CHAPTER 3

Fourier Transform and Convolution

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, both the Fourier transform and Fourier series will be discussed.
The properties of the Fourier transform will be presented and the concept of
impulse function will be introduced. The definition of convolution and its relation
with Fourier transform will be presented. Examples of some commonly used Fourier
transforms are given and the results are presented in a table for quick reference.
There are many good books on this subject. A few of the books are listed at the
end of this chapter. Readers with a background in this area can skip this chapter.
However, Examples 3.10 and 3.11 may be of interest, because the former one is
related to the radar pulse train and the latter will be used in the Hilbert transform.
3.2 FOURIER TRANSFORM [14]
Fourier series was introduced in 1807 by a French engineer, Jean Baptiste Joseph
de Fourier (17681830). He suggested that any arbitrary function defined over
a finite interval by any piecewise graph, continuous or discontinuous, could be
represented as an infinite sum of continuous functions such as sine and cosine.
Although almost all the members of the French Academy questioned its validity,
it turned out to be one of the most powerful tools in signal processing.
The basic concept of the Fourier transform is that any function in the time
domain can be represented by an infinite number of sinusoidal functions. The
Fourier transform is defined as follows. A function x(t) in the time domain t has
a corresponding function X( f ) in the frequency domain related by
F [x(t)] X( f ) =

39

x(t) e

j2 ft

dt

(3.1)

40 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

where j = (1) is the imaginary number and f represents frequency. The inverse
transform is
F 1[X( f )] x(t) =

X( f ) e

j2 ft

df

(3.2)

Since an exponential term can be decomposed into sine and cosine functions as
e j = cos j sin

(3.3)

(3.1) can be written as

X( f ) =

x(t) cos(2 ft) dt j

x(t) sin(2 ft)dt

(3.4)

This equation can be used to find the properties of even and odd functions under
Fourier transform. A simple example is given below to illustrate the applications
of the above equations.
Example 3.1
A simple example of Fourier transform is to find the Fourier transform of
x(t) = A
=0

for

T
T
<t<
2
2

(3.5)

elsewhere

The function x(t) is often referred to as the rectangular function. This function is
an even function of t (symmetric with respect to t). However, its product with
a sine function is antisymmetric with respect to t, because the sine function is
antisymmetric with respect to t. The integral of an antisymmetric function of t from
t = to is zero, because the positive and negative parts cancel each other. Thus,
the Fourier transform of x(t) is
X( f ) = A

T/2

T/2

e j2ftdt = A

T/2

T/2

cos(2 ft) dt =

A sin( f T)
f

AT sin ( f T)
=
= AT sinc( f T)
T f
This formula is known as the sinc function, which is defined as

(3.6)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 41

Sinc(x) =

sin(x)
x

(3.7)

The functions x(t) and X( f ) are shown in Figure 3.1.

In this figure A = 2 and T = 1. From (3.6) and (3.7), the first zero of X( f )
occurs at f = 1/T, (or at sin() = 0). Thus the width of the mainlobe is 2/T.

Figure 3.1 A rectangular function and its Fourier transform: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

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3.3 IMPULSE FUNCTION [511]

An impulse function is represented by the symbol (t). Sometimes, it is also referred
to as the Dirac delta function. The output of a system with an impulse function as
the input is called the impulse response of the system. The impulse function is
only conceptual, (t) cannot be generated in practice. However, it is very useful in
digitizing input signals; one can think of sampling as multiplication of the input
function by a periodic train of impulses.
An impulse function (t) can be considered as a very narrow rectangular
function at t = 0, as shown in Figure 3.1(a) with A = 1/T and T approaching zero.
The area of this rectangular function is 1. The function (t to) is the impulse
function at t = to. Integrating the impulse function, the result is

(t t ) dt = 1
b

for a to b

(3.8)

=0

otherwise

If the integral includes the impulse function, the integral is unity; otherwise, the
integral is zero.
The impulse function can also be defined more generally by its sampling
property as

x(t)(t t ) dt =
b

x(to)

a to b
(3.9)

=0

otherwise

which represents a specific value of x(t) at t = to.

From the definition in (3.9), the Fourier transform of the impulse function
can be written as

(t) e

X( f ) =

j2 ft

dt = e 0 = 1

(3.10)

In this derivation, (t) can be considered as (t 0). This result is shown in Figure
3.2.
The inverse Fourier transform of the impulse function can be found either
from (3.2) or (3.4), and the imaginary part of (3.4) is zero because it is an odd
function (or antisymmetry). The result is

(t) =

e j2 ftdf =

sin(2 ft)
=
2 t

|f
f

e j2ft
j2 t

| =

cos(2 ft) + j sin(2 ft)

j2 t

2 sin(2 ft)
= lim
2 t
f

(3.11)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 43

Figure 3.2 An impulse function and its Fourier transform: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

One can consider this as another definition of the impulse function; that is,
sin(2 ft)
= (t)
t
f

lim

(3.12)

A similar result can be obtained for a time-shifted impulse function as

F [(t to)] =

(t t )e

j2 ft

dt = e j2fto

or

(t to) =
=

e j2f(tto)df =

e j2 f(tto)
j2 (t to)

sin[2 f(t to)]

2 (t to)

|f
f

sin[2 f(t to)]

= lim
(t to)
f

(3.13)

In this equation, the impulse function (t t 0) can be considered as defined by

(t to) = lim
f

sin[2 f (t to)]
(t to)

(3.14)

More examples of the impulse function will be illustrated in later sections.

3.4 PROPERTIES OF FOURIER TRANSFORM [512]
Some of the properties of Fourier transform will be discussed in this section. If the
relation is obvious, no proof will be provided. These properties are:

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3.4.1 Linearity
The Fourier transform is a linear operator, which means
F [ x(t) + y(t)] = X( f ) + Y( f )

(3.15)

Using the definition of Fourier transform, this property can be proven easily.
3.4.2 Even and Odd Functions
This property can be obtained by observing (3.4). If x(t) is an even function, the
second term on the right (the imaginary part) equals zero and the output is real
as
X( f ) =

x(t) cos(2 ft) dt

(3.16)

Since cos( ) = cos( ), X( f ) is symmetrical with respect to f = 0.

If x(t) is an odd function in (3.4), the first term on the right (the real part)
equals zero and the output is imaginary as
X( f ) = j

x(t) sin(2 ft) dt

(3.17)

Since sin( ) = sin( ), X( f ) is antisymmetric with respect to f = 0. Let us use

cos(2 fot) and sin(2 fot) to demonstrate these properties.
Example 3.2
Find the Fourier transforms of cos(2 fot) and sin(2 fot). The Fourier transform of
cos(2 fot) can be written by the definition of (3.1) as
X( f ) =

1
2

cos(2 fot)e j2 ftdt

[e j2( ffo)t + ej2( f+fo)t ]dt

(3.18)

1
= [( f fo) + ( f + fo)]
2
In obtaining the final result, the relation in (3.14) is used. The Fourier transform
of the cosine function is two impulse functions at f = fo ; thus, they are real and
symmetrical with respect to f = 0. These results are shown in Figure 3.3.

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 45

Figure 3.3 Fourier transform of cosine wave: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

To perform the Fourier transform on the sine function, (3.1) is used and the
result is
X( f ) =

1
2j

j
[( f fo) ( f + fo)]
2

sin(2 fot)e j2ftdt

[e j2( ffo)t e j2 ( f+fo)t]dt

(3.19)

The outputs are two imaginary impulse functions and they are antisymmetrical with
respect to f = 0. These results are shown in Figure 3.4.
These results agree with the conclusions drawn from (3.16) and (3.17).
3.4.3 Duality
Duality means that if the function in time domain is x(t) and the Fourier transform
is X( f ), then X(t) has a Fourier transform of x(f ). The proof of this property can
be accomplished from the inverse Fourier equation (3.2). The proof is very simple,
it only requires three steps and the change of notations of two variables. In (3.2),
one can treat both variables t and f as dummy variables. The first step is to replace
f by t; the result is

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Figure 3.4 Fourier transform of sine wave: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

X(t) e

x(t) =

j2 tt

dt

(3.20)

The second step is to replace t with f; the result is

X(t) e

x(f ) =

j2 ft

dt

(3.21)

Since t is a dummy variable it can be written as t; thus, this equation can be written
as

X(t)e

x(f ) =

j2 ft

dt

(3.22)

which is the desired result. Let us use an example to demonstrate this property.
Example 3.3
Find the Fourier transform of x(t) where
x(t) = A

sin( Ft)
t

(3.23)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 47

This is the result obtained in (3.6) with t replacing f and F replacing T. The direct
approach to finding the Fourier transform is quite tedious. This procedure is shown
as follows. Since this x(t) is an even function, (3.16) will be used and the imaginary
part of X( f ) is equal to zero. The Fourier transform can be calculated as
X( f ) =

A sin( Ft)
cos(2 ft)dt

A
=
2

(3.24)

sin( F + 2 f )t sin( F 2 f )t
+
dt
t
t

This integral can be found in the integral table as [12]

sin mx
dx =
x

m>0

m<0

(3.25)

Equation (3.24) can be evaluated in three regions in terms of f. If F/2 < f <
F/2, then F + 2 f and F 2 f are positive. Both integrals result in , thus
X( f ) = A. If f < F/2, then F + 2 f is negative and F 2 f is positive. Thus, the
first integral is and the second integral is , which results in X( f ) = 0. If f > F/
2, then F + 2 f > 0, and F 2 f < 0. The first integral is and the second is
; thus, X( f ) = 0. If all the three regions of f are considered, the result is the
desired result.
X( f ) = A
=0

for

F
F
<f<
2
2

(3.26)

elsewhere

The same result can be obtained from the duality property of Fourier transform in a much simpler way. Since x(t) matches the output X( f ) of Example 3.1,
the result can be directly written as
X(f ) = A = X( f )
=0

for

F
F
<f<
2
2

(3.27)

elsewhere

In this equation, the result of X(f ) = A is not a function of f; thus, the Fourier
transform X( f ) has the same form.
3.4.4 Scaling
If in a function x(t), the time t is replaced by t/a, the Fourier transform can be
found by replacing t/a with t, and the result is

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F x

t
a

=a

t j2ft
e
dt
a

x(t)e j2aftdt

(3.28)

= aX(af )
This expression means that when time is divided by a factor a, the amplitude and
the frequency of the Fourier are expanded by the factor a.
Similarly, if the frequency is divided by a factor a, the inverse Fourier transform
can be written as

F 1 X

f
a

= ax(at)

(3.29)

The proof of this equation is similar to the proof of (3.28).

3.4.5 Time Shift
When the time of the input signal x(t) is shifted by t 0 as x(t t 0), the Fourier
transform can be obtained by replacing t t 0 with t. The result is
F [x(t t 0)] =

x(t t 0) e j2ftdt
(3.30)
x(t) e

j2 f(t+t0)

dt = e

j2 ft0

X( f )

This means that a shift in the time domain causes a phase shift in the frequency
domain and the amplitude of the output does not change.
Example 3.4
Let us find the Fourier transform of x(t) = cos[2 f0 (t to)]. From (3.30), the result
can be written directly as
X( f ) =

cos[2 f0(t t 0)] e j2ftdt =

1 j2ft 0
e
[( f f0) + ( f + f0)]
2

(3.31)
1
= {cos(2 ft 0)[( f f0) + ( f + f0)] j sin(2 ft 0)[( f f0) + ( f + f0)]}
2
The output is no longer real, but becomes complex because the function x(t) is
not symmetric with respect to t = 0. However, the real part is still symmetric and

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 49

the imaginary part is antisymmetric. The amplitudes of the impulse functions are
still 1/2.
3.4.6 Frequency Shift
When there is a frequency shift f0 in the Fourier output X( f ) as X( f f0), the effect
on the input signal can be found by substituting f = f f0 as
F 1[X( f f0)] =

X( f f ) e

X( f ) e

j2 ft

df
(3.32)
df = e j2f0tx(t)

j2 ( f +f0)t

The corresponding effect is a frequency shift in the time domain, as expected.

3.4.7 Derivative
The derivative of the input x(t) with respect to t can be represented by x(t). Its
Fourier output can be found through integration by parts as
F [x(t)] = F

dx(t)
e
dt

dx(t)
=
dt

j2 ft

dt

x(t) e

= x(t)e j2ft | (j2 f )

j2 ft

dt

(3.33)

= j2 fX( f )
In the above expression, it is assumed that x(t) is zero at t = . This assumption
makes the first term equal to zero.
3.4.8 Integral
If the time domain function (t) is

(t) =

x()d
t

(3.34)

and ()| = = 0, the Fourier transform can be found as follows. This equation can
be written as
d(t)
= x(t)
dt

(3.35)

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From the relation in (3.33), the Fourier transform of d(t)/dt is

F

d(t)
= j2 f ( f )
dt

(3.36)

This equation can be written as

F
( f ) = F [(t)] =

d(t)
dt

(3.37)

j2 f

Substituting the results of (3.34) and (3.35) into this equation, the result is
F

x()d =

F [x(t)]
j2 f

(3.38)

This is the desired result.

3.5 FOURIER SERIES [511]
A periodic function x(t) can be represented by the sum of an infinite number of
sinusoidal waves with discrete frequencies. The Fourier series can be written in
several forms. One of these is

x(t) = A 0 +

An cos
n=1

2nt
+
T

2nt
T

sin

n=1

(3.39)

where T is the period of x(t). A 0 is the average value of x(t), which can be found
as
A0 =

1
T

x(t)dt

(3.40)

The constants An and Bn can be found as

An =
Bn =

2
T

T/2

2
T

T/2

x(t) cos

T/2

T/2

x(t) sin

2nt
dt
T

(3.41)

2nt
dt
T

Another form of the Fourier series is combining the sine and cosine terms
into exponential terms as

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 51

j2 nt
T

x(t) =

Cne

x(t)e

(3.42)

where Cn can be found from

Cn =

1
T

T/2

T/2

j2nt
T

dt

(3.43)

In the above equation, when T approaches infinity, one can think that f =
n/T represents a continuous frequency and the amplitude of the integral is normalized to one. Then, the equation is actually the Fourier transform.
In order to have a physical picture, one can imagine that a periodic function
in the time domain can be represented by an infinite number of frequencies in
the frequency domain and these frequencies are discrete. This is the Fourier series.
If the function in the time domain is no longer a periodic function (or, in other
words, the period is infinite), it can be represented by an infinite number of
frequencies and these frequencies are continuous.
3.6 COMB FUNCTION [511]
A comb function is defined as the sum of an infinite number of uniformly distributed
impulse functions, and they are shaped like a comb. A comb function is shown in
Figure 3.5. The function can be defined in either the time or frequency domain.
This function can be used to represent digitized data. Mathematically, the comb
function in the time domain can be written as

Figure 3.5 Fourier transform of a comb function: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

52 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

x(t) = comb(t) =

(t nT)

(3.44)

where T is the separation between the delta functions.

The Fourier transform of the comb function can be obtained from directly
integrating the above equation. The following manipulation demonstrates the
approach [5]:

(t nT ) e

X( f ) =

n=

n=

j2 ft

dt
(3.45)

(t nT ) e j2 ftdt =

j2 fnT

n=N

|N

Using the relation

N

n=N

z N+1 zN
z1

(3.46)

(3.45) can be written as

X( f ) =
=

e j2 f(N+1)T e j2fNT
e j2fT 1
ej2f T/2[e j2 f(N+1/2)T e j2f(N+1/2)T ]
e j2f T/2[ej2f1/2T e j2 f1/2T ]

(3.47)

1
fT
2
sin( fT)

sin 2 N +
=

In this function, f is the variable. The result of this equation is shown in Figure
3.6. In this figure, N = 7 and f ranges from 3.9 to 3.9. Where f = n/T, whenever
n is an integer, there is a peak. This figure has the rough shape of a comb. The
last step is to prove that when N, the result of (3.47) approaches a delta function.
The result of the above function can be written as

sin[2 (N + 1) fT]
=
sin( fT)
N

sin 2(N + 1) f
f

n
T

n
T
T

n
T
sin( fT)
f

(3.48)

Using the result of (3.13), one of the definitions of delta function, the first part
of the right side of the above equation is

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 53

Figure 3.6 Plot of sin[2(N + 1)f T ]/sin( fT).

sin 2(N + 1) f
lim

n
f
T

n
T
T

= f

n
T

(3.49)

The second part of the right-side equation can be calculated from the LHospitals
rule as
n
d(f n/T )
T
df
=
sin( f T) f = n d[sin( fT)]
T
df

1
1
| n=
T cos( fT) f = T T

Thus, any peak can be written as

(3.50)
f=

n
T

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sin[(N + 1)2 f T]
=
sin( f T)

n
T

(3.51)

Thus, the Fourier transform of the comb function is another comb function
with amplitude of 1/T and separation of 1/T. This result can be mathematically
written as
X( f ) = F

(t nT)

n=

1
n
f T
T n=

(3.52)

A different approach to obtain the Fourier transform of the comb function

is through a Fourier series. The comb function is a period function with a period
of T; therefore, it can be represented by a Fourier series as shown in (3.39). The
constants can be obtained as
1
T

T/2

A0 =

2
T

T/2

An =

2
T

T/2

Bn =

T/2

T/2

T/2

(t) dt =
(t) cos
(t) sin

1
T

2nt
2
dt =
T
T

(3.53)

2nt
dt = 0
T

It should be noted that (t) exists only inside the range of one period (T/2 t
T/2) and all the other delta functions are outside this period. Substituting these
constants into (3.44), the result is
x(t) =

2nt
1 2
+
cos
T T
T
n=1

(3.54)

This equation is still in the time domain, but in a different form. Taking the Fourier
transform of this function, the first term can be obtained from the symmetry
property of the Fourier transform. The result is ( f )/T, which represents a delta
function at f = 0. The Fourier transform of the rest of the terms can be obtained
by using the result of (3.18) with fo = n/T. Thus, the result is
X( f ) = F [comb(t)] =

n
1
f T
T n=

(3.55)

This is the same result as obtained from (3.52). This result is shown in Figure 3.5.
This result is very important for processing radar signals because a radar signal
with stable pulse repetition frequency (PRF) can be represented by a comb function.

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 55

3.7 CONVOLUTION [511]

If an input signal is applied to a linear and time-invariant system, the output
can be found through two approaches. The time domain approach is through
convolution and the frequency domain approach is through Fourier transform.
The results obtained from these two approaches are identical.
Let us assume that the input signal to the system is a delta function (t) and
the corresponding output is h(t), where h(t) is called the impulse response of the
system. Because the system is time-invariant, an input (t ) will produce an
output of h(t ). This means that when the input is delayed time , the output
is also delayed time , and the system response does not change with time. An input
function x(t) can be imagined as consisting of many rectangular functions, each
with the same infinitesimal width but different amplitude and delay time. Thus,
the input signal x(t) and the output y(t) can be written as
x(t) = lim ix(t i)
i 0 i

y(t) = lim ix(t i)h(i) = lim ix(i)h(t i)

i 0 i

(3.56)

i 0 i

x(t )h()d = x()h(t )d x(t) h(t)

where i is the width of the rectangular function, t is time, and can be considered
as a dummy variable. After the integration, the variable disappears and the output
is a function of t as expected. The notation in the equation is the conventional
way to represent convolution. The term h(t ) means inverting the h(t) in the
time domain and delay by time . From the above equation, one can see that either
the input signal or the impulse response can be inverted in time.
The convolution is graphically illustrated in Figure 3.7. Figures 3.7(a) and
3.7(b) show the function of x() and h(), respectively. Figure 3.7(c) shows h()
reversed in time and represented by h(). Figure 3.7(d) shows h() is shifted by
time t and represented by h(t ). Figure 3.7(e) represents the result of
x()h(t ) and Figure 3.7(f) represents the result obtained from the convolution.
The point a on the curve (or y(t) = a) of Figure 3.7(f) represents the total area
shown in Figure 3.7(e). If x() is reversed instead of h(), the same result will be
obtained.
Another important example is to find the convolution of an impulse function
with function x(t). If system response is an impulse function (i.e., h(t) = (t to)),
the output is
y(t) =

h()x(t )d =

( t )x(t ) d = x(t t )

(3.57)

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Figure 3.7 A graphic display of convolution of x(t) and h(): (a) x(), (b) h(), (c) h(), (d) h(t ),
(e) x()h(t ), (f) y(t).

The operation shifts the function x(t) to x(t to). Figure 3.8 shows the result
graphically.
Now we try to solve the output y(t) from the frequency domain approach.
The input and impulse response of the system are still x(t) and h(t), respectively.
This operation can be found from taking the Fourier transform of y(t). The result
is

x()h(t ) de

Y( f ) =

j2 ft

dt

(3.58)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 57

Figure 3.8 Convolution of (t to) with x(t): (a) (t to), (b) x(t), (c) y(t).

Changing the order of integration, this equation can be written as

Y( f ) =

x() h(t )e

j2 ft

dt d

(3.59)

Changing the variable by letting t = u, then

Y( f) =

x() h(u)e

j2 fu

x()H( f ) e

j2 f

x() e

j2 f

= H( f )

du ej2fd
(3.60)

d = H( f )X( f )

In order to find y(t), an inverse Fourier transform on Y( f ) is required. This relation

can also be written as

58 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

x(t) h(t) = F 1[X( f )H( f )]

(3.61)

From the above discussion, the frequency domain solution can be accomplished as follows. Find the Fourier transforms of both x(t) and h(t) as X( f ) and
H( f ). Multiply X( f ) and H( f ) to obtain Y( f ) and find the inverse Fourier transform
of Y( f ) to obtain y(t).
The above derived relation also implies that the convolution in time domain
is equivalent to multiplication in the frequency domain. This relation is often
expressed as
x(t) h(t) X( f )H( f )

(3.62)

and is referred to as the convolution theorem. One can take the convolution in
the frequency domain in the same manner as in the time domain. This is shown
as

X()H( f )d

X( f ) H( f ) =

(3.63)

where is a dummy variable. The inverse Fourier transform of this result is

F 1[X( f ) H( f )] =
=

X() H(u)e

X()H( f )de

j2 ut

du e

j2t

j2 ft

df
(3.64)

d = h(t)x(t)

The proof is identical to (3.60). The above relation can be expressed as

X( f ) H( f ) x(t)h(t)

(3.65)

Equations (3.62) and (3.65) are referred to as the duality of convolution and Fourier
transform.
3.8 PARSEVALS THEOREM [58]
The Parsevals theorem states that for a given signal, the total energy in the time
domain equals the total energy in the frequency domain. This relation can be
written as

|x(t)| dt = |X( f )| df

(3.66)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 59

This relation can be proven as follows. From (3.64) or (3.65), the result can be
written as
F [h(t)x(t)] = X( f ) H( f )

h(t)x(t)e

j2t

H( f )X( f )df

dt =

(3.67)

In this equation both sides are functions of , a dummy variable. If = 0, this

equation becomes

h(t)x(t)dt = H(f )X(f )df

(3.68)

Let us assume that h(t) = x*(t) where * represents a complex conjugate; then

h(t)e

H(f ) =

j2 ft

x*(t)e

dt =

j2 ft

x(t)e

dt =

j2 ft

dt

= X*( f ) (3.69)

Substituting this relation into (3.68), the result of (3.66) can be obtained. This
completes the proof of the Parsevals identity.
3.9 EXAMPLES [3, 5, 8, 12, 13]
This section will present some examples that are often encountered in signal processing and wideband receivers. Most of the problems are not solved directly, but
through the duality of convolution and Fourier transform.
Example 3.5
Find the Fourier of e j2fot. This result can be obtained directly from the Fourier
transform or from the following relation since the Fourier transform of sine and
cosine are already known.
e j2fot = cos(2 fot) + j sin(2 fot)

(3.70)

Using the linearity property of (3.15) and combining with the results of (3.18) and
(3.19), the result is
1
F (e j2 fot) = [( f fo) + ( f + fo) + ( f fo) ( f + fo)] = ( f fo)
2
(3.71)

60 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

which is a single-sided response. This result is important in discussing I and Q

channels of frequency downconverters. This result is shown in Figure 3.9. It should
be noted that Figure 3.9(a) is not in the time domain but is in the complex plane,
and the time is represented by the rotating vector.

Example 3.6
Find the Fourier transform of a rectangular windowed cosine wave. This waveform
is often used to represent the output of pulsed radar. If the window is from T/2
to T/2 with amplitude A, the windowed cosine wave can be generated by multiplying
the window function and a cosine wave as
x1(t) = cos(2 fot)
w(t) = A
=0

for

T
T
<t<
2
2

(3.72)

elsewhere

x(t) = w(t)x1(t)
where f0 is the frequency of the input pulse. Since multiplication in time domain
is equivalent to convolution in the frequency domain, the Fourier transforms of
the rectangular window and cosine wave are needed. The Fourier transform of the
window, from Example 3.1, is W( f ) = A sin( f T)/ f. The Fourier transform of a
cosine wave, from Example 3.2, is X1( f ) = [( f fo) + ( f fo)]/2. The Fourier
transform of x(t) in the above equation is

Figure 3.9 Fourier transform of e j2 f 0t : (a) complex plane, (b) frequency domain.

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 61

A sin(T) [( f f

X( f ) = W( f ) X1( f ) =
=

A sin[2( f fo)T] sin[2( f + fo)T]

+
2
( f fo)
( f + fo)

) + ( f + fo )]
d
2
(3.73)

The results are shown in Figure 3.10. In this figure, A = 1, T = 1, and f0 = 10. Since
the Fourier transform of a cosine function has two delta functions, the convolution
with them will generate two outputs. One shifts by fo, the other one shifts by fo .
Example 3.7
Find the Fourier transform of an isosceles triangle. Instead of finding the transform
directly, the following approach is used. An isosceles triangle with height (AT )2 and
width 2T (from T to T ) can be generated by convolving two identical rectangular
functions of height A and width T (from T/2 to T/2) as shown in Figure 3.11.
The Fourier transform of such a rectangular function of unit height is given by
(3.6) as X1( f ) = A sin( fT )/ f. Since convolving in the time domain is equivalent

Figure 3.10 Fourier transform of a rectangular windowed cosine wave.

62 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

Figure 3.11 Convolving two rectangular functions to generate an isosceles triangle and its Fourier
output: (a) two rectangular functions, (b) isosceles triangle, (c) Fourier transform output.

to multiplication in the frequency domain, the Fourier output of the isosceles

triangle is the square of X1( f ). Mathematically, the equations can be written as

x(t) = A2T 2 1
=0
X( f ) =

|t |
for |t | < T
T

elsewhere

(3.74)

A2 sin2( fT)
( f )2

The Fourier output is shown in Figure 3.11(c).

Example 3.8
Find the Fourier transform of
x(t) = a + (1 a) cos
=0

elsewhere

2 t
T

for

T
T
<t<
2
2

(3.75)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 63

where a < 1. The x(t) is often referred to as a generalized cosine window function.
Different window functions are often used in signal processing. When a = 0.54, x(t)
is called the Hamming window. The limited response in time domain (T/2 < t <
T/2) can be achieved by multiplying a + (1 a)cos(2 t/T ) by a rectangular function.
The duality of the convolution theorem can be used to obtain the desired transform.
Let x1(t) = a + (1 a)cos(2 t/T ) and x 2(t) represent the rectangular function;
their Fourier transforms are
1a
[( f fo) + ( f + fo)]
2

X1( f ) = a(t) +

where fo =

X2( f ) =

1
T

(3.76)

sin( f T )
f

The Fourier transform of x(t) equals the convolution of X1( f ) and X2( f ) as
sin( fT )
1a
{a( f ) +
[( f fo) + ( f + fo)]}
f
2
(3.77)
a sin( fT) 1 a sin[( f fo)T ] sin[( f + fo)T ]
+
+
=
f
2
( f fo)
( f + fo )

X( f ) = X2( f ) X1( f ) =

The time and frequency domains are shown in Figure 3.12. In this figure, a = 0.5
and T = 5; thus, 2.5 < t < 2.5 and f is from 10/T < f < 10T.
Example 3.9
Find the Fourier transform of the following function:
t2

1
x(t) =
e 2
2

(3.78)

This is a Gaussian (or normal) function of t. The solution of this equation can be
obtained from direct integration. The result is
1
X( f ) =
2

=

2
2

2
t
2 2 j2 ft

2
t
2 2

dt
(3.79)
2 2 2

cos(2 ft)dt = e 2 f

64 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

Figure 3.12 Fourier of a general cosine window with a = 0.5: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

This integral can be found from [3] (861.20). This result shows that the Fourier
transform of a Gaussian function in time domain is a Gaussian function in the
frequency domain also. These results are shown in Figure 3.13. In this figure
= .8.
Example 3.10
Find the Fourier transform of a radio frequency (RF) pulse train. This problem
can be solved directly, as shown in [13]. The approach provided here is a step-bystep combination of desired signals to provide the pulse train. At each step the
duality theorem of convolution is used. There are four steps to generate the pulse
train in the time domain. In each step the time domain operations and the corresponding frequency domain operations will be represented. The last step produces
the desired spectrum distribution. To keep this discussion simple, let us assume
the pulse train has unit amplitude. In order to keep this approach clear, the

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 65

Figure 3.12 (continued).

selected functions are represented by c(t), si(t), and r(t); the resulting functions
are represented by xi(t) where i is an integer.
1. Choose a comb function c(t) with period T as

c(t) =

(t nT )

n=

n
1
C( f ) = f
T n=
T

(3.80)

where T represents the pulse repetition interval (PRI) of the pulse train and n is
an integer.
2. Choose a rectangular function s1(t) with width and unit amplitude to represent an individual pulse. The time and frequency domains are

66 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

Figure 3.13 A Gaussian function and its Fourier transform: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

s1(t) = 1
=0
S 1( f ) =

for |t | <

elsewhere

(3.81)

sin( f )
f

In order to create a pulse train, x1(t), s1(t) can be used to convolve with the comb
function c(t); thus
x1(t) = c(t) s1(t)
X1( f ) = C( f ) S1( f ) =

sin(f )
f

n=

n
T

(3.82)

In the above operation, f = n/T is substituted into S1( f ) because the delta functions
in C( f ) only exist at these values.
3. Choose a second rectangular function s 2(t) with width NT and unit amplitude
to represent the total length of the pulse train; thus

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 67

Figure 3.13 (continued).

for |t| <

s 2(t) = 1
=0
S 2( f ) =

NT
2

elsewhere

(3.83)

sin( fNT)
f

The function s 2(t) is multiplied by x1(t) to create the pulse train, which is represented
by x 2(t). The frequency domain result is obtained by convolving X 1( f ) with S 2( f )
as
x2(t) = x1(t)s 2(t)
x2( f ) = X1( f ) S 2( f )

sin( f )
2f

n=

sin f
f

n
NT
T

n
T

(3.84)

68 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

It should be noted that convolving with a delta function shifts the function by
n/T.
4. The last step is to add the RF in the pulse train. Let us choose r(t) to represent
a cosine wave; then
r(t) = cos(2 fot)

(3.85)

1
R( f ) = [( f fo) + ( f + fo)]
2

where f0 is the RF of the pulse. The function x 2(t) is multiplied by r(t) to produce
the RF pulse train. The final results are
x(t) = x 2(t)r(t)
X( f ) = X2( f ) R( f )

sin( f )
2f
1

n=

sin f fo
f fo

n
NT
T
n
T

sin f + fo

f + fo

n
NT
T
n
T

(3.86)

The time domain signal generated through the four steps of operations is
shown in Figure 3.14(a). It is a series of RF pulses. This signal in radar is called
coherent because there is a certain phase relation between the individual pulses.
In other words, a continuous sinusoidal wave that is gated by a pulse train generates
a coherent pulse train because every pulsed RF signal is part of the same sinusoidal
wave.
Now let us discuss the result of (3.86). The first term represents the envelope
of the spectrum. The first zero of the envelope can be found from
f=

(3.87)

The width of the mainlobe from null to null is 2/, and this result is shown in
Figure 3.14(b). The second and third terms represent upper and lower band spectra.
They are located at fo and are symmetrical with respect to zero frequency. The
upper group of spectrum lines occur only at
f = fo +

n
T

(3.88)

The spectrum lines are separated by 1/T. The fine structure of the individual line
can be found from the second term in (3.86) as

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 69

Figure 3.14 Fourier transform of an RF pulse train: (a) RF pulse train, (b) spectrum lines, (c) details
of individual lines.

70 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

sin f fo
X( f ) = K

n
NT
T

n
f f0
NT
T

(3.89)

where K is a constant. The first zero occurs at NT = 1; thus, the width of the
individual spectrum line is 2/NT. This result is shown in Figure 3.14(c).
Some radars measure the velocity of a target through the Doppler frequency
shift fd. In a radar system, this quantity can be written as [13]
fd =

2f0V
C

(3.90)

where f0 is the operating frequency, V is the velocity of the target, and C is the
speed of light. The factor 2 in this equation is caused by the round trip of the
radar signal. This type of radar is referred to as a pulse Doppler radar. In order to
reduce the ambiguity in frequency measurement, the separation between frequency
lines must be wide. This requires high PRF or low pulse repetition interval (PRI),
which means short T. In order to have fine spectrum line width, NT must be large
or N must be large. In other words, a large number of pulses must be integrated.
Therefore, pulse Doppler radar can generate very high pulse density.
Example 3.11
Find the inverse Fourier transform for a quadrature phase shift. Before starting
this problem, let us define a sign function as
sgn( f ) =

1
1

f>0
f<0

(3.91)

When f > 0, the function is a positive one and when f < 0, the function is a negative
one. The quadrature phase shift is defined in terms of the sign function as
X( f ) = j sgn( f )

(3.92)

The phase relation is shown in Figure 3.15(b), which is referred to as a step function.
The approach to find the inverse transform of this function is to use the derivative
of X( f ). The derivative can be obtained through a similar way as shown in (3.33),
and the result is

F 1

dX( f )
= j2tx(t)
df

(3.93)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 71

The next step is to obtain the derivative of X( f ). The derivative of a step function
is a delta function at the transition position multiplied by a constant. The constant
depends on the amplitude change of the step function. In this special case, the
amplitude change is 2j (from +j to j). Thus, the derivative is j2( f ). Substituting
this relation in the above equation, the result is
x(t) =
=

j
dX( f )
1
=
F 1
j2t
df
2t

[j2( f )]e

j2 ft

df
(3.94)

j
1
(j2) =
2 t
t

This equation has a singularity at t = 0. This result will be used in the Hilbert
transform in Chapter 8. The time and frequency domain plots are shown in Figure
3.15.
3.10 SUMMARY
This section will list some of the results obtained previously as a quick reference.
The following are some of the properties of the Fourier transform.
1. Linearity
F [x(t) + y(t)] = X( f ) + Y( f )

(3.15)

2. For even functions x(t)

x(t) cos(2ft)dt

X( f ) =

(3.16)

3. For odd function x(t)

X( f ) = j

x(t) sin(2ft)dt

(3.17)

4. Duality
If X( f ) = F [x(t)]

then

x(f ) = F [X(t)]

(3.22)

5. Scaling

F x

t
a

= aX(af )

(3.28)

72 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

Figure 3.15 A quadrature phase shift: (a) time domain, (b) frequency domain.

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 73

f
a

F 1 X

= ax(at)

(3.29)

6. Time shifting
F [x(t to)] = e j2ftoX( f )

(3.30)

F 1[X( f fo)] = e j2fotx(t)

(3.32)

7. Frequency shifting

8. Derivative
F [x(t)] = j2 fX( f )

x(t)|t= = 0

(3.33)

9. Integral

x()d = Fj2[x(t)]
f
t

x()d |
t

t=

=0

(3.38)

10. Convolution
x(t) y(t) X( f ) Y( f )

(3.62)

x(t)y(t) X( f ) Y( f )

(3.65)

The properties of impulse function are

(t) dt = 1

(3.8)

x(t)(t t )dt = x(t )

(t) = lim
f

(t to) = lim
f

(3.9)

sin(2 ft)
t

sin[2 f(t to)]

(t t o)

(3.11)

(3.13)

Next, some of the commonly used Fourier transforms are listed below.

74 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

1. Rectangular function

X(t) = A for

T
T
<t<
2
2

X( f ) = A sin

( fT )
f

= AT sinc( fT )

= 0 elsewhere

(3.5)
(3.6)

(See Figure 3.1.)

2. Impulse function
x(t) = (t)

X( f ) = 1

(3.10)

(See Figure 3.2.)

3. Cosine function

x(t) = cos(2 fot)

1
X( f ) = [( f fo) + ( f + fo)]
2

(3.18)

j
X( f ) = [( f fo) ( f + fo)]
2

(3.19)

(See Figure 3.3.)

4. Sine function

x(t) = sin(2 fot)

(See Figure 3.4.)

5. Comb function

(See Figure 3.5.)

x(t) =

(t nT )

X( f ) =

n
1
f
T
T

(3.44)
(3.55)

Fourier Transform and Convolution | 75

6. x(t) = e j2fot
x(t) = e j2fot

(3.70)

x( f ) = ( f fo)

(3.71)

(See Figure 3.9.)

7. Windowed cosine function
x(t) = A cos(2 fot)

X( f ) =

T
T
<t<
2
2
= 0 elsewhere
for

A sin[2( f fo)T ]
2
( f fo)
sin[2( f + fo)T ]
+
( f + fo )

(3.73)

(See Figure 3.10.)

8. For an isosceles triangle

|t|
for |t | < T
T
elsewhere

A2 sin2( fT )
( f )2
= [AT sinc( fT)]2

x(t) = A2T 2 1
=0

X( f ) =

(3.74)

(See Figure 3.11(b,c).)

9. Generalized cosine window function
x(t) = a + (1 a) cos
for

2 t
T

a sin( fT)
f
1 a sin[( f fo)T ]
+
2
( f fo)
sin[(f + fo)T ]
+
( f + fo )

X( f ) =

T
T
<t<
2
2

= 0 elsewhere

(3.75)
(3.77)

(See Figure 3.12.)

10. Gaussian function
t 2

1
x(t) =
e 2
2
X( f ) = e 2 2 2 f 2
(See Figure 3.13.)

(3.78)
(3.79)

76 | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES FOR WIDEBAND RECEIVERS

11. Coherent RF pulse train

x(t) =

(t nT ) s1(t) s 2(t) cos(2 fot)

n=

2
NT
s2(t) = 1 for |t| <
2

where s1(t) = 1 for |t| <

X( f ) =

sin( f )
2f

n=

sin f f0
f f0

n
NT
T
n
T

sin f + fo

f + f0

n
NT
T
n
T

(3.86)

(See Figure 3.14(a,b).)

12. Quadrature phase shift
x(t) =

1
t

x( f ) = jsgn( f )

(3.92)

(See Figure 3.15.)

REFERENCES
[1] Campbell, G. A., and Foster, R. M. Fourier Integrals for Practical Applications, New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1948.
[2] Erdilyi, A. Table of Integral Transforms, Vol. 1, New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1954.
[3] Dwight H. B. Tables of Integrals and Other Mathematical Data, 4th Edition, New York, NY: MacMillan
Co., 1961.
[4] Robinson, E. A. A Historical Perspective of Spectrum Estimation, IEEE Proc., Vol. 70, Sept. 1982,
pp. 885907.
[5] Papoulis, A. The Fourier Integral and its Applications, New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1962.
[6] Papoulis, A. Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes, New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book
Co., 1965.
[7] Bracewell, R. The Fourier Transform and its Applications, New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1965.
[8] Brigham, E. O. The Fast Fourier Transform, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974.
[9] Carlson, A. B. Communication Systems, New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1975.
[10] Stremler, F. G. Introduction to Communication Systems, 3rd Edition, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co. 1990.
[11] Ziemer, R. E., and Tranter, W. H. Principles of Communications: System, Modulation, and Noise, 3rd
Edition, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Publishing Co., 1990.
[12] Stimson, G. W. Introduction to Airborne Radar, El Segundo, CA: Hughes Aircraft Co., 1983.
[13] Skolnik, M. I. Introduction to Radar Systems, New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1962.