Source: A Working Guide to Process Equipment

CHAPTER

14

Draw-Off Nozzle
Hydraulics
Nozzle Cavitation Due to Lack
of Hydrostatic Head

imagine that many readers might skip this chapter. After all,
a nozzle is simply a hole in a vessel, flanged up to a pipe
(see Fig. 14.1). Why a whole chapter? Well, it is not that
simple. Lots of process problems occur due to improperly
designed draw-off nozzles.

14.1

Nozzle Exit Loss

The pressure drop of a fluid flowing through a nozzle is equal to
H = 0.34 V 2
where H = pressure loss of the fluid as it flows through the nozzle,
in inches of fluid
V = velocity of the fluid, as it flows through the nozzle, in
feet per second

This equation assumes that before the fluid enters the nozzle, its
velocity is small, compared to its velocity in the nozzle. The increase
in the velocity, or the kinetic energy, of the fluid in the nozzle comes
from the pressure of the fluid. This is Bernoullis equation in action.
The energy to accelerate the fluid in the draw-off nozzle comes from
the potential energy of the fluid. This is Newtons second law of
motion.
The coefficient used in the equation above (0.34) assumes the
process fluid has a low viscosity. For most process nozzles, this is a

155
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Flange

FIGURE 14.1 A draw-off nozzle.

reasonable assumption. Detailed information on draw-off nozzle

coefficients has been published in Crane.1
For me, I dont trust published coefficients. I like to prove it myself:
prove it by experimentation. Often, Liz (my co-author) calls to me in the
bathroom, Norm, what are you doing? Youve been in the bathroom
forever.
What Im doing is running water into the bathtub at a measured rate.
I wait for the water to drain out until an equilibrium height is established.
I have to get the height (DH) high enough to suppress vortexing. Then,
using the diameter of the drain, I calculate the velocity (V) of the water
flowing out the drain. I can then calculate the coefficient (0.34). Its a good
thing I married Liz. The average woman might think Im weird.
Lets take a close look at the use of the term H. Figure 14.2 shows
a bucket with a hole punched in its side. The velocity of the water as

FIGURE 14.2
V is the velocity of
the water escaping
from the hole.

H (inches)

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it escapes from the hole is V in the preceding equation. The height of

water in the bucket above the center of the hole is H. If we replaced
the water in the bucket with gasoline, which has a lower density, the
same hole velocity would occur with the same height of fluid.
The pressure drop of the fluid escaping from the bucket is called
nozzle exit loss. Actually, nothing is lost; the potential energy, or
pressure head of the water in the bucket, is just converted into velocity
or kinetic energy.

14.1.1

Converting H to Pressure Drop

A column of water 28 in high exerts a head pressure of 1 psi, as shown

in Fig. 14.3. To determine the pressure drop of water flowing through
a hole, in pounds per square inch, we would calculate
P =

0.34
V2
28 in

where P = pressure drop in psi.

But perhaps we have gasoline flowing through the hole. The
density of water is 62 lb/ft3; the density of gasoline is 40 lb/ft3. Since
the weight, or pressure head, of a column of fluid is proportional to
its density, we calculate
P =

0.34 40

V2
28 in 62

28 in

P1 = 1.0 psig

FIGURE 14.3
of water).

Water column exerting 1 psig of head pressure (1 psig = 28 in

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A Working Guide to Process Equipment

FIGURE 14.4 Nozzle exit loss for vapor flow.

Again, P is the pressure drop, in psi, of the gasoline escaping

through a hole in the bucket. If we have a vapor flowing out of the
overhead nozzle on a fractionator, as shown in Fig. 14.4, the pressure
drop of the vapor escaping from the vessel in the overhead vapor line is
P =

0.34 Dv

V2
28 in 62

where P = pressure drop of a fluid, psi

Dv = density of a fluid such as a vapor, lb/ft3
V = velocity of fluid in nozzle, ft/s

This is an important equation to remember. It is the pressure

drop through a hole equation. It works for water, steam, air, gasoline,
alcohol, and all other fluids, unless viscosity is important. A viscosity
of less than 5 or 10 centipoise (cP) or centistokes (cSt) (such as hot
maple syrup) means that viscosity is not important.

14.2

Critical Flow
Everything I have just said is wrong when the fluid we are working
with undergoes critical flow. First, critical flow applies only to compressible
fluids such as vapor, steam, air, or gases. Second, as long as the pressure
drop that we calculate through the nozzle is less than 20 or 30 percent
of the upstream pressure, we can ignore critical flow. Critical flow

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occurs when a compressible fluid velocity approaches the speed of

sound: about 1000 ft/s. Process piping handling vapor is typically
designed to work at a velocity of 100 ft/s.

14.3

Maintaining Nozzle Efficiency

14.3.1

Nozzle Limitations

Figure 14.5 is an exact representation of my bathtub. When my tub has

a water level of 28 in, the pressure right above the drain, at P1, is 1 psi.
Having bathed, I now pull the plug. I also start the water running into
the tub, to keep the water level at 28 in.
The velocity of water flowing from the tub through the drain is
20 ft/s. The pressure drop, in psi, of the water as it escapes from the
tub, is
P =

0.34
(20)2 = 5 psi
28 in

The pressure at P1 is now the 1-psi static head minus the 5-psi nozzle
exit loss or negative 4 psig (or positive 10.7 psia). That is, the pressure at
the drain is a substantial partial vacuum, or a negative pressure, meaning
that it is below atmospheric pressure (atmospheric pressure at sea level
is 14.7 psia).
This suggests that the pressure in a water drain can get so low that
air could be sucked out of the bathroom and down the drain. Of course,
we all see this happen several times a daytypically when we flush a
toilet. So much air is drawn into the water drainage piping that we
install vents on our roofs to release this air. The only requirement, then,
for vapors to be drawn into a flowing nozzle is for the nozzle exit loss
to be larger than the static head of liquid above the nozzle.
Incidentally, if a bird builds its nest on top of one of our roof
toilet vents, we find the toilet will no longer flush properly. The

28"

P1
Drain

FIGURE 14.5 My bathtub.

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A Working Guide to Process Equipment

experienced plumber states that the toilet wont flush because it is
suffering from vapor lock, and this is true. A working knowledge
of process equipment fundamentals often comes in quite handy
around the home.

14.3.2

Effect of Bubble-Point Liquid

I have to confess to an odd habit. I sometimes bathe in boiling water.

Draining a vessel full of liquid at its bubble or boiling point prevents
the formation of a negative pressure, or partial vacuum, in the drain.
As soon as the vacuum begins to form, the liquid will begin to
generate vapor. This vapor would tend to restrict the flow of liquid as
it exits the drain, and thus reduce its flow rate. As the velocity of the
liquid flowing into the drain decreases, the pressure of the liquid at
the inlet to the drain will increase. This increase in pressure will be
just sufficient to suppress vaporization of the liquid in the drain (i.e.,
the liquid velocity will be reduced just enough to cause sufficient
increase in pressure to prevent the liquid boiling).
Figure 14.6 illustrates the side draw-off of a fractionator. The
liquid at point A is at its bubble or boiling point. We can be quite sure
that this is true, because the liquid and vapor are in intimate contact
at the vapor-liquid interface. We say that the vapor is at its dew point,
and that the liquid is at its bubble point.
But how about the liquid at point B? Is this liquid also at its boiling
or bubble point? It is the same liquid, having the same temperature and
composition as the liquid at point A. But the pressure at point B is
slightly higher than the pressure at point A.

10 psig
A

H
B

FIGURE 14.6

Fractionator side draw-off nozzle.

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The pressure at point A is the pressure in the vessel: 10 psig. The

pressure at point B is the pressure at point A plus the static head of
liquid H, shown in Fig. 14.6. Lets assume that this liquid is water.
Also, H equals 28 in. Then the pressure at point B is
10 psig +

28 in
= 11 psig
28 in H 2 O/psig

The boiling point of water at 10 psig is about 240F. This means

that the temperature in the entire water draw-off sump is 240F. But
the pressure at point B is 1 psi above the waters bubble or boiling
point. We say, then, that the water at point B is subcooled by an
equivalent of 28 in of liquid, or 1 psi.
But how about the pressure at point D? The liquid at both points B
and D has the following in common:
Same elevation
Same fluid temperature
Same fluid composition
If liquid is flowing through the nozzle, shown in Fig. 14.6, at, say,
9 ft/s, the pressure at point D will be lower than that at point B.
Assuming the velocity in the draw-off sump to be close to zero, we
can calculate the pressure at point D as follows: head loss due to
increased velocity = 0.34 92 = 28 in of water.
As 28 in of water equals 1 psi of head pressure, the head loss due
to increased velocity at the nozzle exit equals 1 psi. Thus, the pressure
at point D will then be 11 psig minus 1 psi, i.e., 10 psig.

14.3.3

Cavitation

For practice, calculate the pressure at point D assuming that the nozzle
exit velocity is 10 ft/s. If you calculated 9.8 psig, you are likely wrong.
You see, the water will start to flash to steam if it falls below its boilingpoint pressure. The boiling-point pressure of water at 240F is 10 psig.
As steam is evolved at a lower pressure, the large volume of vapor
chokes off the flow in the draw-off nozzle. The flow of water slows
down. As the velocity of the water decreases, its pressure increases. The
pressure will increase to 10 psigthat is, the boiling-point pressure of
water at 240F. At this pressure, the vaporization of the liquid in the
draw-off nozzle is zero.
In summary, the lowest pressure that can be reached at point D in
Fig. 14.6 is the pressure at point A. When these two pressures are
equal, we say that the draw-off nozzle is limited by cavitation. If we
were to lower the pressure downstream of point D, say, by opening a
control valve, the increase in flow would be zero.

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14.3.4

External Restrictions

Figure 14.7 shows two almost identical draw-off arrangements. The

only difference is the elevation of the control valve in the draw-off
line. Control valve A is at the same elevation as the draw-off nozzle.
The pressure drop across the control valve is 2 psi, or 56 in of water.
Lets assume that

Note: 56 in is
minimum height to
prevent cavitation
through value A
A
56 in

P = 2 psi
84 in

56 in

B
P = 2 psi

84 in

28 in

FIGURE 14.7

Location of control valves is critical.

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Increase in velocity through the draw-off nozzle is small, and

hence the nozzle exit loss is zero.
The frictional loss through the piping and nozzle is zero.
Even after we have made these two unlikely assumptions, the
height of hot water in the draw-off sump must still be 56 in above the
centerline of the draw-off nozzle. If not, the water would begin flashing
to steam as it experienced a pressure drop of 2 psi flowing across the
control valve. The evolved steam would then choke the water flow,
reducing the pressure drop across the control valve until the pressure
drop equaled the depth (or head) of water in the draw-off sump.
Control valve B in the lower figure is located 56 in below the draw-off
nozzle. The pressure drop across the valve is still 2 psi, or 56 in of water.
Again, we will neglect nozzle exit loss and friction loss. But in this case,
the height of water in the draw-off sump may be zero. Why?
Referring to Fig. 14.7, the pressure head of water above the control
valve B is an extra 2 psi, or 56 in of water. Thus, even if the control valve B
loses 2 psi of pressure, the water will not flash to steam. And this is true
even when the sump is almost empty.
Does this mean that control valves should be located well below
the elevation of the draw-off nozzle? Yes!
Does this mean that the amount of piping, fittings, gate valves, etc.,
should be minimized on a draw-off line, until the line drops 10 or
20 ft below the draw-off nozzle? Yes!
Does this mean any frictional losses due to external piping at the
same elevation as the draw-off nozzle have to be added to the
nozzle exit loss in determining the liquid level in the sump? Yes!

14.4

Overcoming Nozzle Exit Loss Limits

I once tried to increase the flow of jet fuel from a crude distillation
column by opening the draw-off, flow-control valve. Opening the
valve from 30 to 100 percent did not increase the flow of jet fuel at all.
This is a sure sign of nozzle exit lossor cavitation limits. To prove
my point, I increased the level of liquid in the draw-off sump from
2 to 4 ft. Since flow is proportional to velocity and head loss is
proportional to (velocity)2, the flow of jet fuel increased from 1000 to
1414 GPM. That is, the flow increased in proportion to the square root
of the increase of liquid level in the sump. But the sump was only 4 ft
high, and I needed to increase jet fuel flow even further. So, I raised
the pressure in the crude column from 10 to 14 psig. This increased
the pressure in the draw-off sump by 4 psi.
The results of this increase in pressure are shown in Fig. 14.8. At
first, the increase in pressure greatly increased the flow of jet fuel. But
after a few minutes, jet fuel flow slipped back to its original rate.
What happened?

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Jet fuel flow, GPM

Author tells
operator
how smart
he is

Operators
tell author
how dumb
he is

Time

FIGURE 14.8 Equilibrium limits draw-off rates.

The problem is equilibrium. When the pressure in the tower was

raised, lighter components from the vapor were forced to dissolve in
the pool of liquid in the draw-off sump. This meant that, at the new
equilibrium conditions, the lighter liquid would boil not at 10 psig
but at 14 psig. But the composition of the liquid already in the sump
did not change for a while. It took some time for the lighter liquid
formed at the vapor liquid interface to displace the heavier liquid,
already in the sump. During this period of time, jet fuel flow increased.
But when the lighter liquid reached the draw-off nozzle, it began to
vaporize. Flow was choked off by the evolving vapors, until the flow
was reduced to the original rate. This is another symptom of a tower
draw-off limited by nozzle exit loss or nozzle cavitation.

14.4.1 The Rule of Errors

This incident about the jet fuel draw-off happened at the Chevron
Refinery in 1987. Its true that I never solved the problem. Its also
true that I rather made a fool of myself to the amusement of the
operators. But, still, I recall the incident as a happy memory.
The concept of the surface of a liquid pool reaching equilibrium
with an altered vapor phase before the bulk of the liquid reaches
equilibrium is a really useful idea. Its one of the reasons for a lag
between a step change in an independent variable and the response
of a dependent variable.
This incident got me thinking about the interrelationship between
process dynamics and vapor-liquid equilibrium. So, even though I
had made an error, I gained some important insights. Most of the
things Ive learned are through field observations.

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Its like collecting snowflakes. I learned in school that no two

snowflakes are identical. Theyre all six-pointedbut different. I had
never seen a snowflake close up. So one snowy night I slipped out of
my apartment in Brooklyn with a piece of black velvet. Sure enough,
not only were all the snowflakes different, but each flake itself was a
thing of wonder and joy.
Sitting in the office, youre warm and safe. Safe from making errors.
But to progress, to learn, to advance the process and yourself, youve
got to take chances. The chances are that if you go out to the plant and
try a new idea, it wont work. Ninety percent of the time you will be
wrong. But 100 percent of the time youll learn something new.

Reference
1. Crane, Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, Technical Paper no. 410,
25th printing, 1991, Crane Company, Joliet, Illinois.

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