Boilermaking BOOK I By Cc. B. LINDSTROM BOILERMAKING Parts 1-2 466 Published by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY SCRANTON, FA.Boilermaking, Parts 1 and 2: Copyright, 1926, by Intzewariowat Trxte0ox Come PANY, Copyright in Great Britain All rights reserved Printed in U. 5S. Au Termenarionat TEXTUOOK PREss Scranton, Pa.CONTENTS Nore.—This book is made up of separate parts, or sections, as indicated by their titles, and the page numbers of each usually begin with 1. In this list of contents the titles of the parts are given in the ordec in which they appear in the book, aud under cach title Is a full synopsis of the subjects treated, BOILERMAKING, PART 1 Pages Preparation of Plates...........0.0 00.0.2 cece eee ee 1-27 Marking-Off Operation ......- bebe eee eee L8 Nature and Purpose....... pene 1-3 Definition of marking off; Laying out of templet; ‘Tem- Plet system. Method of Marking Off. .......... ccc ceeeeeeeeee 48 Arrangement of plates; Reference marks and lines. 9-19 Measuring Instruments . Linear measuring instrumcuts ; plate thickness; Application of micrometer. Laying-Out Tools .......2..0-200 00sec eee eee eee 20-27 Straightedge; Graduated square; Adjustable square; Pro- tractor; Protractor with guide pin; Combination bevel; Chalk line; Hinge dividers; Spring dividers; Trammels; Surface plate; Surface gauge; Hand hammers; Center puch. Fabricating Processes .....-.0....00..2.00- 20000 28-62 Punching .............- : cee 28-51 : 28-32 Methods and Equipment .. sevaee Punching holes: General considerations; Plain standard single-ended punch and shear; Architectural jaw. Punches and Dies Arrangement of punch and dic; Punch and dic sets; Standardizing punch and die sets; Ripping; Ripper punch and die; Cutting punches; Tube-hole punches; Manhole punch and die; Horizontal punch, Multiple Machines ..............02. st eeeteeeeeeee 44-50 Multiple-punch attachments; Spacmg table; Operating clutch by solenoid; Multiple punches. Hand-Operated Punches - Shearing ..........0002. Kinds of shears; Vertical shears and shear attachments ; Rotary shears; Bevel shears; Gate, or guillotine, shears. 51 52-62iv CONTENTS BOILERMAKING, PART 2 Fabricating Processes—Continued .......+-. teens oe Lifting and Handling Plates....... even eeree tees Simple Hoisting Devices .........- eee eee ener e ee Types of handling devices; Principle of block and tackle: Example of block and tackle; Differential chain block; Geared chain hoist; Air hoist; Traveling hoist ; Chains, chain hooks, and clamps. Traveling and Jib Cranes... .. 0. es seat e eee seen "Methods of Suspending Work........++5 pretense Suspending sheets for punching and shearing. Drilling .ccceeee cece rercces ener eerer deeeeeaete Drilling Machines and Tools............0- eee ee cers Introduction; Heavy-duty drill press; Plain radial drill; Wall radial dritls; Mutiple-spindle drill. Portable Drilling Machines........0+-.0+ pet ne eens Drilling Tools... c eee eee ee eee e eee recente Classification and main features; Plat drills; Lipped drill; Twisted flat drills; Ordinary twist drill; Twisted drill ; Tligh-speed drills; Cutting speeds and feeds; Tube-hole cutters; Large circular hole cutters. Trilling Attachments ........:.0eeee cere eee eee Drill shanks; Special forms of drill shanks; Drilling- machine table; Securing work; Plain clamp; Drilling frames and braces; Roller support for shell; Drill frame for cylindrical work; Drilling jig: Construction of drill ing jig. Instructions for Drilling. ......-..--. 240s eee e eee ees Drill Grinding 22.0.0... ccc cece eee e eee eee Reaming, Countersinking, and Tapping. .......01-++ Purposes of reaming; Reamers ; Care of reamers; Coun- tersinking; Flat countersink ; Fluted countersinks ; Tap- ping ; Correct size of tapping hole; Pipe taps; Designating pipe sizes; Mud, of washout, taps; Hand-tapping wrenches ; ‘Ratchet wrenches. Pages 1-60 1-17 1-9 10-13 14-17 18-47 18-24 25-26 26-34 34-42 43-44 45-47BOILERMAKING (PART 1) Serial 2171A Edition f PREPARATION OF PLATES MARKING-OFF OPERATION NATURE AND PURPOSE 1. Definition of Marking Off.—The work of preparing sheets or plates for the various operationsin the construction of boilers, tanks, stacks, etc. originates in the Jaying-out and marking off department. Laying out and marking off are so closely related that in many instances no distinction is made between them and both are included in the general term of laying out; strictly, there is a difference. Marking off is the operation of transferring points, lines, etc. to a plate from a pattern or templet; but it may also include the locating on the plate of lines, center marks for holes, etc. by the use of data given on working drawings. In general, marking off may be considered as the reproduction of layouts from templets or from working drawings. 2. Laying Out of Templet.—The work of laying out, or developing, the templet is done by the layer-out, and the department in which it is done is called the laying-out depart- ment, although this is the same department in which the marking off is carried out. The layer-out must have a knowl- edge of the common principles of geometry ordinarily tsed in drafting, and in addition he must be familiar with projection BOPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIGNAL TEXTHOOK COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS REBERVED2 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 drawing and the development of surfaces, as all these are needed in the laying out of templets. He must likewise have a thorough knowledge of the behavior of metal plates when they are being flanged, rolled, or bent. The layer-out must develop in complete detail from the working drawings the true shape and dimensions of the templet, locate all centers for rivets, bolts, tube holes, and other details, and indicate the shear lines, bend lines, flange lines, and plane lines for all joint con- nections; also,he must make on the templet the necessary allow- ances for the probable gain or loss of length that may occur when a plate undergoes the forming processes. 3. Templet System—A shop that is engaged in the production of a standard line of light and heavy stecl-plate products usually possesses a templet system. When a number Fis. i of like pieces are to be fabricated, a templet is made and all pieces are marked off from the one templet, thus avoiding the duplication of labor that would be involved if each piece were laid out by itself; moreover, as the marking off of all the pieces is done at one time, much time is saved and the cost of con- struction is correspondingly reduced. When the marking offBOILERMAKING, PART 1 3 js finished, the templet is stored away for future use. The marking off is done by a competent person under the direction of the layer-out, thus making it possible for the layer-out to devote most of his time and attention to the important features of his own particular work. The templet may be made of a steel plate of the size of plate of which the boiler is to be made, or, it may be made of Fic. 2 bass wood. In the former case, the plate is laid off from the drawing, allowance being made in the spacing of the rivet holes for the difference in radius of curvature of the joined plates, if they are rolled. The rivet holes are punched of drilled, usually the latter. Other holes such as manholes or handholes are cut in the plate. In some cases, the first boiler plate is laid out and drilled, after which it is used as a templet for the marking of other plates. It may be laid on top of a pile of plates, clamped to them, and the holes in the pile of the plates drilled, the first plate acting as a guide for the drilling. When wooden templets are used, they are made in the form of a frame, as shown in Fig. 1, in which strips of weod a about 4 inches wide and about 4 inch thick are joined so that the row of rivet holes can be located on them from the drawing. ‘The holes in the wood templet are bored to the size of the center punch used in laying off the plates, The size of rivet holes, together with all other marks or instructions necessary to guide the workman in laying out work, is placed on the templet with paint4 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 METHOD OF MARKING OFF 4. Arrangement of Plates.—Time and labor may be economized and costs reduced by observing system in the work of marking off. For instance, if 2 number of plates are to be marked off from one templet, they should be divided into two equal piles placed side by side. The templet should be laid on the top plate of the first pile and that plate should be marked off. The templet should then be shifted over to the top plate of the second pile and that plate should be marked off; megn- while, the top plate of the first pile may be removed, so that the templet can be brought back to that pile when the top Fra. 3 plate of the second pile has been marked off. Shifting the templet from one pile to the other in this way involves far less handling than if the plates were all in onc pile, and reduces the time required for the operation. During the marking off, the plates should be supported on strong tables of the form shown in Fig. 2, ot else on horses made of steel or wood, as shown in Fig. 3. 5. Method of Marking Off.—When the plates to be marked off have been arranged on suitable supports, as shown in Fig, 3, the plate templet a is laid on the top plate 5, lined up, and clamped to the plates by the clamps. The clampsare of the screw type and so can be adjusted to grip one plate or a number of plates. The screw d carries at its lower end a cap insideBOILERMAKING, PART 1 5 which the head of the screw is free to turn. When the templet js in its correct position and securely held, the center marks of the holes are laid off on the plate directly beneath the templet by inserting the center punch in the holes in the templet and striking it with a hammer. The punch, called a marking-off punch, is made of tool steel, about yy inch smaller in diameter than the holes in the templet, and has a central teat that makes x i z § § Fis. 4 marks in the plate beneath. After the plate has been marked off, the punch marks are enlarged by again using the marking- off punch. The necessary reference marks for the drilling, punching, shearing, bending, rolling, flanging, and planing operations are placed on the plate. In some cases the templet is left clamped to the plates to be laid off and they are moved to a multiple drill press, and the rivet holes are drilled by using the holes in the templet as a guide. When a few of the holes have been drilled, preferably6 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 near the corners, bolts are placed in these holes and tightened so as to hold the plates securely together while the remainder of the holes are being drilled. 6. Reference Marks and Lines.—Little difference exists in the systems of reference lincs and marks used in various boiler shops te indicate the nature of the hand and machine operations to be performed. Certain common lines and marks are shown in Fig. 4, in which (a) represents a scction of a heavy plate flanged at the sides and (6) a pattern of the plate with (ap the necessary lines and marks. The center line of theplate is designated by €, which is also the drafts- man's symbel for a center line. A flange line isa guide line that shows where the _| plate is to be bent to form @) the flange curve, and is usu- ally center-punched with frare light marks the full length ofthe sheet. In some shops two flange lines, as at a and 8, are used to mark the. extent of the curve of the flange; but the usual, and fe) simpler, method is to use Fro. 8 one line designating the center ¢ of the flange section, as at d. On light plate, flange ines are termed bexd lines and are usually indicated by two or three centor-punch marks near the edges of the sheet, asate andf. ‘The shear lines g are the boundary lines of the plate and show where the sheet is to be sheared or cut. Shear lines are indicated by light center-punch marks placed frem 2 to 3 inches apart. Po StrBOILER MAKING, PART I 7 J. The plane line is a linc indicating the edge of the plate requiring planing. The process of planing removes the irregularities along the edge of the sheet, thus producing a practically straight edge. In most shops, shear and plane lines serve the same purpose. With heavy plates both a shear line and a plane line should be indicated on the sheet, about tinch apart. Thus, if the planing edge is to be 14 inches from the center line of the rivet holes, the shear line should be placed 4 inches from the center line of the row of rivets. With light plates it is usual to shear just outside the center-punch marks, and then cut out these in the planer. When the sheet is to be planed so that the calking edge will be on the inside of the boiler, the sheet is marked P. O. S., as shown in Fig. 5 (a), these letters representing Plane Opposite Side. If the edge of the plate is to be planed straight, as is required for a butt joint, it is marked P. Str, as shown in (6). If the shect is to be planed so that the calking edge will be on the outside of the poiler, the sheet would be marked Piave, as shown in (c), Fic. 6 8. Sheets are usually rolled so that the burr side, that is, the side of the sheet opposite the side that is up when the rivet holes are punched, will be on the inside after rolling. When marking sheets for rolling, it is usual to indicate by three center-punch marks, close together, the lines between which the shect is to be rolled, as shown in Fig. 6. In addition to the centers, it is necessary to mark the number of degrees and the seep, or radius, to which the sheet is to be relled. When bending a sheet it is always understood that the sheet is to be8 SOILERMAKING, PART 1 bent downwards unless otherwise indicated by theabbreviation Rev, which means that the sheet is to be rolled the reverse way. Ashecl arsed as shown should, when rolled, appear as shown in Fig. 7. Pa? % Onwork that is to be drilled accurately, a civcle or guide line is usually drawn and center-pucched, as shown in Fig. 8, the mumber of center-punch marks depending on the dia:neter of the cire’e. The diameter of the circle to be drilled is marked on the plate, as shown. Some shops, instead of drawing circles and center-punching them, use instead a ring puach made as Fr. f Fi. 9 shown in ig. It is similar to the marking punch, but has an additional rim ¢ thas forms a cirele when the pure: ‘s struck. The guide lines and centers readily show the person whe is doing the deilling whether or net he is making the hole in the plate ir. the place intended.ROILERMAKING, PART J 9 MEASURING CTSTRUMENTS LINEAR MEASORING INSTRUMERTS 10, 0 Two-Foot Rule.—The boilenmaker commonly uses a twoeloot rele fer measuring purpeses, such as laying off dimen- SIONS AT CUNT igthem. Such a rule is made in four sections hinged together in order Lo permit it to be folded tp amd car- tied conveniently, When extended fully, it has a length of 44 inches and is craduated in inches, each inch Leiuy further divided and subdivided inte halves, quarters, aud eighths., Ti is usus'ly rade of hoxwood and the joints and ends are made of brags, Uz withstand rough service 11, Engineer's Pocket Rule—The engineer's pocket rule, shown in lig. 10, ia very comvenient ior measuring or laying of Fig. dimensions greater than 2 feet. [t may be constructed of either wood or steel sections, wh ned by special spring joints that keep the rile straight when it is opened and allow it to be fclded -cadily for convenience In carry Tk ig divided inte inches, subdivided into halves, quarcers, and eighths. Its length may-vary from 2 to$ feat, but a good length for general work is 8 or feet. 12. Steel Tapes— For measuring distances greater in length than a few feet, stcef tapes are frequently used, The sleel tape, as the name iruplies, is a vin band of steel varyingin lengths up to M0 lec. The graduations on the tape are in inches and fractions of am inch. 13. Graduated Measuring Wheel.—Owing to the many regular sarigees acd curved lines mel vith in boiler work and general sheet! it is (mpusstbie lu iruaasure many dis-10 . BOILERMAKING, PART 1 tances with either a nile or a tape line; in consequence, a tool called a graduated measuring wheel, or traveling wheel, made as shown in Fig. 11, is used. The circumference of the traveling wheel is 24 inches, and is subdivided into inches, etc., the same asa standard 2-foot rule. The handle a is for the purpose of Fre. 14 holding and guiding the wheel, and the pointer 6 shows when the wheel has rolled over some specified distance. Because of its general usefulness, many layers-out use this whcel for laying out in general, and especially for checking long distances Jaid off with arule. The traveling wheel can be used for two purposes—to measure the length of a given line, and to lay off a line of a given length. 14. To measure the length of a given line, the zero mark on the dial, Fig. 11, is placed at one end of the line to be measured. The wheel is then rolled along this line and the number of complete revolutions are counted. The rolling is continued until the wheel is at the other end of the line. The pointer b is then swung around to the end of the ine. Then, the number of whole revolutions multiplied by 24, plus the number of inches and fractions thereof between the pointer and the zero mark on the dial, is the length of the line in inches. Thus, if the wheel made 7 revolutions, and the distance between the pointer and the zero mark is 1§ inches as in Fig. 11, the length of the line is 7%244+14=1692 inches. Care must be taken to revolve the wheel along the line to be measured in such aROILERMAKING, PART 1 11 direction that the dial will pass the pointer from zero toward 1, 2, etc., or, in other words, toward a higher figure. 15. To lay off a line of a given length, divide the length of the line by 24 to find the number of complete revolutions and the part of a revolution the graduated wheel, Fig. 11, must travel beyond the zero mark. Thus, suppose a line 87} inches long is to be laid off. Then, the wheel must travel 87}+24 = Buss revolutions. The pointer is set to the mark corre- sponding to the numerator of the fraction denoting the fractional part of the revolution, which is 13} inches in thiscase. he zero mark of the dial is placed at the point where the line is to begin, and the wheel is rolled along until it has made three complete revolutions, and then until the 15}-inch mark is under the pointer. A mark is then made opposite the pointer to define the end of the line laid off. 16. If the wheel, Fig. 11, has been revolved so that the figures on the dial are successively lower, or from zero (which ig also 24) toward 23, 22, etc., the final reading must be subtracted from 24 to get the distance passed over during the partial revo- lution. Thus, suppose that after the wheel is revolved back- wards, as just stated, the indicator on the dial is in the position shown in the illustration, then the distance traveled over dur- ing the partial revolution is 24-—14=22} inches. DEVICES FOR MEASURING PLATE THICKNESS 17. Decimal Gatge.—The decimal gauge, a form of which is illustrated in Fig. 12, is used for measuring the thickness of wire and sheet metal directly in decimal parts of an inch. It is a thin oval plate of metal having a series of slots along its outer edge. The distance between the parallel sides of each slot is indicated by the number stamped at the inner end of the slot, The thickness of wire or shect metal is determined by finding the smallest slot that will fit over the wire or sheet. 18. Numbered Gauges.—Numbered gauges express sizes by arbitrarily selected numbers or letters, and are used for12 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 gauging metal plate, wire, and small sizes of twist drills. There are a large number of numbered gauges on the market, among which may be mentioned the United States andthe American, or Fis. 12 Brown & Sharpe, Owing to the confusion caused by so many different gauges, it is best to state the thickness of metal in decimal parts of an inch. stannaro WARE GAUGE. 3 PP 2 20 9 2 Fic. 13 In Fig. 13 is shown the United States standard wire gauge, on which are marked the gauge numbers Opposite notched openings or slots. This gauge is used in the same manner as the decimal gauge. 19. United States Standard Gauge.—The United States standard gauge, given in Table I, is a table established by Act of Congress in 1893 for use in determining duties and taxes levied by the United States on sheet iron, plate iron, and steel. It is used to a limited extent by American tolling mills for sheets and plates and also for galvanized sheet iron and planished“TABLE 1 SHEET-METAL AND WIRE GAUGES Dimension in Decimal Parts of an Inch Gauge ' Cange Number American | Biting. | American Steel | Number U.S. Standard or ham or ‘ire Brown & Sharpe} Stubs" 9900000} 500000000 ! 49000 | 9000000 00000 | 488750000 “4e150 | 000000 ‘0000 | 437500000 “43050 | 00000 0000 | 496250000 454 ‘sozao | 00d 000 | [375000000 “es | Be260 | 000 00 | 1343750000 380 "33100 00 0. | “312500000 ‘340 "30650 0 1 | | 281250000 ‘300 28300 1 2 | “265625000 Bsa 20250 2 3 | 250000000 "359 24370 3 a | :234375000 ‘238 “30530 4 5 | ‘218750000 "280 ‘20700 5 6 | [203125000 203 | ‘19200 é 7 | ‘187500000 ‘180 | “izz00 7 8 | 171875000 “165 “16200 8 3 |! “48 | 114830 9 10 ‘iat | 113800) 10 i go | lig0s0 jo 2 “108 “10550 2 13 095 09150. 13 4 “083 “S000 14 15 O72 .07200, 15 1% “065 “06250 168 7 “058 “05400 17 18 “049 “04750 18 19 ‘O43 04100 19 20 “085 03480 20 21 “032 03175 21 22 ‘028 02860 22 23 “085 02580 23 2 “22 02300 24 25 “020 ozogo | (28 26 013, 1810. 26 a | | ‘ag | .01730 27 23 | ‘015425000 ‘o14 ‘o1g20 | 28 29 «| (014062500 ‘ois | “01800 29 30 012500000 O12 1400 30 31 | [030937500 ‘co | 101320 31 32 -010156250 009 L280 32 33 | ‘ooa76000 ‘cos. | ‘o1i80 33 3; | loass93750 007 | ‘pno4o 34 38 | 007812500 ‘005 | ‘00950 35 36 | “007031250 004 | ‘00900 36 37 -Q06640625 -00850 37 3s | “oos250000 00800 38 39 “00T5O 39 38 00700 40 1314 BOILERMARING, PART 1 iron. The gauge numbers according to the United States standard are given in the first and jast columns, and the corresponding thicknesses, in decimal parts of aninch, according to the United States standard and other gauges, are given in the remaining columns. For example, a sheet having a gauge number of 10 according to the United States standard gauge is .140625 inch thick by that gauge. , 20. American, or Brown & Sharpe, Gauge.—The Ameri- can, or Brown & Sharpe, gauge is used exclusively for sheet brass, sheet aluminum, sheet German silver, brazed brass tubing and brass and copper wire of American manufacture; it is also used for piano wire, steel and iron wire, thin sheets of steel, anti drill-rod material up te 3 inch in diameter, 21. Birmingham, or Stubs’, Iron Gauge.—The Birming- ham, or Stubs’, iron gauge is used by the trade for sheet iron, sheet steel, sheet copper, iron wire, and seamless stéel tubing of all kinds, practically to the exclusion of all other gauges. 22. Micrometer Calipers—For the accurate measuring of sheet and-plate thicknesses and the diameters of braces, stays, brace pins, etc., a precision instrument known as a micrometer caliper is used. Many boiler insurance companies and other authorities require that the thicknesses of boiler plates and other parts be measured with the micrometer calipers and the dimensions so found expressed decimally. Microm- eter calipers are constructed with a screw arrangement that indicates the dimension in thousandths of an inch. 23. Micrometer Screw.—The screws used on micrometers have right-hand threads; that is, the screw moves forwards when turned to the right. In order to study the principle of the micrometer, the simple outside micrometer caliper illus- trated in Fig. 14 may be considered. In order to determine easily through what part of a revolution the screw has been turned. the micrometer screw a is supplied with a thimble 6, which is graduated on one edge. The illustration shows the screw uncovered, for the purpose of more clearly illustrating the principle. Micrometers of recent manufacture have theBOILERMARKING, PART t 15 screw covered, in order to protect it from wear. A line ¢ engraved lengthwise on the barrel d, which is attached to the frame, serves as 4 zcro line from which to read the part of a revolution through which the micrometerserew has beenturned. In order to adapt the micrometer screw for end mcasurements, an aml ¢ is provided, the surface of which is a plane surface parallel to that on the end of the screw. The anvil is so adjusted by means of the screw f that when the end of the micrometer screw is in contact with it, the end of the thimble will coincide with the zero linc on the barrel and the zero line on the thimble will coincides with the line ¢ on the barrel. men" Fic. 14 24, The advance in one turn, which the thread makes, ina line parallel to the axis of the screw, is called the lead. Ifa screw of known lead is fitted in a fixed nut so that the screw can be turned while the nut remains stationary, and the screw is turned one complete revolution, it will advance in the direc- tion of its axis a distance exactly equal to the lead of the thread. But if it is turned exactly one-half of a complete revolution, it will advance a distance equal to one-half the lead of the thread. Following this line of reasoning, it is seen that the amount the screw advances in the direction of its axis in a fraction of one revolution is equal to the product of the lead and the fraction expressing the part of the revolution through which the screw has been turned. 25. Assume that the micrometer screw has 40 right-hand threads to the inch, andalead of dyinch. Then, if the screw is turned ¥; of a complete revolution, the amount advanced will be goXe¢s=rtsrinech. It is to be observed that the thimble b and the screw a, Fig. 14, are rigidly connected. Hence, if there are 25 equal graduations on the circumfcrence of the thimble b, the screw a will advance lengthwise yo'sg inch when the thimble 6 is turned 1 division to the right. Every 516 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 divisions of the thimble are marked 0, &, 10, 18, 20, and are read thousandths. One inch of the lengthwise line ¢ is divided into 40 equal divisions, every division being equal to 7y or .025 inch, and every fourth division representing tenths of an inch. Every fourth division of the line ¢ is marked as follows and read tenths: 6,1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7,8, 9. 26. Reading Micrometer.—Practically all micrometers for measuring thousandths of an inch use a screw having forty threads per inch, and have the thimble graduated so that each space is equal to one twenty-filth of arevolution. Tence, they read directly to thousandths of an inch. Assuming that the micrometer serew and the anvil are in contact, let the micrometer screw be turned back until the graduations on the thimble show, by reference to the zcro line on the barrel, that it has made seven twenty-fifths of a revolution. Then, the opening between the end of the micrometer screw and the anvil will, if the lead of the thread is gy inch, be yoyo inch. Now, in order to measure sizes in excess of ¢ginch,or.025 inch, the screw must make more than one turn. When the micrometer screw is turned onc complete revolution, the second graduation line on the barre! will be even with the end of the thimble, so that the thimble is 1 space from the beginning of the graduation on the barrel. If the micrometer screw is turned through another revolution, there will bc 2 spaces visible; hence, the number of spaces shows how many complete turns the micrometer screw has made. As each space represents 7 inch, or 7$6u inch, to find the distance represented by an unknown number of whole turns, count the number of spaces and multiply by .025. Then read off the fractional part of a turn and add it to the first value. 27. Hence, to read a micrometer measuring thousandths, multiply the number of whole spaces visible on the barrel by 025. Add the number of spaces between the zero line of the thimble and the zero line on the barrel, multiplied by .001. As cach graduation on the barrel equais .025 inch, four of these spaces must cqual 4.025=.1 inch. Therefore, every fourth line of the graduations stands for .1 inch, and the figures 0, 1, 2, 3, ete, are stamped on the barrel to indicate these tenth-BOILERMAKING, PART 1 v7 inch graduations. They stand for .0, 1, .2, 3, ete. inch. As each space represents a distance of y#$z, or .025 inch, the line at the end of the first space denotes a .025-inch opening; the line at the end of the second space, .050 inch; the line at the end of the third space, .075 inch. 28, Inorder to save multiplication, the following rule may be used: Rule—To read a micrometer measuring thousandihs of an inch, look for the last figure that is exposed on the barrel. This is the first decimal figure af the dimension. Cowitt the number of whole spaces beyond the last figure and between it and the end of the thimble.. For one space, annex 26; for two spaces, annex 50; and for three spaces annex 73 to the first figure. Mentally add the number of spaces, expressed in thousandths of an inch, between the sero line of the thimble and the zero line on the barrel, counting from the vero line of the thimble forwards. EXaMPLE,—What is the reading of the micrometer shown in Fig. 14? Sotutiox.—The last figure that is exposed is 1. There is one whale space between this figure and the end of the thimble, but the line repre- senting it cannot be distinguished in the figure, as it is so near the end of the thimble. Since there is one whole space between this figure and the end of the thimble, annex 25, giving 125. The line at the end of the fifth space of the thimble ecincides with the zero line on the barrel, hence add 005 inch, making the reading .125+.005= 130 inch. Ans. 29. Since the micrometer screw is made only long enough to give dimensions from 0 to 1,000 thousandths, any whole number of inches included in the measurement must be prefixed to the reading of the micrometer. Thus, in a 2-inch micrometer caliper, the micrometer screw will give readings only between 1 and 2 inches when the anvil and screw are arranged in such a manner that they are Linch apart when the micrometer is closed. In that case, 1 inch must always be prefixed to the reading. For instance, if thé reading is 376 inch, the opening between screw and anvil is 1+.376=1.376 inches. Exanpre—What is the reading of the micrometer caliper shown in Fig. 15? In this instrument the whole number of inches is shown by the number opposite the line on the bar a, with which the line 6 on the slide coincides.18 BOTLERMAKING, PART 1 SoLuTion.—Since the line 4 on the slide coincides with line 3 on the bar, the whole number of inches is 3. There are five ye-inch spaces exposed on the micrometer barrel, and hence 5 is the first decimal figure oftheanswer. Therc are no whole spaces between the last tenth-of-an-inch Space and the end of the thimble. The line at the end of the twenty-first space of the thimble coincides with the zero line of the barret; hence, add .021 in., making the reading 3+.54.021=3.521 in. Ans, 80. Application of Micrometer.—When a tmeasurement is to be made with the micrometer caliper, the operator places the work between its measuring points, that is, between the anvil and the end of the micrometer screw, as shown in Fig. 16. The micrometer screw is then slowly revolved until the sense of touch tells the operator that the micrometer screw is in contact with the work. The reading of the micrometer caliper is then taken, Before making measurements with a new or unfamiliar micrometer caliper, the anvil and micrometer screw should be brought together, and the amount of force required to bring the zero line of the thimble in line with the zero line of the barrel should be noted. The operator should then bring the microm- eter screw against the work with the same force, in order to got @ correct measurement, While the micrometer caliper obtained from a reliable maker will indicate sizes correctly within an extremely small limit of variation, this fact does not imply that every one can measure within that limit. The accuracy with which a size can be measured with an accurate micrometer caliper dependsBOILERMAKING, PART 1 19 almost entirely on the sense of touch of the operator and his amount of training. 31. A locknut c, Fig. 16, is frequently applied to microm- eter calipers by means of which the micrometer serew may be prevented from rotating; the micrometer caliper is thus trans- formed into a fixed gauge adjustable for size, The cir- cumference of the nurled extension a, being less than the cir- cumference of the thimble b, it follows that the screw may be advanced lengthwise in less time by means of this nuriedexten- sion, which is known as a speeder. 82. Nearly all modern micrometer calipers that measure in accordance with the English system of measurements are Fig. 16 stamped on the frame with a table of the decimal equivalents of the divisions of the inch. Thus, in the micrometer calipers shown in Fig. 16, on one side are stamped the decimal equiva~ lents of eighths, sixtcenths, and thirty-seconds; on the other side the decimal equivalents of sixty-fourths. This arrange- ment is‘very convenient, since, in many cascs, the micrometer is used for measuring work to be finished to a dimension given in sixtyfourths. When micrometer calipers aro made to measure in accordanee with the metric system no decimal equivalents are needed. For special purposes, other tables are occasionally stamped on the frame, and sometimes certain useful formulas. Thus, a20 BOILERMAKING, PART I special micrometer calipcr intended for measuring the thickness of tubing has stamped on it the gauge numbers and the decimal equivalents of the gauge used by the tube makers. LAYING-OUT TOOLS 33. Straightedge.--The straightedge is a wood or steel strip, Fig. 17, from 3 to # inch in thickness for wood and about } inch in thickness for metal, with very accurate straight edges ab. Both kinds usu- ally range in width from 14 to Sinches. They are made in various lengths suitable for drawing straight lines and for testing the straight- ness of surfaces, edges, etc. Generally the shape of the cross-section is made rec- tangular, as shown in (a), or with beveled edges, as in (b). It is very impor- tant that the edges be kept in good condition and straight. After continued use they become nicked and worn; also, the wood instrument warps from the action of the atmosphere. To test the straightness of the edges the follow- ing experiment may be made: With one edge of the strairht- edge draw a line, asa b, Fig.18. Turn the straightedge end for ey Fi. 18. end, place the same edge so as to coincide with the ends of the line a b, and draw another line. If the two lines do not coin- cide, but appear as shown, the edge is not straight and should be trued before the straightedge is used forlaying-out purpcses.BOILERMAKING, PART 1 21 The wood straightedge should be planed by a competent wood- worker and the steel type should be machined. 34. Graduated Square.—The ordinary steel square, known as the carpenter’s square, is of especial value in laying out a large variety of work in the boiler shop, but it is not sufficiently accurate for all purposes. The faces of the square are divided into inches and fractional parts of an inch. 35. Adjustable Square.—The adjustable square, illus- trated in Fig. 19, forms a combination having many useful applications. The blade a is held in the stock 6 by a hook clamp that enters the groove ¢ in the blade, and is tightened by TTT TS TTT ETT wulintuh sd nb vuledlitil uly SIA Fis. 19 means of the nut d. The groove c runs the full length of the blade, so that the stock may be set at any point throughout its length. The square may thus be adjusted to the work in hand, which could not be done with an ordinary square having a fixed blade. A special bevel blade ¢, witha 45° angle at one endand a 30° angle at the other, may be substituted for the graduated blade whenever these angles are to be laid off or tested. This special blade provides the angles required in laying out either a hexagon or an octagon. The stock is also provided with a level at f, that may be used in testing either a vertical or a horizontal surface. It should be borne in mind that a square22 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 is perfect only when the blade and the stock are exactly at right angles to each other, and that a fall or careless use is liable to destroy its accuracy. The adjustable square is not so accurate ag the steel square. 36. Protractor.—For the measurement of angles, an instrument called a protractor is used, The unit of an- gular measurement is wea part of a circle, which is called a degree, The degree is subdivided into 60 parts, called minutes. A minuteis subdivided into 60 parts, ealled seconds. Smaller divisions of the degree are expressed as decimal parts of the second. 37. Protractor With Guide Pin--The protractor shown in Fig, 20 consists of a thin plate of steel or brass, semicircular in shape, with the center of the semicircle at a. The curved edge is divided into 280 equal parts, and each division thus repre- sents 1°, For convenience the degrees are numbered from 0 to 90, from each end of the semicircle. A center guide pin bis so placed that, if a straightedge is set against the flat surface of the pin, the edge in contact with the pin will pass through the conter of the protractor. This guide pin is a rivet with half of the head cut away, and is loose enotigh to con- form readily to the edge of a straightedge. Should the angle to be measured be larger than 90°, the reading must be subtracted from 180°. Thus, the angle ca d is read off directly as 55°; whereas, the angle ¢ ae, being greater than 90°, is equal to 180° — 55° = 125°, This form of protractor is yery convenient for setting the combination bevel. The stock of the bevel is placed against the Fis, 21BOILERMAKING, PART 1 23 straight bottom edge of the protractor. The blade is adjusted so as to lie flat against the center guide pin and cross the gradu- ated edge at the correct division. 38. Combination Bevel.—The combination bevel, shown jn Fig. 21, is an instrument that may be used for measuring Fra. 22 angles. The stock a and the split blade 5 form the ordinary bevel, and the slotted blade ¢ may be removed, when desired The numbers 30°, 45°, and 60° represent the angles the respec- tive edges makewith the adjacent sides. These angles make the tool convenient for measuring in corners, and it may be used for measuring angles of 30°, 45°, and 60° direct, The instru- ment is set either to an angle desired to be transferred, or by means of a protractor, and is a light and convenient tool to use.24 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 39. Chalk Line.—Long, straight lines may be marked on sheets by the use of the chalk line, which is a length of strong twine or fine, braided line covered with chalk, The manner of using it is indicated in Fig. 22, in which a center line is being marked lengthwise of the sheet. The middle points ¢ and b of the ends are lecated, one end of the chalk line ¢ is clamped to the sheet at the point a, and a lump of chalk is rubbed over the line so as to coat it thoroughly. The line is then drawn taut, with its free end passing directly over the point 6, and is held stretched while the middle of it is lifted vertically and allowed to snap back against the sheet. The impact of the chalk line against the . Sheet produces a straight chalk line between the points a and 6. Care must be taken to raise the line vertically; for, if it is - drawn off to one side, two or mote inaccu- rate lines will be pro- duced. 40. Hinge Divi-~ ders.—For drawing small circles and arcs, and for dividing lines, compasses, commonly called dividers, are used. Dividers are made in many styles, two of which are shown in Fig. 23. The dividers shown in (a) are known as hinge dividers. The two legs a are held together by a screw 6. The curved guide ¢ . serves to hold the legs @ rigidly in position on tightening the thumbnut d. A fine adjustment is had by tightening or loosening the nut ¢, the leg of the dividers being held tightly against it by the spring f. The divider points are held in place by the screws shown, and may be easily removed. Fie. 23BOILERMAKING, PART 1 25 41. Spring Dividers.—One form of spring dividers, shownin Fig. 23 (5), is extensively used. It has its two legsa hinged, and is supplied with an adjusting screw and nut 6. A stiff spring ¢ tends to force the legs apart, thus holding the one leg tightly against the face of the adjusting nut 6. This type is very convenient for spacing rivet holes. 42, Trammels—The trammels, commonly called trams, are used for drawing circles and arcs of a radius beyond the range of the compasses. They are also employed in checking dimensions and layout work. The tram point consists of a Fig. 24 Fre. 35 steel point @, Fig. 24, and a metal block so made that it can slide along a rectangular wooden strip called the tram stick, and thus adapt the device to different radii. By turning down the nut 6, the head that carrics the point a is clamped to the tram stick. Difficulty is met with in setting this form of tram for the reason that the head has a tendency to draw sidewise when the nut 6 is tightened. The trammels shown in Fig. 25 are easily adjusted and do not move out of alinement when the adjusting screws are tightened. The steel points @ are ground eccentric, and the distance between the points may be slightly26 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 increased or decreased by totating them in the heads. The thumbscrew 6 serves to clamp the point firmly in the head, and a larger thumbscrew, shown behind the nurled end of the Point, is used to clamp the head to the tram stick, The steel points a may be raised or lowered independently, which adjustment is frequently required in general lay- ing-out work. 43. Surface Plate. The surface plate, Fig. 26, is a heavy cast-iron plate, varying in thickness from 14 to 4 inches, and made accurately flat and smooth on top. ‘The smooth face is used for testing work, to determine whether it is straight, or whether intersecting sections are square or in correct angular alinement. It is also employed to detect warped sections in plates and castings, and is useful in laying out. The surface block is supported usually on a strong woodcn bench, so that it may be convenient to work areund it on all sides. The bench and the plate must be carefully leveled and secured in position. 44. Surface Gauge.—The surface gauge, Fig. 27, is an instrument employed usually in combination with the surface plate for scribing straight lines. The base of the gauge is square with the vertical shaft b on which slides the collar ¢. The collar can be set at any position on the vertical shaft and the steelRBOILERMAKING, PART 1 27 point, or seriber, d can be clamped in any position on the collar for drawing straight lines on the work c. When draw- ing lines, the base of the surface gauge is simply slid along the top of the surface plate, the end of the scriber being kept in contact with the work. 45. Hand Hammers.—Various weights and shapes of hammets are used in boiler work. For laying out, a hammer weighing about 1 pound is used; for marking off plates and recentering the light center-punch marks for rivet, drill, and tube-hole centers, a 2-pound hammer of the shape shown in Fig. 28 is usually employed. The handle isfrom 14 to 16 inches long and is reduced in section at a so as to give the hammer a slight spring after striking the blow and to prevent stinging of the hand when a heavy blow is struck. (@ we Fre, 9 46. Center Punch.—A center punch is used for making an indentation in a sheet, so that the teat of a punch or the point of a drill will have something to holditin place. Shear lines, plane lines, and flange lines are indicated on the sheet by the use28 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 ofthe center punch. Fig. 29 (a) illustrates a regular machinist’s center punch, which is used by boilermakers on light work. For medium and heavy work, centcr punches are generally forged out of round or octagon tool stcel, as shown in (i). The size of the point a and the taper in cither case will depend on the size of indentation desired. FABRICATING PROCESSES PUNCHING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 47. Punching Holes—In boiler work and in light sheet- iron work, the holes for rivets, bolts, braces, and stays are usually formed by a power-driven machine called a punch, Sometimes the same machine is used for punching holes and for cutting, or shearing, plates, and such a machine is called a punch and shear. The punch, in being forced through a plate, cuts and crushes out the metal ahead of it. Ifa punched hole is examined, it will be found to be greater in diameter on the side where the punch comes through than on the side where the punch enters; that is, the hole will betapering. Thecylindrical inner surface of the hole will be found to contain minute cracks, indicating that the punching operation has damaged the metal adjacent tothe hole. The depthtowhich the cracks extend into the metal depends on the plate thickness and the manner of punching. Usually they extend only a short distance, and the damaged metal can generally be removed by punching the holes ¢ inch under size and then reaming them out to size. The reaming is done after the connecting sheets are assembled, thus not only removing most of the damaged metal but insur- ing good alinement of the holes. 48. General Considerations.—It is of great importance that the punching of the holes for seams and other connections be performed in a manner that will not cause undue injury toBOILERMAKING, PART 1 2 the plate. Careless punching will reduce the strength of the section of the metal between the rivet holes, known as the net section of the plate. Accurate laying out of the rivet centers and cerrect punching are most important, for carclessness in either operation will result in mismatched holes, or blind holes, when the connecting plates are assembled. If such holes are reamed out, they are not enlarged uniformly, since more metal ig removed at one side than at the other, resulting in improper alinement and failtite to remove all cracks due to punching. Since the damage done by punching and the improper matching of holes cannot be entirely prevented, the most modern way of obtaining first-class boiler construction is by drilling in place the holes for all seams and other connecting parts. This is accomplished by punching first a few holes called tack holes to permit the plates to be held together temporarily by tack bolts. The remaining holes are then drilled in place. 49, Plain Standard Single-Ended Punch and Shear.—One form of single-ended vertical punch and shear having plain standard jaws is shown in Fig. 30. It is substantial and well suited for boiler and structural plate work and it is the type usually employed in the boiler shop. The frame a is a steel casting having a G-shaped throat the depth of which varies with the type and size of machine. The propelling mechanism may be driven by an electric motor & directly connected with the machine gearing or by a belt. With belt drive, a pulley is fixed on the drive shaft in place of the motor b and the gear ¢ on the machine is driven through the gearing at d and e. The flywheel f, keyed to the main drive shaft, obtains considerable momentum during the period the machine is running idle, and the energy thus stored up in it assists in overcoming the suddenly applied load that is put on the machine when the punch or the shear is thrown into action. 50. The punch g, Fig. 30, is fixed in the movable head d, and directly below it isthe die? When the head descends, the punch is driven through the plate into the opening in the die. A throat stripper j, the height of which may be adjusted by the screw k Lo suit plates of different thicknesses, strips the punchedBOILERMAKING, PART 1 31 plate from the punch on the upward stroke. The punch is set in action by stepping on the treadle / or by pulling down on the lever m, thus raising the pin, This pin restrains one member o of the jaw clutch, this member being splined to the shaft by which the head kis driven. It turns with the shaft, but can be movedalong theshaft. The other member pof the jaw clutch js fixed to the gear ¢, which turns continuously. When the pin» is raised, the pull of the spring ¢ swings the bell-crank lever r, the vertical arm of which is attached to a block s that fits in agroove in the member o. This half of the clutch is thus moved. over until it engages the other half». The turning of the gear¢ then causes the head h to descend and punch the hole, and. moves it back again, all this being done in one complete rota- tion of the gear. 51. The collar ?, Fig. 30, on the clutch member o is formed intoacam. When the lever m or the treadle ! is released, the pin # is lowered, and in that position the cam on the clutch o strikes the pin. As the clutch turns, the sloping face of the cam forces the member o inwards on the shaft and thus disengages it from the member p. When this occurs, the gear c no longer drives the shaft and the movement of the head ft ceases, the machine then being ready for another punching operation. The die ¢ is bolted firmly to the lower jaw of the machine. The stripper is forked at its outer end so as to fit around the punch g. A capstan #, containing a number of sockets, is fixed to the end of the shaft that drives the movable head. A rod or bar inserted into one of the sockets enables the head to be raised or lowered by hand, when that becomes necessary. 52. The way in which the movable head is driven from the main shaft is shown clearly in Fig. 31. The head a is a heavy rectangular block cut away at the center to allow the end of the main shaft ’to come through. The shaft carries an eccentric ¢ to which is fitted an ecccntric rod, or pitman d, a bronze bush- ing e being interposed to take the wear. The lower end of the pitman fits in a block f set in the head, and the upper end, whieh is curved, fits against a surface g of the same curvature,32 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 As the shaft b and the eccentric turn, the head is moved up and 53. Architectural Jaw.—The architec- tural form of jaw for a punch and shear is shown in Fig. 32. The difference between this type and the plain standard type @ is in the construction of the lower bolster a. The punch blocks b are the same. The purpose of the form of bolster a is to per- mit the use of differ- ent die holders c, so down, the pitman rocking on the block f and sliding to and fro onthe surface g. The sides h and 7 of the upper jaw guide the head, and the plate j, when bolted to the front, holds the head in place and furnishes a face against which it may slide. The boss k then supports the outer end of the shaft b. The grooves 1 carry lubricant to the rubbing surfaces. Fic. 32 that both the flange and the web of structural shapes such as I beams, H beams, channels, angles, etc., can be punched.BOILERMAKING, PART 1 33 The machine may be fitted with shear blades instead of a punch and die. The side stripper d is used in the punching of Land Hcolumns. A throat stripper is also supplied as part of the equipment. PUNCHES AND DIES 54, Arrangement of Punch and Die.—The sectional view of Fig. 33 shows the details of arrangement of a punch and its die. The punch a is secured to the punch holder 6 by means of a coupling c and the die d is held in the die holder ¢ by the set- screw f. The distance between the punch a and the die d is generally such as to accommodate the thickest material the machine will punch. An automatic stop is arranged at the back of the machine for setting the punch so that it will stop where desired. The teat g of the punch enters the center- punch mark of each hole to be punched and thus holds the plate in place until the punch forces the plate to the die d.34 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 The burr, or piece of metal punched from the plate, passes down through the die d and the die holder ¢. The punch is usually wedged into the plate in punching the hole, and so a stripper h is provided to prevent the plate from following the punch on its upward stroke. The stripper can be set for plates of various thicknesses. If it is set too far back from the punch, the plate will tilt on striking the stripper, thus throwing a load on one side of the punch. The stripper must bear evenly on the plate or there will be danger of frequent breakage of the punches. 55. Punch and Die Sets.—The shapes and styles of punches and dies vary greatly, according to the purposes and character of work. For punching round holes up to 1} inches in diameter the types shown in Fig. 34 (a) and (b) are generally used. The style shown in (a) is known as a flat punch; the style shown in (8) is called a spiral punch. These names are derived from the shapes of the cutting edges. Punches are usually made gy inch smaller at a than the diame- @) ter at the cutting edge, in order to lessen the frictional resistance while the punch is withdrawn from the sheet. The punch head b enables the punch to be held firmly against the punch holder. The diameter of the punch head should be reasonably larger than that of the body of the punch, so that it will not, when punching the hole, tend to cut into the punch holder. If the punch holder is too loose on the head, it will not grip the punch sufficiently. The result is that the punch will work loose, strike the plate in a cocked position, and perhaps break off. Punch and die sets should be inspected periodically and be maintained in proper working condition. 56. Standardizing Punch and Die Sets.—Punching machinery should be arranged to use standard tools. Thiscan Fic. 34BOILERMAKING, PART 1 35 readily be done by enlarging the bore of the coupling nut or by‘purchasing a coupling nut with an enlarged bore. It will be seen from Fig. 33 that if small punches are attached to the punch holder b by the coupling ¢, they must be turned from the samesize of steelasthelarge punches. This involvesan expense for material and labor that may be greatly lessened by using punches turned from small stock and fitted to an adapting sleeve, which is a sleeve so designed as to permit rapid attach- ment of a small punch by means of the same coupling used for large punches. In Fig. 35 the punch head ais placed inside the adapting sleeve b, which has the same shape and outside dimensions as the punch head of large punches, and consequently fits the same coupling. Fic. 35 57. The standard die that is used with the punches shown in Fig. 34 (a) and (6) is illustrated in Fig. 36. The top of the die is convex, a small flat surfce being left around the hole a. In order that the burr forced from the sheet into the die may be released readily, the hole in the die is so made that the diameter of the lower part b is about } inch greater than that of the top part a. The diameter: of the part a, into which the punch enters, is made from 10 to 15 per cent. larger in diameter than the punch, in order to allow for clearance.36 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 58. Ripping.—Large openings are often formed in plates by the ripping process, which consists in using an ordinary punch and die set to cut a series of overlapping holes, or half holes, around the outline of the desired opening. As the cutting is done by only a part of the punch, the tendency is ta cause the punch to cock, or tilt to one side, and thus crowd the die. In work of this character, punches are frequently broken; hence, if there is much of it to be done, the teat of the punch should be ground off, so that the punch will not be cocked to one side when it strikes the plate. By this arrangement, three- fourths of the area of the punch can be used, thus giving a more nearly uniform distribution of pres- sure and reducing the tendency to breakage. aT J @ @ re) Fre, 37 Fre. 38 59. Ripper Punch and Die.—A special form of punch and dic, known as a ripper set, may be used to speed up the cutting of openings. Fig. 37 shows a side view (a) and an end view (b) of the punch of a ripper set. The head a is of the usual eylindrical form, but the body & is oblong, as indicated by the outline c, and there is a cylindrical extension d. The part d first punches a circular hole in the plate and then acts as a guide to the punch while the oblong part punches a hole of correspond-BOILERMAKING, PART 1 37 ing shape. Top and side views of the die used with the punch just described are shown in Fig. 38 (a) and (d). 60. Cutting Punches.—In boiler work, tube holes, hand- holes, and manholes are punched with large punches especially designed for the purpose, and known as cutting punches, or shear punches. A shear punch and its die are constructed on the same principle as ordinary shears, so that the cutting begins at one point and proceeds gradually along the jine on which the Fic 9 cutting is to take place. This progressive cutting obviates heavy shocks, and requires less cutting power than would be needed if the whole cut were made at one time. The cutting edge of the punch a, Fig. 38, instead of being straight across the face, is formed with a beveled face, as shown, or a spiral face. The cutting edge of the die b must be made straight across the face or the plate will be bent down on one side of the hole. When the punch a descends, it begins cutting at the point ¢ and continues along the circumference of its ewtting edge, making a uniform, smooth eut. Punches of this kind are of a latge variety, their size and shape depending on the38 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 thickness of the plate to be punched, the capacity of the: punching machine, and the nature of the hole to be made. 61. Tube-Hole Punches.—In some localities itis permissible to punch tube holes in light boiler plate, although the general practice in first-class boiler construction is to drill the holes. Drilling insures holes of uniform diameter and spacing, so that the bridges, or sections of metal between the holes, are of equal width. When tube holes are punched, there is a pos- sibility that the plate may slip, causing the holes to be punched out of their required posi- tions. The punching methed is not practi- cable for the heavier boiler plates. A tube- hole punch a@ and its die 6 are shown sct up in Fig. 40. It is of the utmost importance that the die and the punch be in proper alinement, with the clearance allowed between the two parts equally distributed around their circumference. For this purpose the capstan c is employed to raise and lower the head d that carries the punch. The block ethat carries the diemust be securely fastened by belts f to the bottom jaw of the machine. The screws g are ted in lining up the die block with the punch. The punch must be made of good tool steel and tempered or hardened to withstand rough work. Fre. 40 62. Shear punches for punching tube holes are usually made as shown in Fig. 41. The teat @ is held in a central socket by the pressure of a spring } that in turn is confined byBOILERMAKING, PART 1 39 the screw c. As the teats of such punches break frequently, thig construction makes their replacement easy and rapid. The ptnch is centered by the teat a, which fits in the center- punch mark when the plate is pi plate in position for punching. When the punch descends, the teat is forced back into the central cham- ber, compressing the spring; on the upward stroke the spring forces the teat out again. For tube holes of small sizes and for similar small holes the form of punch shown in Fig. 42 may be used. 1t differs from the preceding form only in the construc- = Fis. roperly located, and holds the 2 tion of the head, which is so made that the punch can be attached to its holder by a coupling nut.40 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 63. Manhole Punch and Die.—For cutting or punching manhole and handhole openings, it is necessary to use machines that are more powerful than the ordinary punch and shear of the smaller type. The die construction is also different from that used in the smaller punches. Fig. 43 shows the arrange- ment of the dies on a manhole punch. The upper die a ig fastened to the movable head and the lower die 6 to the lower jaw. Four strippers c, adjustable by means of the nuts d, hold the plate on the upward stroke of the die a. The dies are shown in Fig. 44. The body a@ of each is a steel casting and the cutting blades consist. of strips 8 of hardened tool steel. These strips are drilled and countersunk to re- ceive the studs ¢ by which they are held to the castings a. The strip 6 of the lower die is flat, but that of the upper die is lower at the middle than at the ends; thus, when the upper die descends, it begins to shear at its ends and finishes its cutting at the middle. The oval section punched out falls through the opening in the lower dic and the lower jaw of the machine. The body of the lower dieis heavier than that of the upper die and is rein- forced by ribs. It is adjustable on the lower jaw of the machine, so that if can be brought accurately into alinement with the upper die. Fra, 44 64. Horizontal Punch.—The horizontal punch, a type of which is shown in Fig. 45, is used to punch holes in the legs of angle iron and in the webs and flanges of other structural shapes. It is also of great service in punching holes in the flanges of42 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 bumped heads, tube-sheets, firebox-doer sheets, back heads, and domes. The driving mechanism is like that of the vertical punch, and an electric moter or a belt may furnish the power. In the illustration, belt driving is indicated by the use of tight and ioose pulleys a. The hand wheel b is used for moving the punch c slowly when the dic in the holder dis being adjusted and set in alinement with the punchc. The ram e that carries the punch moves horizontally in guides bolted to the punch frame. A throat stripper or a yoke stripper f prevents the plate from Fic, 46 following the punch. Either the lever g or the treadle h may be used to throw the chitch that puts the punch in action. 65. Special attachments for various kinds of work may be used on the heads of punches. The attachment shown in Fig. 46 is uséd when it is desired to punch two holes at one time. The die block a carries two dies 6 that match the two punches ¢ fastened to blocks d carried by the horizontal ram e. Each block is fitted with a gag, so that a punch carried by it may be made inoperative, if desired. For example, if the gag f is pulled out, the upper punch c will slide back into its block when the ram e moves forwards, and will not punch a hole. The gag g controls the action of the lower punch in the same manner.44 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 MULTIPLE MACHINES 66. Double-Ended Punch and Shear.—The double-ended punch and shear shown in Fig. 47 is a good example of the standard machines of this kind. It is practically two single- ended machines having their frames bolted together at a and 6, with one drive mechanism centrally located between them. Direct driving by electric motor may be used, but belt driving is shown in this case. The pulley ¢ is loese on the shaft d and the pulley ¢ is keyed to the shaft; thus, when the belt is shifted from the loose to the tight pulley, the punch gear f is put in motion. On the gears is one half of the clutch g,which revolves with the gear. When the treadle i is tripped, the other half g’ of the clutch engages with the part g and the shaft that raises and lowers the head i is caused to revolve. Tho mechanism continues in motion as long as the treadle is held down. On releasing the treadle, the cam mechanism of the clutch automatically throws out the movable half g’ of the clutch. 67. One end of the machine in Fig. 47 is arranged for punching and the other for shearing, and each may be operated independently; thus, a variety of work can be handled by the machine. The head 7 is driven by a pitman from an eccentric on the shaft that carries the clutches. A spring located above the sliding head takes the place of the heavy counterweight shown in Fig. 30. At the punch end of the machine in Fig. 47 the stripper f is arranged at the side of the head, so as not to interfere with the punching of angles, channels, etc. It is in three parts, the side pieces being slotted so as to be adjustable vertically to suit plates of different thicknesses. Setscrews k bear against the upper ends of the side pieces and take the thrust of the stripping operation, The advantage of the double- ended punch and shear lies in greater production in cutting and punching operations, as one end can be used for punching and the other for shearing, saving the time and labor of changing the dies, as would be required with a single-ended machine. 68. Muitiple-Punch Attachments——There are various multiple-punch attachments that may be arranged on single-ab oa, {o)el 46BOILERMAKING, PART 1 47 ended or double-ended punching machines having either plain or architectural jaws. A three-punch attachment in connection with architectural jaws is shown in Fig. 48 (a) and @). The die block @ is a casting containing three cqually spaced openings b over which are the dies, these being properly alined with the punches ¢. The block d that carries the punches js bolted to the movable head and is recessed so as to receive three blocks ¢, called gags, one above each of the three punches. To each gag is fixed a hook f by which it may be drawn toward the front of the head, in which case an opening is left above the punch. If all three punches are to be used at one time, the gags are left in the position shown in (a); but if only the two outer punches are te be used, the central gag is pulled forwards. When the head descends, the central punch ¢ moves back into the space formerly occupied by the gag, and only two heles are punched, the pitch being twice that of two adjacent punches. A renewable wearing strip g is inserted between the gags and. the top of therecess in the head. The position of the stripper h may be adjusted by means of the nut z to suit different plate thicknesses. 69. Spacing Table.—A combination of a single-ended punching machine and a spacing table is shown in Fig. 49. The spacing table is a mechanism that supports the plate to be punched and also provides a means by which the plate may be moved lengthwise, sidewise, or vertically so as to center the punch quickly and without hand Jaber. The frame @ that carties the mechanism is built up of structural shapes and extends crosswise in front of the machine. Its length varies from about 20 feet in boiler and tank shops to 40 feet or more in structural and shipyard plants, and its width may accommo- date plates 10 feet wide. The frame is mounted on two end trucks &, only one of which is shown, and a central truck ¢, the latter carrying the platform for the operator as well as the various control mechanisms. The spacing table is of value in punching long plates, as greater production can be obtained than when the plates are suspended from cranes and manip- ulated by hand.48 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 TO. The end trucks 6, Fig. 49, have housings for roller bearings that support the axles of the double-flange wheels d that run on the tracks e. Two such wheels are used on each end truck, one at the front and the other at the back. The central truck ¢ is supported by a shaft to the ends of which are fixed the sprockets f. The teeth of these sprockets extend down between a pair of angle-iron rails g and the rims of the wheels run on the tops of the rails. Between the rails is stretched a chain # with which the sprocket teeth engage, and a small electric motor is geared to the sprocket shaft. Thus, by the rotation of the motor. the spacing table may be moved- toward the punch or away from it. If the plate is buckled, _ so that it will not pass along under the stripper, it must be lowered at that point. This may be done by turning the hand wheeliorj. These wheels, through bevel gearing like that at &, give vertical motion to the central supports of the plate and thus enable the desired adjustment to be made. 41. The plate is moved lengthwise of the table by the rotation of two sets of drive wheels J, Fig. 49. Each set of wheels is fixed to a transverse shaft thatreceivesmotion through bevel gearing sm from a shaft w, On this shafl, within easy reach of the hands of the operator, are two levers carrying ratchets 2. Movement of either lever rotates the shaft « and therefore the wheels /, and the friction between these wheels and the plate moves the plate. The remaining sets of wheels act mercly as supports and turn freely as the plate moves over them. Between the seis of wheels are small plate rollers p that prevent the end of the plate from sagging between the wheels. With a spacing table it is necessary to usc a floating punch, which is a form of punch that rides over the surface of the plate during the centering operation, making centering an easier task than with a solid punch. 72. Operating Clutch by Solenoid.— When a spacing table is used with a punch, some method other than a hand-operated lever or a treadle must be used (o throw the clutch into action. The device shown in Fig. 50 may be used to advantage in such acase. It consists of a coil a of insulated wire surrounding anBOUERMAKING, PARTI , 49 iron cylinder, or core, 6, suspended from one end of the lever ¢. The coil a is known as a solencid and is connected to a source of electric current, with a push button located near the operator of the spacing table. When the operator presses the button, electricity passes into the solenoid and causes it to act like a magnet, pulling the iron core b down inside it. This raises the short end of the lever c and lifts the retaining pin from the clutch member d. A spring inside the holder ¢ then presses the plunger f outwards and throws the clutch member 4 into engagement with the gear g. When the pressure on the push button is relieved, the current is cut off, the plunger f forces thelevere back to the “ position shown, and the retaining pin comes in contact with the cam on the clutch and throws it out of action. 73. Muitiple Punches.— For cer- tain classes of tank, railroad, ship, and structural work, multiple punches may be used to advantage, as they insure acourate spacing of holes, saving of time in handling plates, and increased production, The multiple punch, one form of which is illustrated in Fig. 51, is arranged to punch a large mumber of holes at one operation; and because of the size, shape, and capacity of the head, a large variety of tools and jigs can be applied for punching, and in some types bending and other forming operations may be performed. The box frame a is heavy and has a very shallow throat, An electric motor mounted at the back of the frame drives a pinion ¢ that meshes with the gear d, and a clutch e on the main shaft f throws the punch into action when the treadle g is depressed,50 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 The cylinder # is an air cushion that raises the ram 7 when the clutch is thrown out of gear. 4. The punches j, Fig. 51, are all bolted to a tool carrier k, called a bolster, which in turn is mounted on the ram, or movable head. A similar bolster carries the dies J and is firmly fastened to the lower jaw. The punches and their corresponding dies Fic, 51 are mounted on the bolsters and correctly alined before the bolsters are put in place on the machine, thus making it 2 simple matter to obtain accurate spacing and perfect alinement. The machine may be arranged to punch double rows of holes as well as single rows; but the strippers #: must have a special arrange- ment when double rows arc to be punched. The square shaft» is an attachment used in connection with the punching ofBOILERMAKING, PART 1 51 irregularly spaced hoies. On it are mounted a number of arms o that may be adjusted along the shaft and locked in place by setscrews. Each arm at its lower end is connected to a gag that controls the action of one punch. If certain punches are to be thrown out of action for irregular spacing of holes, their gags are connected to the arms 0. Then, by turning the shaft n by means of the crank p, the gays of these punches are pulled. out, and when the head descends, these punches slide up into their sockets. Spacing tables may be used in connection with muitiple punches of the type shown. HAND-OPERATED PUNCHES %5. Screw Punch.—The port- able screw punch shown in Fig. 52 is used extensively in repair work and for punching holes that cannot be reached by a power-driven punch. The throat ig from 2 to 4 inches deep and the lower jaw holds the die. The punch is held in a stem having a squared head ¢ and a thread 6 on its outer surface to engage with a thread in the upper jaw, After the punch is centered correctly, a bar is inserted in the holes in the squared head and the threaded stem is turned down, forcing the punch through the plate. Punches and dies of various sizes may be used with this device. 7G. Lever Punch.—The lever punch, Fig. 53, is a portable type and is used particularly for punching sheet iron and plate not exceeding } inch in thickness. It is used considerably in52 BOILERMAKING, PART t stack, tank, and general light plate work. Its limit of capacity ‘sa j-inch hole in j-inch plate, but all sizes of punches and dies from 75 to y% inch, varying by thirty-seconds, may be obtained. The device is simple and holes may be punched quickly by its use. The punching power is obtained through the arrange- ment of the levers. The handles a may be removed and longer ones substituted in order to obtain greater leverage. SHEARING WT. Kinds of Shears—In plate work the material is teceived in sheets of various sizes and shapes, and as the development of particular kinds of sheet-metal objects results in patterns of irre,ular shapes, it becomes neces- sary to remove the surplus material. The usual method of doing this is by cutting the metal between two steel blades, the process being known as shearing. The two common methods of shearing plates involve the use of vertical shears and rotary shears, so named because of the direction of movement of the cutter blades, or shear knives, Fic. 4 78. Vertical Shears and Shear Attachments.—The jaws, head, and shear blades of a vertical shear are shown in Fig. 54. The shear blades a and 5, made of tool steel, are fastened to the blade holders ¢ and d by countersunk bolts e, the heads of which are below the surfaces of the blades. The holder ¢ is bolted to the lower jaw and the holder d to the movable head f of the shear. The machine is arranged for continuous shearing. The heel of the upper blade a, which is shown in its highest, or starting, position, overlaps the lower blade 6; and when in its lowest position, or at the end of the downward stroke, theBOILERMAKING, PART 1 53 high end of the upper biade is still at a distance from. the lower blade equal to the thickness of the plate, The slant of theupper biademakesthecuttingaction progressive. The bladesaremade reversible, so that either edge may be used. 79, When a plate is being sheared, it is usually suspended from an overhead crane, so that it may be moved easily to bring the shear line, marked on the plate, into cotrect position with respect to the. shear blades. At each cutting stroke of the shears there is a tendency to pull the plate in toward the machine, and care must be taken to guard against this action. Usually three men—-an operator and two helpers—are required to handle extraordinarily long sheets. The helpors are stationed at the ends of the plate, to assist in guiding it and to shift it after each eut of the shears. If a small piece of plate is being sheared, Fre, $5 Fra. 56 a hold-dows similar to that shown in Fig. 55 should be fastened to the upper jaw, with the part a on the outside of the lower shear blade and slightly above it. This device prevents the picce of plate from tipping up and becoming wedged between the blades. Plates may sometimes be held down by tongs, but in such cases the workman must be alert to counteract the54 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 effect of the blow delivered by the descending blade; otherwise, the plate may tilt and injure him or damage the shear. 80. An attachment for shearing narrow stock such as bar iron and narrow strips of plate is shown in Fig. 56 (a). The equipment is shown fastened toa shear having thearchitectural form of jaw. The upper blade is made with a taper, so that it can be reversed for cross-cutting. A standard bar-shearing attachment for shears with plain jaws is shown in (b). The upper blade a is made with an extension b that extends down past the lower blade, acts asa guide for the material, and assists in holding the shear blades in line and pre- venting them from mounting or striking each other. The - hold-down ¢ prevents the bar or plate material from tilting upwards during the cutting operation and thus insures a straight cut at right angles to the surface of the bar or plate. 81. ithe edge of a plate is to be cut with a bevel, the form of attachment shown in Fig. 57 may be used, A bracket ¢ carries an inclined rest b on which the plate is supported at an angle to the plane of action of the shears, Hold-downs ¢ prevent the plate from tilting and adjustable rollers d assist in holding and guiding the plate. An attachment for use in shearing angle iron is shown in Fig. 58. The blades a and } are of such shape as to conform to the outline of the angle iron and have no rake, or inclination; that is, the cut is made at all points at the same time, instead of progressively. This is necessary to prevent the angle ironBOILERMAKING, PART 1 55 from being bent out of shape; but the shear must be prepor- tionately strong to bear the strain, For shearing round bar iron the blades may be made with semicircular grooves, as shown in Fig. 59, the diameters of the grooves being of such a range as to cover the diameters of bar iron usually carried in stock. 82. Rotary Shears.—One form of rotary shears is shown in Fig. 60. The shearing is done by two circular cutters ¢ and 6, the plate to be cut being fed betweenthem. Atablec Fie. 58 . Fis, 59 supports the plate on one side and a roller hold-down d is provided at the other side. Both of these are adjustable vertically, so that the plate may be kept level. The cutters are power driven and rotate in the same relative directions as though they were two meshing gears. The electric motor e supplies the driving power, its pinion meshing with a large gear f on a shaft that passes through the change-gear box g. Inside this box are three sets of change gears, by which any one of three different speeds may be obtained. The change of56 BOILERMAKING, PART 1 speed is made by turning the crank #, which moves a key in the main drive shaft so as to engage with one or another of the change gears. Power is then transmitted to two large gears inside the casings 7 and j and these gears are fastened to the shafts from which the cutters are driven. As a straight cut can be made much more rapidly than a curved or irregular cut Wid, Ne Fic. 60 that requires much shifting of the plate, the reason for providing difierent driving speeds is obvious. Straight cutting may be done at the rate of 20 feet per minute. 83. The machine shown in Fig. 60 is used to shear plates up to I inch in thickness, and so it is necessary that the cutters a and & be adjustable. Accordingly, the entire head # thatBOILERMAKING, PART 1 57 carries the driving gears of the cutter a is mounted in vertical guides in the upper jaw. A screw / driven by worm-gearing inside the casing m enables the cutter and its mechanism to be raised or lowered, as desired, a reversing clutch being provided so that the screwmay be rotated ineither direction. Connection between the driving gear in the casing ¢ and the gearing in the head # ig made by shafts with universal joints, so as to allow this vertical adjustment. The lower cuttcr b also is adjustable, but in the direction of the axis of the shaft on which it is mounted, the movement being given through worm-gearing operated by the crank x at the base of the machine, To prevent the head & from being raised or lowered too far, an automatic stop is provided to disconnect the clutch on the shaft driving the worm-gearing on the screw / when the head reaches either limit of its travel. The lower cutter b is driven from the large gear inside the casing j, and because it is adjustable the con- necting shafts are made with universal joints. The machine is started and stopped by moving the handie 9, which operates a clutch located on a shaft between the change-gear box g and the gearing inside the casing 7. 84. It is necessary to adjust the cutters a and b, Fig. 60, very carefully. The effects produced by different settings are shown in Fig. 61. In (@) is shown the setting required to produce a square cut, at right angles to the plate surfaces. The distance a between the vertical faces 6 and ¢ of the upper and lower cutters should be about equal to the clearance allowed between a punch and its die. The distance d between the horizontal faces ¢ and f of the cutters should be just enough to produce a clean, sharp cut. If the cutters are set as shown in (6), with too much clearance a between the vertical faces, the plate will be sheared at an angle, as indicated. This fault results from setting the lower cutter too high. If the cutters are set, to overlap, as shown in (c), the cut will again be made at an angle, but in the opposite direction. These diagonal cuts are not clean; instead, the metal is torn and ragged. The hold-down g, view (a), and the table # should be so set that the plate is heldlevel. If the plate is tilted, as indicated by theLNs Li WLLL Lief oad = (a)BOILERMAKING, PART 1 59 dotted lines i, it will be beveled on the under side, near the cut, and when it is riveted, as shown in (d), the bevel, indicated at a, will practically prevent tight calking of the joint. 85, Bevel Shears.-The bevel shears shown in Fig. 62 work on the same cutting principle as the rotary shears, but the blades are sct so as to make a bevel cut instead of a square cut. The upper blade a overlaps the lower blade b about 7 inch, Fre, 62 but if less bevel is desired, the blade 6 can be set out to give sufficient clearance between the blades so as to obtain the angle of bevel desired. The clearance, however, must not be made too great; otherwise, the plate will net be cut properly. Usually the clearance does not exceed 25 per cent. of the thickness of the plate that is to be sheared. The upper blade a may be raised or lowered by the adjusting screw c, so as to cut different thick- nesses of plate. The plate is guided during the shcaring opera- tion by an adjustable guide d carrying arollere. The operator turns the wheel f according to whether the plate should move toward or away from the machine. During shearing the plateeT a TT, al oo omBOILERMAKING, PART 1 61 should not be twisted while it is gripped by the shears, as there is danger of chipping and injuring the blades. Shear blades are made of high-speed tool steel and are usually reversible so that either side can be used for cutting. A plate hold-down is also provided on bevel shears. The driving may be by belt or motor, but in the illustration a motor g is shown, directly connected to the gearingh. Aclutcht, operated by the handlej, is used to start and stop the machine. 86. Gate, or Guillotine, Shears.—For the purpose of cutting and squaring plates, especially where there js consider- able splitting, or cutting of long sheets, into smaller stock sheets, gate shears, or guillotine shears, as shown in Fig. 63, are employed. Machines of this type expedite shearing opera- tions of the kind mentioned, since the cut across the sheet is made in one operationof theram. ‘The gate shear is similar to the multiple-punch machine, and sometimes the two machines are combined, so as to be convertible from one to the other. In such cases the upper and lower shears are carried on separate shear bolsters and the punch and die sets are on bolsters, thus making it possible to change the equipment easily. Standard machines are made to cut plate 120 inches wide and of various thicknesses up to and including jkinches. The throat dimen- sions vary, depending on the nature of the work to be done. Ordinarily, for cutting crosswise of the shect, the throat depth isfrom 11 to 18 inches. For splitting plates lengthwise, deeper throats are required. 87. The gear a, Fig. 63, is atranged to be driven by an electric motor mounted on a bracket at the back of the machine. On the main shaft b are two eccentrics ¢ that raise and lower the ram that carries the upper shear blade d. To strengthen the housings e and toprevent the upper shear blade from spring- ing away from the lower blade during the shearing operation, a horizontal stiffener f is installed between the two housings. The shear blades are usually interchangeable, so that all four cutting edges can be used. The plate is held in position on the table in front of the shear by an automatic hold-down g operated by cams h fixed on the drive shaft. ‘The cams are62 BOJLERMAKING, PART 1 so set that the haid-down is moved into position just before the blade makes its cutting stroke. The adjustment of the hold- down for different plate thickness is made by unscrewing the nuts 7 and turning the bolts j up or down in the sleeve &. After the adjustment is made the locknuts ¢ are tightened. The counterweights / counterbalance the weight of the ram. The ram is set into motion by pressing down the treadle m, thus throwing the clutch » and connecting the drive shaft of the machine with the gear a. The arms o extending from the lower bolster p are slotted on the top for attaching guides or bracket attachment for shearing. The bolster is also slotted for shearing gauges,