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Summary--The bending collapse behaviour of rectangular and square section tubes is studied
theoretically and experimentally. A limit analysis technique was employed and a set of formulae
relating the hinge moment and associated angle of rotation was derived. The theoretical
predictions were verified by comparison with 56 quasi-static bending tests on 27 different sections
having aspect ratios (a/b) varying between 3.0 and 0.33 and with width to wall thickness ratios
(a/t) between 128 and 9.14. Very good agreement was found between the theoretical predictions
and experimental results for the whole range of sections.
a(mm)
ae (mm)
b(mm)
E(N/mm 2)
h(mm)
M(Nmm)
Mm(Nmm)
Mp(Nmm)
rap(N)
r(mm)
t (mm)
w(J)
v(-)
p (rad)
0 (tad, o)
ae,(N/mm 2)
a~(N/mm 2)
op(N/mm 2)
ae~(N/mm 2)
~(-)
NOTATION
section width, i.e. width of the compression flange;
"effective" width of the compression flange;
section depth;
Young's modulus;
half of the hinge length;
hinge moment;
maximum hinge moment (at 0 = 0);
fully plastic moment of a section;
fully plastic moment of a unit width of the section wall;
rolling radius of the wall deformation;
wall thickness;
energy absorbed at a hinge;
Poisson's ratio;
half of the hinge rotation angle;
hinge rotation angle (radians in all of the formulae);
critical buckling stress of the compression flange;
edge stress of the compression flange;
yield stress of the material in uniaxial tension;
maximum flow stress of the material in uniaxial tension--nominal value (ap~ = maximum tensile
force/original area of the specimen cross-section, see Figs. 8-13).
3.141592...
I. INTRODUCTION
Rectangular and square section tubes are widely used in buses, coaches, special purpose
vehicles, roll-over and falling object protective structures and other areas subject to safety
requirements. Under impact such tubes usually buckle locally and hinges may develop and
permit rotations more than 30 before the structure starts intruding into the survival space.
A study of the collapse behaviour is therefore important for both the design and analysis
of weight-efficient safety structures.
Methods already exist [1--4] that allow for varying hinge moments in computer analyses
of the collapse behaviour of complete structures. However, these rely on the experimental
input data, while the current paper enables prediction of the hinge properties. A detailed
discussion can be found in Ref. [5], while only a summary of the results will be given here.
Only uniaxial bending collapse will be considered, since it is the most common in practice
[6-8] and it has been demonstrated [3, 4] that biaxial collapse may be analysed on the basis
of uniaxial hinge properties.
2. MAXIMUM BENDING STRENGTH OF A RECTANGULAR SECTION TUBE
Rhodes and Harvey have examined 19] the maximum bending strength of a lipped channel section with
lips in tension and a full-width flange in compression. The critical stress trc, of the compression flange was
derived in a form:
a,.,
12(l~v~5.23+0.16Z
(1)
624
D. KECMAN
where E, v, u, h and t are respectively, Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, flange width, section depth and
wall thickness. The effect of lips on the flange stability is negligible
If a,r is less than the yield stress ap of the material, the flange buckles and an "effective" flange width
(a.) is introduced in the following simplified form:
a e =
(l
07
.
'r+0.3
(2)
tTe
where a,. is the stress at the edge of the flange and a e = a if a,r >~%. A further simplifying assumption, which
gave a good agreement with experiments, was that the section starts collapsing when the edge stress a e equals
the yield stress %. The actual maximum moment (/14,,) depends on the total stress distribution when the
compression flange yields, with formulae given in [9].
Dawson and Walker developed a similar method[10], but assumed that the flange of the lipped channel
has an initial imperfection with an amplitude fitting the lower bound experimental data by Winter[Ill and
Chilver[12]. The calculation of the maximum moment shows that a,,, of a simply supported plate (lower than
equation (1) should be at least 2.5 times higher than % in order to produce full plasticity in the compression
flange.
Closing of the section on the tension side has little effect on the stability of the compression flange, hence
formulae in [9 10] could also be used for uniaxial bending of a rectangular section tube. A comparative study
of the two methods indicated [5] that the maximum moment (M,,) of a rectangular or square section tube
can be calculated using equations (1) and (2) with a,, = ap and:
if a,r <~ap
3~;+2
2a+b+a,.
M m = a 0. t - b '
3(a + b)
(3a)
(3b)
(3c)
a+-~
is defined first, and the maximum strength becomes, from linear interpolation:
Mm=M' o+(M.-M;)
~7 c r - -
2ap
(7 p
"
(3d)
3. A C T U A L BENDING COLLAPSE M E C H A N I S M
The hinge collapse modes observed in actual accidents [6], static and dynamic laboratory tests on standard
and non-standard sections [5, 13], bus rings [14] and complete structures [7, 8, 15] proved to be very repeatable.
A typical hinge mechanism produced by bending a square section (38 x 38 x 1.6 ram) tube as a 1 m long
cantilever is shown in Fig. l(a). The mechanism is symmetric with respect to the lateral (Fig. lb) and longitudinal
(Fig. lc) middle planes.
A dense pattern of 2.54 mm dia. circles was applied electrochemically to all four walls at the hinge area (Fig.
la). The test was stopped after 9.5, 19 and 29.8 of hinge rotation (0) in order to measure the deformations
recorded by the pattern.
The hinge mechanism occurs between the two plastically undeformed beam segments with clearly defined
stationary wall bending lines G H N K G and E F M L E in Fig 2(a). A detailed analysis of the hinge mechanism and
the deformed pattern revealed the following main points:
(a) Most of the plastic deformation is concentrated along the stationary yield lines EF, GH, EB, GB, F(',
HC, BC, BA, C J, GK, NH, EL and F M (Figs. 2 and 3 and Table 1).
TABLE I. DEFORMATION OF CHARACTERISTIC CIRCLES 1N FIGS. ] (a) AND
0
(deg)
9.5
Circle
Numbert
d]*(div)
d2(div)
1
51
35
50 55
50 50
3
10
11
12
-~50
-48
55
30
55
47
54
48
53
47
2 5 0 50
~ 50 48
52 52
50 49
19
dB(div)
d2(div)
-~50
~30
~50
-50
57
50
-~50
-~40
>75
<20
60
35
58
35
54
45
=50
~50
50
45
53
49
53
47
29.8
dl(div)
d2(div)
-~50
-~20
~-50
-~50
59
50
>75
<25
>75
<25
54
45
~50
-50
50
45
51
47
52
48
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIG. 1. A typical hinge collapse mechanism (a) with cross (b) and longitudinal (c) sections.
625
626
D. KECMAN
627
(b) Travelling yield lines of rolling deformation were also observed along GA, AE, KA and LA, while the
distance BA changes during hinge rotation (point A in Fig. 2b corresponds to the current tip of the "bulge"--A~,
A 2, A 3 etc.).
(c) The corner angle along KL and M N remains almost constant (Fig. 2b);
(d) The deformation of the tension flange includes travelling yield lines N K and M L (dotted in Fig. 3c),
approximately corresponding to the intersection of the undeformed flange planes and the current cylindrical
surface 1D in Fig. 2(b), (see also Fig. 1);
(e) In-plane deformation of the walls was also observed, particularly along the rolling lines GA, EA, BA, HC,
CF and CJ (the original circles in Fig. l(a) deformed into "droplet" shapes 6 and 7 in Fig. 3 and Table 1). This
deformation is essential to maintain hinge kinematics;
(f) The rolling radius " r " varies slightly along GA measured by cutting at right angles to GA ) and its estimated
value was approximately proportional to the hinge length, i.e. r = (0.03-0.05)' KL. Larger values correspond to
thicker tubes of comparable sections, but the test programme did not indicate a strong effect of either wall
thickness or the initial corner radius (this conclusion is in contrast with [16], where r = 0.5 t). The radius reduces
during collapse, so that rolling becomes more and more "difficult", until the mechanism "jams" and starts a new
phase of collapse;
(g) The rolling radius along KA, LA, M J and NJ varies from infinity at K, L, M and N to a value close to
" r " in (f) above. Deformation pattern along these lines is very diffused.
Four distinct phases in the hinge development were identified:
(1) Initial phase, with a "bulge" in the webs (At in Fig. 2b) starting approx. 0.2 .Kg below the compression
flange, but without apparent rolling deformation (this phase spreads over hinge angles between zero and 5-10 ,
with larger values in relatively thicker walls).
(2) Second phase, with rolling as described above, and the cross-section shape as in Fig. 2(b) (A2). The angle
0 is between 5-10 and 25 to 35.
(3) Third phase, initiated by "jamming" of the rolling deformations, with the cross-section taking the shape
B3A3TD in Fig+ 2(b) and with new bending lines A T and T K a n d their symmetric counterparts.
(4) Fourth phase, initiated by contact between the two buckled halves of the compression flange (Fig. 1). This
totally jams the original hinge and starts an adjacent secondary one with new bending lines formed at 0.5 KL
away from the section GHNK (Fig. 2), the webs buckling "inwards" and the compression flange "out". There
is no clear-cut transition from one phase to another, so one can say that intermediate, hybrid forms are also
present.
The collapse mechanisms in rectangular sections (Fig. 4) displayed the same general pattern, with a hinge
length KL approximately equal to the shorter of the section sides.
4. THEORETICAL BENDING COLLAPSE MECHANISM
The theoretical model of an actual hinge collapse mechanism is based on the second phase of collapse which
includes the hinge angles normally allowed and displayed in vehicle safety structures. The experiments also show
that there is a smooth transition in the hinge moment (M)-rotation (0) curves between the first and second and
second and third phases of collapse.
The theoretical mechanism is based on the assumptions that the walls of a section deform along the
concentrated yield lines only, that the walls are incompressible and inextensible and that structural continuity
is maintained in the two characteristic sections shown in Fig. l(b, c). It was already mentioned that some in-plane
deformation is essential for the hinge kinematics and indeed Wierzbicki and Abramowicz have shown recently
[17] that 1/3 of the energy absorbed by axially collapsing thin-walled columns can be attributed to this source.
//
a)
r"
i c3
\
b)
FIG. 2. Hinge mechanism (a) at various stages of development (b).
MS Wol. 25, No. 9--10--B
628
D. K I:X'MAN
-2.&
',,
A?
%-~'--.f
I /"'
b)
/[
/I
'\d
;i
11o
~/' .~
c)
A similar conclusion may apply to the bending collapse, but the experimental evidence shown later in the paper
proved that the approximation used can also produce a very useable set of formulae.
Wall continuity is considered in two main sections only, since an overall continuity would result in a very
complex analysis.
The first theoretical model in Fig. 2(a) resulted in a set of formulae with two unknown parameters: hinge
length KL = 2h and rolling radius r (a possible simplification was published in [18], but this result is now
improved). Attempts to derive the u n k n o w n parameters from the conditions of m i n i m u m m o m e n t or energy and
wall continuity were not successful, so a new model in Fig. 5 was introduced.
The rolling radius is assumed very small in comparison with other hinge dimensions and points A, B, C and
J are on a straight line.
Introducing an angle p = 0/2, where 0 is the angle of hinge rotation, coordinates of point B in Fig. 5(b) are:
x~ = h: Yo = b cos p - w.'b :sin p (2h ~ h sin p); ZB= 0.
a)
-0-/2 - ~
KL
bl
FIG. 5. The theoretical model (a) and its longitudinal section (b).
(4)
629
(5)
(6)
Continuity in the longitudinal direction is established for a fibre originally parallel to the beam axis and passing
through the current point A in Fig. 5. This fibre is at a distance A D = b - ZA from the edge KL. Before rotation
the coordinates of the intersection of this fibre and the line G K are (O, b - z A, O) and after rotation
((b - ZA) sin p, (b -- ZA) COSp, O). The distance between this rotated point and point A, with coordinates (h, YA,
zA), must be equal to " h " if the walls are inextensible and if the bending radii are assumed to be very small.
Hence:
h 2 = [h - (b - ZA) sin p]2 + [YA -- (b -- zA) cos p]2 + z~.
(7)
Substituting (4)-(6) into (7) it can be shown that continuity conditions (5) and (7) are met simultaneously for
any ratio a / b and any 0 when:
2h = a , or 2h = b .
(8)
The correct value is the one that yields lowest energy absorbtion, hence it is concluded that:
2h=aifa~<b,
or2h=bifa~>b,
(9)
(lO)
5. N O M I N A L E N E R G Y ABSORBED D U R I N G H I N G E ROTATION
From the assumptions made, all the energy is absorbed by plastic deformation along the yield lines of the
theoretical collapse mechanism.
Rotation of the hinge through an angle 0 = 2p creates a relative rotation along the flange walls E F and G H
(Fig. 5b):
a=g-~/2-p-fl=g/2-p-arcsin
1-~sinp
(11)
rG2-p-arcsin
1-~sinp
(12)
where m 0 is an average fully plastic moment of a unit width of the wall, a and b are section width and depth
and h is known from (9).
Similarly:
n-2arcsin
W2=WBc=mp'a
l-~sinp
(13)
The length o f the yield line A B = z A is known from (6) and the angle of relative rotation (r~ - 2fl ) can be found
from (11), (angle fl is equal to the last term in (11)). Thus,
W3=WAn+Cs=2me(bsin2p-hsinP+x/bsinp(2h-bsinp).cosp)x
(14)
This "corner" deformation is treated somewhat differently by Abramowitz[19]. The angle o f relative rotation
along BGis rr/2 and B G = h, so that
W 4 = WBa+ Be +cn +cr = 4 " me" h 2 = 2 . mp. h n .
(15)
Relative rotation (r/) along G K can be seen in Fig. 6. Plane to is normal to G K and contains point A (Fig. 5a).
Point A ' is the normal projection o f A into the K G D plane (also plane x y ) and A o is obtained by rotating co
63(1
D. KECMAN
Y~/
Ao
about its intersection m~,. with the x y plane. Coordinates of point A" are:
h tan p + b . c o s p - xfb s i n p ( 2 h Z b s i n p )
. . . .
1 + tan2p
- "
.!'4.
(16)
and:
x A = y , , tan p.
(17)
From Fig. 6 one can now derive the angle q and then:
Ws
W~;s,+Ez}n,~.,F M
h--x.4")'+O"A'
4 mp-barctan
Y~)-
(18)
where y~ is known from (4). The area swept by the yield line GA is equal to the triangle ABG in Fig. 5a and
the rolling radius r is reasonably constant along GA, so that allowing for bending and flattening of the walls
during rolling, we obtain:
42mphzA
h
r 2 =4mprZ'4"
W= W(i4+Ae+CW+CF=
(19)
The rolling radius decreases during hinge rotation and an approximate variation within the observed range:
KA
(21)
was used, where lk is the distance from K along KA and r is given by (20).
A linear variation of the rolled length between K and A (from zero to ZA) is assumed:
lk
l~ = KA zA
122)
KA
KA zA KA-r dl~ -
3r
(23)
or:
zA
(24)
(25)
Although the mechanism in Fig. 5(a) does not resemble well the true deformation of the tension flange (Fig. lb
and c), it was concluded [5] that equation (25) should provide a reasonable approximation.
The nominal value of the energy absorbed at a hinge now becomes:
W(O) = L Wi(O)
I
(26)
631
valid for 0 ~< 0 ~< Os, where 0 s is known from (10). Equation (26) is difficult to differentiate, so that a hinge
moment M ( O ) at any angle (0) is calculated numerically from:
M(O)
A0
(27)
mp=
(28)
To illustrate the second point, hinge moment (M) - rotation (0) curves of a tube with a = 100 mm, b = 103 mm
and t = 0.81 mm are shown in Fig. 7. The stress-strain curves 1, 2 and 3 correspond to specimens taken from
the appropriate locations on the section. The experimental curve is chain-dotted, curve A is theoretical with
apu = 253 N/mm 2 and B corresponds to ap = 161 N/mm 2.
All curves in Fig. 7 start from M(0) = M m because 0 corresponds to plastic deformation only, i.e. elastic
curvature before and during collapse is eliminated as explained in Section 8.
7. THE FINAL F O R M OF THE THEORETICAL H I N G E M O M E N T A N D
THE E N E R G Y ABSORBED
The basic (nominal) moment (M) - rotation (0) curves are calculated from the previous formulae, but the
model does not cover adequately the first phase of collapse, particularly in relatively thick tubes. However, the
maximum moment Mm at 0 = 0 is known and we also have the nominal M - 0 curve between 0 = 0 and 0 = 0j.
A simple and smooth transition between the two is obtained by drawing a tangent to the curve, passing through
point (Mm, 0)--dotted line in Fig. 7. The contact point T and the appropriate transition angle Or are found
approximately while calculating discrete points on the nominal M - - O curve (if Or > 0 s then Or = 0~).
The difference between the tangent line and the nominal M - 0 curve need not be great (except for small
0), even when Or shifts beyond 10 to 20 degrees.
For hinge angles beyond 0j the following empirical formula is suggested:
M(O) = M(0j) + 1.4[M,, - M(Oj) ] (0 - Oj); for 0 > 0j.
(29)
In this manner, the complete rotation range is divided in segments 0 < 0 ~< Or, Or < 0 <~ Oj and 0 > 0j. The final
expression for the energy absorbed are:
(30)
(31)
632
D. KECMAN
M(Nm)I
Mm'e t
Mm,t
1680
1400
%(N/mm2)~
1200
1000
8O0
600
400
2O0
. . . . . . . . .
.....
eT
~b
2'0
io
~b
~p = 161
o(oT
FIG. 7. Theoretical (solid) and experimental (chain-dotted) curves of section 18 (Table 2).
and, finally, if Og< 0 ~<0end, where 0no is the angle for which the experimental verification exists (Table 2):
W(O) = 0.5 [m m+ m ( 0 r ) ] Or + W(Oj) - W(Or)
+ 0.512M(0j) + 1.4(M,, - M(Oj))" (0 - Og)]" (0 - Os).
(32)
All quantities M(O) and W(O) in (30)-(32) are calculated using the basic theory.
8. E X P E R I M E N T A L VERIFICATION OF THE THEORY
The theoretical predictions were checked against experimental results from 56 quasi-static cantilever bending
tests on beams with section dimensions and material properties shown in Table 2. In 13 cases, 3 tubes per section
were tested and the general repeatability of results remained within ___5~o of the average values, with somewhat
larger scatter in section 12. The wall thickness, measured at the middle of all sides varied within + 3'?/o of the
nominal value, with some exceptions of + 5~o. Sections with a/t ratios greater than 50 were hand-made, while
all others were purchased off-the-shelf, unmodified standard seam welded mild steel tubes. All cantilevers were
1 to 1.2m long.
Comparative tests showed [5] that pure bending produced virtually identical results as those obtained with
I-1.2 m long cantilevers. The shear effect on collapse properties is therefore considered negligible, unless, of
course, the beams are so short (in relative terms) that a different collapse mode is produced. The test procedure
was therefore simpler than the one in Ref. [20], but provision of a rigid fixture at the root of the cantilever was
not simple. Some beams were therefore cast into concrete blocks to enable a firm but non-crushable support for
the section.
Load increments were applied quasi-statically up to the onset of collapse and further deformation was
produced in increments of displacements. When calculating the hinge moment-rotation curves allowance was
made for the geometry of the beam deformation and load application. The onset of collapse was assumed at
the point of maximum moment, so that a relatively small (0-3 ) elastic-plastic curvature was eliminated from
the total rotation (in the computer analysis of a complete structure the elastic deformations are covered by the
elastic beam stiffness matrices). Stresses due to shear and small axial forces were negligible.
Some of the comparative theoretical (solid) and experimental curves are shown in Figs. 8-13, illustrating the
range of sections to which the formulae are applicable. Bending took place about axes shown in the small section
drawings and the quasi-static nominal stress-engineering strain curves of the tube material are also shown.
The energy absorbed, proportional to the area under the M - - O diagram is a particularly useful parameter
indicating the agreement between the theory and experiments. Results of all sections with theoretical (Wth) and
experimental (Wexp) energies are therefore summarised in Table 2, showing good agreement over the complete
range of section dimensions.
The accuracy of the theoretical prediction can be regarded as very satisfactory, particularly in the light of
production tolerances of materials, tubes and complete structures, degree to which the structures are idealised
by finite-element models and the reserve of strength and energy absorbing capacity that is usually required.
9. PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Almost all rectangular and square section tubes used in structural design have a/b and a/t ratios within the
range which was experimentally verified. The method presented has therefore been used extensively for both
design and analysis purposes, mainly in combination with the CRASH-D program for collapse analysis of
complete structures. Good prediction was achieved in both static and dynamic tests on bus rings [14] and a full
scale test on a complete bus body [15]. A program for section optimization from the weight, cost and material
points of view has also been developed [21].
38
54
45.2
38.1
50.8
50.8
45
25.4
45
45
25,4
25.4
14
15
16
17
50.8
50.8
50.8
38.4
38. I
38.1
29.3
25.4
25.4
19
i%
2O
21
22
23
24
~5
26
27
Op
Opu
297
283
418
161
160
380
253
308
463
297
283
290
277
0.813
0.86
1.6
1.26
1.67
3.25
1.25
1,4&
1.26
1.3
329
324
340
374
313
161
161
380
253
352
463
267
308
326
297
338
463
351
284
430
245
250
418
353
360
416
390
348
250
Numbers
0.33
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.66
0.75
0.75
0.756
0.96
0.97
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.04
1.2
1.33
430
250
1.33
1.5
1.54
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
284
363
463
300
326
338
290
308
277
[N/~ 2]
297
[N/~n 2 ]
2.0
1.48
2.15
1.94
1.6
1.6
0.813
0.813
1.6
1.26
1.62
3.25
1.60
1.26
1.44
1.25
1.30
[ram]
45
38
50.8
50,8
45.2
4~
45
19
103
I00
18
25.4
45
38.4
38.4
13
44.4
44.4
99
87
38.4
38. I
25.4
29.3
28.5
19
25.4
25.4
12
103
50.8
II
50.8
104
45
I0
r,=]
{,,=,q
Number
15
Section
'i
50
264
126
226
498
130
144
75
52
260
120
219
508
114
136
81
160
138
234
185
980
368
186
423
75
147
218
130
510
482
288
298
127
135
318
145
178
675
183
75
133
105
61
[J ]
IVexp
20
142
130
235
208
953
372
194
428
76
173
216
121
512
487
291
313
166
146
340
162
174
694
180
76
135
119
65
[J]
Wth
297
307
20o
261
248
222
1364
1392
168
476
183
242
94
97
546
210
188
230
305
315
837
163
177
638
374
398
202
178
433
202
229
995
231
99
172
151
85
[J ]
Wth
674
30
677
616
378
379
163
166
398
187
236
938
240
99
175
133
81
[J ]
Wexp
8,~
121
I00
9~
114
67
296
282
178
196
116
I02
213
I07
i01
362
II0
45
85
76
38
[O ]
IVth
117
73
307
286
170
186
83
93
198
93
i01
368
108
45
8O
65
36
[J]
Nexp
i0
h~ parentheses
11.5
15.1
17.6
20.3
9.14
22.8
30.2
24
52.3
123
12.7
17.5
20.9
23.2
24
27,8
127
128
31.8
40.3
23.5
13.9
33.8
30.2
35.3
40.6
34.6
O{deg]
(3O0)
271
373
213
(225)
328
1749
562
282
643
109
241
381
198
8O9
765
(397)
(325)
(293)
611
(I19)
223
214
(451)
n6
(8t7)
443
205
(47t)
511
201
236
457
275
214
1263
284
(1170)**
119
274
288
203
178
102
I J!
Wth
118
208
159
98
[j]
Wexp
40
E
Eu~
(%
634
D. KECMAN
--
M(Nm
G(N/h'~)
277
~-.~.'~.~__
~o
20
(o/.)
e(o!
50,8
M(Nm)
8004
'~ ~"/ 1~
--L
600
\\\
lo
~o
30
40 e{'/.)
400
200
OL~
lo
20
3o
40
M(Nm)
Go(N/ram2)~
250.
1000
(~
800
30
600
400
200
I0
20
30
40
O( )
e( )
635
:1
o
"~
~o
~o
o{ )
H(Nm)
.-.~,~
3000-
~
--" --" --'"...a__ __......~..~
45.2
-171"". . . .
- H - 3.25
2500
2000-
riO0
1000
500
10. C O N C L U S I O N S
The method presented enables a relatively simple, fast and economic prediction of the
hinge moment-rotation curves and energy absorbed during uniaxial bending collapse of
rectangular and square section tubes. The input data are section dimensions and the yield
and maximum flow stresses of the material. Hinge rotation angles can exceed 30-50 .
Experimental verification covered sections with a/b ratios from 0.33 to 3.0 and a/t ratios
from 9.14-128. The theory is applicable to dynamic collapse, but with the allowance for
the strain rate effect on material properties. The method can and was applied to both
design and analysis of weight-efficient safety structures.
636
D. KECMAN
M<.,I
~1
,o04
f
~oI~i'~
LL
JJ
t .
. . . . . . .
I0
20
30
e ('I.)
100
0
lO
2o
30
40 O( )
Acknowledgements--This study was completed in 1979 while the author worked with the Structural Design
Group (now Cranfield Impact Centre), Cranfield, England. Aid from my supervisor Mr G. H. Tidbury and other
colleagues is gratefully acknowledged.
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