 5; S. S. Udpa and P. O. Moore, editors. Columbus, Ohio:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, pp. 481485.
General References
Eua-Anant, N., Cai, X., Udpa, L., Chao, J., and Elshafiey, I.
2000. Crack detection in eddy current images of jet engine
disks. Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive
Evaluation, Vol. 19A. Melville, N.Y.: American Institute of

Physics, pp. 773780.

Franklin, E. M. 1982. Eddy current inspection. Materials
Evaluation, Vol. 40, No. 10. Columbus, Ohio: American Society
for Nondestructive Testing, pp. 10081010.
Goldfine, N., Zilbertstein, V., Walrath, K., Hill, E., and
Paraizaman, C. 2000. Inspection of gas turbine components
using conformable MWM eddy-current sensors. ASNT Fall
Conference and Quality Testing Show 2000: Paper Summaries
Book. Columbus, Ohio: American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, pp. 2931.
Hagemaier, D. J. 1990. Nondestructive testing of aging aircraft. FAA Aging Aircraft Workshop. Columbus, Ohio: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, pp. 412.
Hagemaier, D. J., and Klark, G. 1997. Eddy current detection
of short cracks under installed fasteners. Columbus, Ohio:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Materials
Evaluation, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 2530.
Irvine, A. W. 1997. Quick eddy current inspection of aircraft
wheels. Columbus, Ohio: American Society for Nondestructive
Testing. Materials Evaluation, Vol. 55, No. 5, p. 573.
Lepine, B., Forsyth, D., Guiguere, S., and Dubois, S. 1999.
Comparison of pulsed eddy current NDT to conventional eddy
current testing. Columbus, Ohio: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing. ASNT Spring Conference and 8th
Annual Research Symposium Paper Summaries, p. 124.
MIL-STD-1537C, Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification
of Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys, Eddy Current Method.
2002. United States Department of Defense, Arlington, Va.
Moore, D., Mihelic, J., and Barnes, J. D. 1998. Crack detection on HC-130H aircraft using low frequency eddy current.
Columbus, Ohio: American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
The 9th Asia-Pacific Conference on Nondestructive Testing in
Conjunction with ASNTs 1998 Spring Conference and 7th
Annual Research Symposium, pp. 202205.

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