HSC Chemistry Core Module 1: Production of Materials

Contextual Outline
Humans have always exploited their natural environment for all their needs including
food, clothing and shelter. As the cultural development of humans continued, they
looked for a greater variety of materials to cater for their needs.
The twentieth century saw an explosion in both the use of traditional materials and in
the research for development of a wider range of materials to satisfy technological
developments. Added to this was a reduction in availability of the traditional
resources to supply the increasing world population.
Chemists and chemical engineers continue to play a pivotal role in the search for
new sources of traditional materials such as those from the petrochemical industry.
As the fossil organic reserves dwindle, new sources of the organic chemicals
presently used have to be found. In addition, chemists are continually searching for
compounds to be used in the design and production of new materials to replace
those that have been deemed no longer satisfactory for needs.

This module increases students understanding of the implications of

chemistry for society and the environment and the current issues,
research and developments in chemistry.

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances

1.1.1) identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the
refining of petroleum
Petroleum Refining: Recap
Fossil Fuels are energy rich compounds formed by geological action on decaying plant and
animal matter
Three major types: Coal, Natural Gas, Crude Oil/Petroleum
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons (linear, branched, cyclic alkanes and some short chain
alkenes).
Components separated by fractional distillation
Alkane fractions are mostly used as fuel.
Alkenes are important sources of petrochemical feedstocks

Cracking
The output of petrol (gasoline) from fractional distillation is insufficient to meet demand. Cracking involves
the breaking of big molecular weight hydrocarbons into smaller molecular weights.
High MW fractions are cracked to boost the output of high-demand, low MW fractions
C10H22 (g) C8H18(g) + C2H4(g)

Thermal Cracking (Steam Cracking):

Mixture of hydrocarbons and steam is passed through heated coils at 750OC 900OC in absence of
air.
A mixture of products is obtained being shorter alkanes and small alkenes.
It is suitable for ethane from natural gas
It requires large amounts of energy and is relatively expensive and unsafe.

There are three main steps:

1. Initiation: Free radicals (highly reactive nucleus with lone electron) produced when
hydrocarbons are split by high temperature.
2. Propagation: Free radicals break into smaller radicals and produce ethene.
3. Termination: Remaining free radicals react with each other to reform hydrocarbons.
Its only used in Australia to crack ethane or propane from natural gas.

Catalytic Cracking
Mixture of heavy hydrocarbons are heated (approx. 500OC) in the presence of zeolite catalysts.
Cheaper than thermal cracking and is a different mechanism to thermal cracking.

 Suitable for very long chain hydrocarbons

Considerable energy savings due to lower temperature.

Zeolites
Crystalline Aluminosilicates (Al, Si, O lattice)

Very porous for HIGH SURFACE AREA for adsorbing reactants

High thermal stability
Can be specifically engineered to give greater control of prodcuts
Non- toxic

There are two major products of catalytic cracking:

Lighter high-demand fraction of crude oil
Ethylene and other alkenes as a raw material for the petrochemical industry

1.1.2) identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily
transformed into many useful products
Alkanes and alkenes have similar physical properties:
Boiling point, density, solubility, conductivity, etc
Both are non polar molecules with weak dispersion forces
HOWEVER, both have very different chemical properties:
Alkanes are saturated and generally unreactive.
o A saturated hydrocarbon contains only single sigma bonds, and no more atoms can be
added to it.
Alkenes are unsaturated and much more reactive due to the C=C double bond.
o An unsaturated hydrocarbon can have double, or even triple bonds, allowing more atoms or
molecules to join the existing carbon chain.
Since alkenes are unsaturated and contain a reactive double (sigma and pi) bond it allows them to undergo
addition reactions where other atoms open out the double bond to form two single bonds and produce a
saturated compound.
The double bond of alkenes such as ethylene is inherently more unstable than a single bond, and
thus breaks relatively easily to bond with other atoms/ molecules.
The double bond in ethylene is also a site of high electron density. Thus electronegative species
such as halogens readily react with ethylene.
Electronegativity is a property which describes the strength of an atoms pull on electrons. Halogens are
highly electronegative, and thus an area of high electron density would naturally attract a halogen.

Remember: The high electron density of the double bond present within ethylene that the molecule
becomes such a useful building block in the petrochemical industry.

1.1.3) identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of
appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water
Aim: To compare the reactivity of alkanes and corresponding alkenes in bromine water.
Equipment:
-

Two test tubes

1mL of cyclohexane and 1mL of cyclohexene (colourless liquids)
Bromine water (Br2 + H2O) (Red-brown liquid)

Safety Considerations:
-

The hydrocarbons also released moderately toxic vapour, so the experiment was conducted
in a fume cupboard, and the windows were kept open to improve ventilation. However

exposure to the vapour could have been further minimised by turning on the fans
Due to the highly flammable and volatile nature of the hydrocarbons, they were used in
small quantities away from any open flames or sparks. After the experiment, the chemicals

were safely disposed of with an organic waste container, and not down the sink.
Bromine water was used in small concentrations and amounts, since it was poisonous and

corrosive.
Safety glasses were worn and contact with skin was avoided.

Method:
1. In a fume cupboard, twenty drops of cyclohexane were added to one test tube, and twenty
drops of cyclohexene were added to the other test tube. Initial colour was recorded
2. Two drops of 0.01 M bromine water were then added to each test tube and stoppered

3. Each test tube was gently shaken, and left to settle for five minutes to allow for any potential
reaction between the hydrocarbon and bromine water
4. Observations on the rates of reaction and resultant mixtures were recorded

Results:
-

For cyclohexane, the mixture separated into two separate layers in the test tube. The top
was the colourless cyclohexane layer, while at the bottom was the brown bromine water

layer. This suggested that no reaction took place.

For cyclohexene, the brown bromine water quickly decolourised when mixed with the
cyclohexene, to produce the colourless liquid 1,2-dibromocyclohexane. This suggests that
a reaction took place:
Discussion:

Alkanes do

not react

with bromine water, meaning there will be no decolourisation of the brown solution. However, in the
presence of UV light a reaction will occur and thus decolourisation will also occur. Due to the slow nature of
the reaction, decolourisation may be hard to see but it still occurs.

Due to the reactivity of the double bond in alkenes, alkenes will decolourise the brown-coloured bromine
water.

Validity:

Cyclohexene and cyclohexane were used because they were liquid and colourless at room
temperature, so colour changes could be detected easily and so they could mix with
bromine water

Controlled variables: amounts of hydrocarbon used (20 drops), amount of bromine water
used (2 drops), extent of stirring/tapping, time allowed to react, ambient temperature and

also the shape, size and cross-sectional area of the test tube.
The test was performed in subdued light since alkanes could react slowly with bromine via a
substitution reaction in the presence of UV light.

The experiment can be repeated using hexane and hex-1-ene to support the conclusion

Conclusion:
Bromine water is able to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Note:
-

The experiment should be carried out in the dark to ensure that the substitution reaction of the

alkane doesnt occur.

Cyclohexane and cyclohexene are the chosen hydrocarbons as they are both colourless liquids.

1.1.4) identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which repeating subunit molecules, called
monomers, combine together to form one large product molecule, called the polymer
Ethylene is the monomer from which polyethylene is made, however it can also form other
monomers (e.g. vinyl chloride and styrene) to then produce other polymers (e.g. polyvinyl
chloride and polystyrene)
The number of monomer units (n) is about 300 to 3000
One example is the formation of polyethylene. This is achieved through the breaking of the
double bond so that each monomer unit can now attach to one another to form a chain of
monomer units - a polymer.

Remember- Due to the high reactivity of the double bonds, ethylene serves as an extremely
versatile monomer in the polymerisation of products such as polyethylene, PVC, polystyrene, and
many other polymers.
1.1.5) identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
An addition polymer is a polymer formed by chemically joining many monomers together
without any by-product (without the loss of any atoms).

 The double bonds of the original molecule are broken to allow the addition of more
monomers
Polyethylene in an addition polymer as the double bonds present in the monomer unit

ethylene allow for the addition of many ethylene molecules to form polyethylene.
Monomer: ethene or ethylene
Polymer: polyethene or polyethylene

2 major forms:
a) High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
b) Low density polyethylene (LDPE)

1.1.6) outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially

and industrially important polymer
The production of polyethylene involves the addition polymerisation of ethylene monomers.
This can be done in two different ways - using initiator molecules or catalytic surfaces which determines the density of the product.
Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
The production of low density polyethylene (LDPE), involves three steps: initiation,
propagation and termination, using high pressures (1000-3000 atm) and moderately high
temperatures (300OC)
Firstly, an initiator molecule such as an organic peroxide decomposes (by heat or laser
light) to form peroxide free radicals
- R-O-O-R 2 R-O
The peroxide free radicals react with and open out the ethylene C=C double bond to form
an activated monomer free radical.
- R-O + CH2=CH2 R-O-CH2-CH2

 This leads to the propagation stage, where the activated monomer free radicals combine
with more ethylene monomers via addition reactions, thus increasing the chain length while
causing branching.
- R-O-CH2CH2 + n(CH2CH2) R-O-(-CH2CH2-)n-CH2CH2
The chain growth then undergoes termination, which involves the free radicals combining to
form non-activated species of varying lengths
- R-O-(-CH2CH2-)n-CH2CH2 + R-O-(-CH2CH2-)m-CH2CH2 R-O-(-CH2CH2-)m+n+2-O-R
This can be done with the addition of inhibitors or lowering the pressure and temperature
The significant chain branching means that the chains cannot pack close together or in an
orderly way, resulting in low density polyethylene.

High- density polyethylene (HDPE)

The Zieglar-natta process is used for t
he production of HDPE, which polymerisation does NOT occur via free radical polymerisation. The
production of HDPE requires low temperatures (approx. 60OC) and low pressures (<1atm) and a
catalyst made from a mixture of titanium IV chloride and triethylaluminium.
The ethylene monomers add at the catalyst surface creating quite linear unbranched chains.
Note:
-

HDPE has less degree of chain branching due to the linear connection at catalyst surface having a
low chance of backbiting.

The catalyst gives greater control over the polymerisation process. Due to HDPE typically has about 3x
more ethylene monomers than LDPE and as such, considerably denser than LDPE.

1.7) Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model
kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process
Molecular model kits were used to model the polymerisation process
For the modelling of polyethylene, the double bond of ethene molecules were broken into single
bonds, allowing them to join with other ethene molecules

1.1.8) identify the following as commercially significant monomers: vinyl chloride and styrene by
both their systematic and common names

1.1.9) Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms
of their properties
Always relate the uses of the polymer with its properties. State one property, such as the water resistant
nature of PVC, and then relate this to its use as raincoats and shower curtains. Simply listing properties
followed by a list of users will not get you the best possible marks

The polymers do not react with water due to long non-polar carbon chains and absence of
hydrogen bonds (no OH groups)
The polymers are also stable due to the strong C-C and C-H bonds. Though pure PVC can
break down in UV light due to weak C-Cl bonds, a UV absorber can be added

1.1.10) Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are
encountered
1.1.11) Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write equations to
represent all chemical reactions encountered in the HSC course
acid + metal salt + hydrogen
acid + base salt + water
- acid + hydroxide salt + water
- acid + oxide salt + water

- acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

- acid + hydrogen carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
Complete combustion: carbon dioxide and water are produced
- 2C2H6 (g) + 7O2 (g) 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g)
Incomplete combustion: carbon monoxide or carbon (soot), and also water
- 2C2H6 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4CO (g) + 6H2O (g)
- 2C2H6 (g) + 3O2 (g) 4CO (g) + 6H2O (g)
2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels

1.2.1) Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the
petrochemical industry
Currently many polymers and fuels are derived from crude oil and the need for alternative sources of
petrochemical product comes down to two main points: scarcity and environmental impacts.
Scarcity
Petrochemical products are derived from non-renewable, unsustainable sources of crude oil.
Some experts place the lifespan of current petroleum sources as well under 50 years and natural
gas sources within 100 years.
However, as technology develops there has been increasing rates of consumptions and due to
supply/demand there are also rising costs for consumers.
Thus, alternative sources are required simply because the current production trends arent
sustainable.
Environmental Impacts
Due to majority of crude oil being used up as fuel, the consumption of fuel products has an
enormous impact upon the environment.
These fuels burn relatively uncleanly and lead to environmental problems such as greenhouse effect
and acid rain.
Additionally, the biodegradability of many products also places considerable strain on our landfills.
Note: Alternative sources of the petrochemical products must be discovered for both practical reasons of
scarcity and for fear of doing irreparable harm to our environment.

2.2) Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse
progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name
the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesis the material and an evaluation of the
use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
Biopolymers are naturally occurring polymers made from living organisms, and are
therefore renewable resources.
Biopol is the commercial name for the co-biopolymer PHBV poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3hydroxyvalerate), and is part of a group known as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
Production
- It is produced by growing the bacterium Alcaligenes eutrophus in a suitable high
glucose or high valeric acid environment (which promotes bacterial growth and
-

proliferation)
One nutrient (e.g. nitrogen) is then restricted so the organism produces PHBV as an

energy source.
The bacterial cells are lysed, and the polymer can then be extracted and processed.

Biopol has many favourable properties, such as being renewable, biodegradable,

biocompatible and non-toxic. This makes it ideal for medical applications, such as for
surgical pins and sutures, since it is biodegradable and no removal surgery is required. Also
its biocompatible nature means that the body does not reject it.
However, it is much more expensive than petrochemical plastics, so its use is currently
limited to when biodegradability is essential (e.g. sutures).
There has been recent progress to produce Biopol more economically, such as using
genetically engineered bacteria (e.g. E.coli) for faster growth and higher yields. There is
also research into gene splicing to transfer PHBV production capability to other bacteria.
Evaluation: PHBV has many useful properties such as being biodegradable, and has a
great potential use. However it is currently not cost-effective, though it should become more
viable in the future as petroleum sources dwindle.

1.2.3) Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

A condensation polymer is a polymer chain formed when monomers chemically combine by
eliminating a small molecule (usually water), allowing functional groups to become linked
together.
Parts of the actually monomer detach in order to unlock the monomer and enable
polymerisation.
Many natural polymers are condensation polymers (e.g. cellulose, starch, wool, silk).
There are also many synthetic condensation polymers (e.g. polyester, nylon, PET)
Polyesters: dicarboxylic acid monomer (2 COOH groups) and diol monomer (2 -OH
groups)
Polyamides: dicarboxylic acid monomer (2 COOH groups) and diamine monomer (2 NH 2
groups)

Remember - A condensation polymer forms by joining together monomer units which have been unlocked
by simultaneously releasing small molecules.

1.2.4) Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed

An example of a condensation polymer is cellulose, which is formed from B-glucose
monomers condensing out water molecules as they join.
In the formation of cellulose, glucose join together in a chain, where in between every
consecutive glucose molecule a hydroxyl group (-OH) from each glucose molecule
condenses out as a water molecule, leaving

single oxygen linking the two monomers.

This process occurs between every monomer
is added to the chain, forming the

unit which
condensation

polymer cellulose. Every 2nd monomer is inverted.

EQUATION:
n(C6H12O6) (C6H10O5)n + nH2O
When x monomers of B-glucose to form a cellulose polymer,

x 1, H2O

molecules will be eliminated.

Remember- In the formation of cellulose, glucose molecules join by condensing out a water
molecule between ever two glucose molecules, and inverting every alternate glucose molecule .
1.2.5) Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer
found as a major component of biomass
Cellulose is a natural condensation polymer formed from B-glucose. Its an important part of
plant cell walls and thus a major component of biomass (material produced by living
organisms).
Cellulose forms very linear polymer chains , where few OH groups are able to interact
with water molecules in the environment, meaning it is insoluble
Due to the hydrogen bonding present in the molecule makes the polymer rigid and strong.
o Due to every second glucose unit being inverted, cellulose is a reasonably linear
molecule increasing the density and strength of the molecule.
Remember- Cellulose is a dense, insoluble condensation polymer commonly found in various forms of
biomass such as grass, trees and trees. It is a condensation polymer and a major component of biomass.

1.2.6) Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to
build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material
Cellulose contains a basic carbon-chain structure common to many of the compounds used
within the petrochemical industry.

 Its readily abundant and renewable and its usage will reduce the dependency on limited
fossil fuels.
Advantages of Cellulose:
Cellulose can be used in a modified form:
o Cellulose acetate: Photographic film, frame material for eyeglasses
o Rayon: cellulose is digested with NaOH and CS 2 then extruded into acid through a
spinneret
OR cellulose can be broken down to glucose:
o Digestion with NaOh and celluse
o Acid hydrolysis (with heating)

Cellulose is biodegradable, which is major issue for current raw materials. The current
petroleum-based polymers decompose extremely slowly, hence harming living organisms
while posing as a constant eyesore to society.
- Can be broken down by bacteria + fungi when discarded into the environment
Disadvantages of Cellulose:
Using cellulose to make petrochemicals is expensive and energy intensive.
Fertile land is required to grow dedicated crops
- Reduces food crop production and can lead to degradation problems
Biomass can be difficult to transport and store
To be able to used in the petrochemical industry glucose requires decomposition into
glucose, fermentation of glucose into ethanol and then dehydration of ethanol into ethylene
- This multi-step process is extremely energy intensive in order to overcome the strong
-

hydrogen bonds present in cellulose.

Due to the energy input required, these processes arent economically viable and
thus there are no means of converting cellulose into the traditional monomers used
in the polymerisation of materials such as PVC and Teflon.

 Evaluation: Currently, the cost disadvantages of using cellulose as a raw material outweighs
the environmental benefits, however cellulose still has a large potential as a raw material as
the industrial processes improve and petroleum-based compounds become more scarce.
Although the inability to convert cellulose into its glucose components in any economically viable manner
does prevent its use as an alternative source of petrochemical products, should this barrier be overcome
cellulose has virtually unlimited potential given its abundance and chemical make-up.

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants

1.3.1) Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this
process and the catalyst used
The dehydration of ethanol involves the removal of water with a concentrated sulphuric or
phosphoric acid used as a catalyst at about 170 OC.
This is due to the hydroxyl functional group (-OH) being bonded relatively strongly to the
CH3CH2 chain.

 As such, the catalyst lowers the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to take
place by providing an alternate pathway for the reaction.
During dehydration, hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group is removed from adjacent carbon
atoms to form ethene as well as a water molecule
In industry, ethanol vapour can be dehydrated by passing it over hot alumina or ceramic
catalysts at 350oC

Remember- The dehydration of ethanol to ethylene involves the conversion of ethanol into ethylene and
water using a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid.
Dehydration requires concentrated acid as the single bonds in ethanol are hard to break

1.3.2) Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify
the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Just as ethanol can be dehydrated to form ethylene, the addition of water to ethylene in the
presence of dilute H+ catalyst at 300OC 165 atm will produce ethanol.
The H+ catalyst attacks the double bond before water itself. However, unlike dehydration
due to the double bonds in ethylene it requires less energy for the reaction to occur.
As such, a weaker catalyst such as dilute sulphuric acid can be used.

3.3) Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital
technologies or computer simulations to model the dehydration of ethanol, and the addition of
water to ethylene

 For dehydration, a hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group were taken off adjacent carbon atoms
in the ethanol model, and joined together to form a water molecule, leaving an ethene
molecule after a double carbon bond was made.
For the addition of water to ethylene, the double bond of ethylene was opened out into a
single bond. The water molecule was split in two, allowing a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl
group to be added on adjacent carbon atoms, forming ethanol.

1.3.4) Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved
in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane
Firstly, the sugar cane is harvested and crushed. Though ethanol can be produced from the
sugar water, it is produced from left over biomass since sugar water is valuable to the sugar
industry.
The biomass is hydrolysed with sulfuric acid to convert the cellulose into glucose. The acid
medium prevents bacterial growth.
The plant skeleton, or lignin, is filtered from the glucose, but can be further hydrolysed with
more acid to increase the amount of glucose filtrate.
The acidic glucose solution is neutralised with calcium hydroxide, forming a calcium sulfate
residue which is filtered off and sold to other industries.
- H2SO4 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)
The neutral glucose solution is then fermented with an alcohol-tolerant yeast in a 37oC,
anaerobic environment, producing a maximum 15% ethanol mixture

An alcohol concentration above this level kills the yeast and prevents further
fermentation. 37oC is the optimum temperature since it provides a fast rate of
reaction without the enzyme breaking down due to high temperatures. The carbon
dioxide produced in the fermentation process can also be sold for soft drink

industries.
The resultant 15% ethanol mixture undergoes fractional distillation (with energy obtained
from the burning of lignin) to separate the ethanol, which is now >95% pure and can be
used commercially.
The ethanol isnt completely pure due to the strong hydrogen bonding between the polar
ethanol and water molecules

1.3.5) Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar
substances
Ethanol is a versatile solvent being able to dissolve cosmetics, dyes, pharmaceuticals, paints, etc.

The amphipathic structure of ethanol C2H5OH, accounts for its ability to dissolve both polar and
non- polar substances.
The polar hydroxyl (-OH) group is a hydrophilic end which allows it to act as solvent for
polar substances, as electronegative species are able to dissolve via dipole-dipole, iondipole interactions or through hydrogen bonding.
The non-polar alkyl/ethyl (C2H5-) group is a hydrophobic end which interacts with non-polar
molecules and allows it to dissolve non-polar substances such as iodine due to the
dispersion forces present within the CH bond.

Hence ethanol has many uses in water/ethanol mixtures, since substances that are not
soluble in water can become soluble in this mixture.
Ethanol allows various medicines that are not water soluble to be taken as liquids. Ethanol
is also a common solvent in cosmetics, food colourings and some cleaning agents. Nonpolar iodine in ethanol-water mixtures has antiseptic properties.
Remember: It is due to the presence of a polar, OH end as well as a non-polar CH end that
ethanol is effective as a solvent.
1.3.6) Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource
Ethanol, like octane, readily undergoes combustion release energy allowing it to be used as a fuel
source.
Features of ethanol allowing it to be used as a fuel:
Ethanol burns more cleanly than petrol/octane.
o Due to the presence of an oxygen atom in each molecule, allowing for the relatively
cleaner burn. The cleaner a fuel burns; the less harmful by-products are produced such
as carbon monoxide.
o 3 moles of oxygen gas allows for the complete combustion of ethanol. However, octane
requires 12.5 moles of oxygen gas. Thus, the use of ethanol increases the chances of
complete combustion and reduces the amount of pollutants produced.
Ethanol:
Octane:

 Ethanol is easily transported

Ethanol has a heat of combustion of 1367kJ/mol, giving a fairly high energy per mole output
Current motors can only accept petrol with 10% ethanol and any petrol mixtures with >15%20% ethanol requires engine modifications.
Ethanol can be produced through the fermentation of glucose. As such, sugar cane farming, which
has high levels of glucose, is an effective primary source of the components used to produce
ethanol. It is for this reason that ethanol is called a renewable fuel.

1.3.7) Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8

Remember: Monkeys Eat Purple Bananas for the first four.

1.3.8) Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to determine
and compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole
Aim: To determine and compare the heat of combustion of 3 alkonols per gram + per mole.
Equipment:

Aluminium Can
Retort stand and ring clamp
Glass rod
3 spirit burners filled methanol, ethanol and 1-propanol
100mL measuring cylinder
Thermometer
Balance

Method:
1. Ethanol was poured into an alcohol burner, and was then weighed altogether

2. 150 mL of water was poured into an empty aluminium drink can, and its temperature was
recorded
3. The can was heated with the alcohol burner until the water reached maximum temperature
4. The maximum temperature of the water was recorded, and the final mass of the ethanol
and the burner was also recorded
5. Steps 1-4 were repeated using methanol, propanol and finally butanol
6. A graph of molar heat of combustion against molecular mass was plotted
Risk Assessment:
- Since alkanols are highly flammable, they were monitored closely and a fire extinguisher was
kept near to put out any potential fires. Safety goggles were also used to protect the eyes.
Results & Discussion:
- The graph produced was linear
- This is because in each successive alkanol, there is only an additional CH2 group. Therefore
there is a constant increase in the number of extra C-C bonds and C-H bonds which need to be
broken.

Accuracy
- The experimental design was extremely inaccurate since large amounts of heat could be lost to
the environment. Not all the heat from the flame was transferred to the can, and the can itself
could dissipate heat to the surroundings.
- However, since the experiment involved qualitatively comparing heat of combustion, accurate
readings werent essential.
- Accuracy was already improved by using an aluminium can, which conducts heat to the water
more efficiently than beakers. The distance between the flame and the can was also kept minimal.
- Accuracy could be further improved by insulating the can with foam cups, completely covering the
can opening, and ensuring sufficient oxygen supply to allow for complete combustion.
Validity
- Controlled variables included amount of water, amount of alkanol, shape, size and crosssectional area of the aluminium can, type of can, distance between flame and can, surrounding
temperature
1.3.9) Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from
first-hand data.

The molar heat of combustion is the amount of energy released in the form of heat when one mole
of a substance is combusted to form products in their standard states (solid, liquid or gas) at 100
kPa and 25OC (298K).

1.3.10) Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an
alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
The Brazilian government implemented a biofuels program in the 1970s in order to reduce
consumption of non-renewable crude oil and to reduce the purchase of foreign oil supplies
and to boost employment.
They used sugar cane as a source of sugar for fermentation, however the costs of
production were extremely high and subsidies had to be introduced
In many other countries such as Australia, there has been increasing acceptance of
ethanol/petrol blends such as E10, with the ethanol being obtained from the fermentation of
sugar cane and wheat
Evaluation: The current usage is successful due to its environmental benefits and the
depletion of petrochemicals, while also raising awareness about its viability as an alternative
car fuel. However, the large scale production of ethanol (e.g. Brazil in 1970s) is still quite an
uneconomic proposition, due to the huge costs of production and use of agricultural land.

1.3.11) Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of its use
Advantages
Ethanol is a renewable resource (unlike fossil fuels), since it can be produced by fermenting
biomass from plants, which can be regrown
Ethanol usage can reduce greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. CO2) since it can be said to be
carbon dioxide neutral disregarding other energy inputs. The amount of carbon dioxide
used in photosynthesis to produce crops for ethanol production is equal to the amount of
carbon dioxide produced when ethanol burns.

 Ethanol also burns more completely and cleanly than fossil fuels, since the oxygen atom in
the ethanol molecule ensures that less oxygen is needed to allow complete combustion of
the fuel. Therefore there is less carbon deposited in the car, which can be dissolved by
ethanol anyway since it is an excellent solvent. This is also great for the environment, with
toxic gases such as carbon monoxide being reduced by up to 30%.

10% ethanol can be safely added to petrol without engine modification

Disadvantages
The production of ethanol is very expensive and requires a lot of energy. Many processes
such as distillation require fossil fuel input, hence contributing to greenhouse emissions and
making the overall production not carbon dioxide neutral.
Large areas of agricultural land are needed, which is also required for food crops. This may
also increase the price of groceries and worsen environmental problems such as soil
erosion, deforestation, fertiliser runoff and salinity.
Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion than petrol, so a car requires more ethanol to
achieve the same mileage and therefore requires larger fuel tanks. This also makes it more
expensive in terms of cost per kilometre.
Existing car engines need to be modified if more than 10% ethanol is used, since the water
present in the ethanol mixture can cause corrosion of engines and fuel lines
Assessment
Ethanol has a great potential as an alternative fuel, since it is environmentally friendly and a
renewable resource. Currently, production costs and land are limiting the use of ethanol.
However, advancing technology will reduce production costs, and petroleum-based fuels will
only become more expensive as the resources run out.

1.3.15) Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the
fermentation of glucose to ethanol

1.3.12) Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation of
glucose and monitor mass changes
Aim: To prepare ethanol by fermentation of glucose + monitor mass changes
Method:
1) A fermentation mixture of 10 g sugar, 100 mL water and 2.8 g yeast was placed in a large
container and swirled to mix
2) The container, its contents, and attached tubes were weighed together
3) A smaller container was filled with 100 mL limewater, which was also weighed
4) The two containers were placed in a warm area (around 30oC)
5) The tube was connected so that any gas produced in the large container would enter the small
container about 1cm below the limewater surface
6) The appearance of the fermentation mixture and limewater was observed
7) Weighings and observations were repeated daily for a week
Risk Assessment:
- Limewater was kept away from the eyes and skin, and washed away immediately if it came in
contact
Results & Discussion
- Fermentation mixture went from brownish white to dark brown patches of yeast still remaining.
The mass of this mixture decreased.
- The limewater mixture went from clear to milky, and eventually with a milky solid residue. The
mass of

this mixture increased.

- A relative decrease in mass of the fermentation mixture was accompanied with an almost
identical increase in mass of limewater. A greater increase in limewater would occur since it
absorbs some carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as the apparatus might not be completely
sealed.
1.3.13) Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
An aqueous mixture of carbohydrates such as sugars
Yeast should be alcohol tolerant
A temperature of 37OC ensures yeast enzymes do not break down, while achieving a high
reaction rate.
Alcohol should be removed as it is produced, since high concentrations of alcohol can kill
the yeast and halt the fermentation process
Mildly acidic conditions and sterile equipment to prevent other organisms from growing in
the solution

 Oxygen needs to be excluded (e.g. by boiling) since respiration needs to be anaerobic

1.3.14) Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Yeast cells grow in sugar solution to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide under anaerobic
conditions.
Enzymes are involved, so temperatures of 37OC should be used
An ethanol percentage of 15% can be produced before yeast begins to die due to the
concentration of ethanol and the reaction is halted.

4.Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy

1.4.1) Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is
produced
1.4.2) Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the
difference in potential of different combinations of metals in electrolyte solution
1.4.9) Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E requirement of named
electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half equations
Method
1) A galvanic cell was set up with a zinc anode and a copper cathode, initially with no filter paper
2) A strip of filter paper was placed between the electrodes, voltmeter reading was recorded
3) Step 4 was repeated with filter paper soaked in distilled water, then sucrose solution, then
potassium nitrate solution, and finally sulfuric acid solution. A new strip of filter paper was used
each time and the electrodes were washed and cleaned between each trial
4) The filter paper solution which gave the highest voltmeter reading (potassium nitrate) was used
to test a galvanic cell with two copper electrodes, and then two zinc electrodes

Risk Assessment
Sulfuric acid is corrosive, so safety glasses were worn and contact with skin was avoided

Results
A voltmeter reading occurred when the filter paper was soaked in potassium nitrate solution
and sulfuric acid solution
Whenever two of the same metal electrodes were used, they also gave no voltmeter
reading
Discussion
There are a number of conditions which must be met in order for a galvanic cell to function:
o There must two half-cells (a anode and cathode), each within their respective
electrolyte solutions (substance that conducts electricity when aqueous or molten)
and physically separated.
o A wire must connect the electrodes to allow the flow of electrons.
o A salt bridge must exist.
It allows for ion migration to maintain electrical neutrality so the electrical

circuit is completed.
It contains free moving ions which can move to neutralise and balance the

cell.
Potassium and sodium nitrate are commonly used as they are soluble in all

solutions (inert and dont react, act as spectator ions)

The following half equation can be derived:
o

o Flipping the oxidation half equation around, i.e. the zinc electrode and keeping the
positions of the reduction reaction as is:

o The oxidation half equation is flipped as the more reactive metal displaces the les
reactive metal and releases electrons. Hence the electrons are on the right side of
the equation in the oxidation equation and on the left side for the reduction equation.
o Adding both half equations together, will give the difference in potential of the two
metals in this case 1.10V. The full equation is:

1.4.3) explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
In the displacement of a metal from solution, valence electrons are transferred from the
more active metal to the less active metal cation.
The metal is oxidised (loses electrons) and the cation is reduced (gains electrons)
Most reactive metal is best reductant and has greatest ease of oxidation (date sheet)
Activity series (most active to least active):
K > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > H2 > Cu > Ag > Au
1.4.4) identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to
the relative reactivity of the metals
The displacement of metal ions in solution involves a more active metal displacing the less
active metal from solution.
What if Zn is placed in a Cu2+ soln?
o Oxidation: Zn(S) Zn2+(aq) + 2eo Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
o Zn displace Cu2+ ions from solution: Zn dissolves + a solid Cu deposit forms. Blue
colour will fade as [Cu2+] decreases.
What if Cu is placed in a Zn2+ soln?
o No reaction will occur. Cu being less reactive then Zn, cannot displace the Zn 2+ ion
from the solution.

1.4.5) account for the changes in oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of
electrons
The oxidation state of an element, molecule or ion is a measure of its degree of oxidation,
and is used to determine whether oxidation or reduction has occurred for the element.
When the oxidation state increases, the element, molecule or ion is oxidised, so it has lost
electrons
When the oxidation state decreases, the element, molecule or ion is reduced, so it has
gained electrons

 The oxidation state of halogens (Group VII) in a compound is usually -1.

1.4.6) describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions
A galvanic cell is an arrangement of chemicals and equipment that allows a spontaneous
redox reaction to occur in such a way that electricity is produced.
It requires two half-cells, which consists of an electrode in an electrolyte solution
corresponding to that electrode.
An oxidation reaction occurs at the anode, releasing electrons. The electrons travel though
a wire which connects the two electrodes, and are received by the cathode where reduction
occurs.
A salt bridge completes the circuit and maintains electrical neutrality

1.4.7) outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow
Electrons flow from the anode (where oxidation occurs) to the cathode (where reduction
occurs).

1.4.8) define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Anode electrode at which electrons flow out of and where oxidation occurs. Negative
terminal
Cathode electrode at which electrons flow into and where reduction occurs. Positive
terminal
Electrode a conductive metal or graphite plate which allows electrons to pass
Electrolyte a substance which contains ions and can conduct electric current
The oxidants are on the left hand side of the data sheet, and strength increases GOING
DOWN
The reductants are on the right hand side of the data sheet, and strength increases GOING
UP

1.4.10) Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid
cell and evaluate it in comparison to the fuel cell in terms of chemistry, cost and practicality, impact
on society, and environmental impact
The dry cell consists of a zinc outer casing as the anode, an aqueous paste of ammonium
chloride as the electrolyte, and a mixture of C, MnO2, NH4Cl and ZnCl2 around a graphite
rod which is the cathode
- Initially no zinc chloride is present, but as the cell is used zinc ions
are formed and ammonium ions are discharged
- At the zinc anode, Zn(s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- At the graphite cathode, 2MnO2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e- Mn2O3 (s) + H2O (l)
- This gives a net voltage of 1.5 volts which gradually decreases as the cell is used
Cost and practicality
- The dry cell is relatively cheap, robust, easy to store and use. However, it is nonrechargeable, doesnt contain a very large amount of electricity for its size, and
cannot deliver very high currents.
- It also has a short shelf life since the acidic ammonium ions can react with the zinc
casing, causing it to develop leaks and go flat.
Impact on society
- Great initial impact on society since it was the first commercial battery, and made
devices such as torches, portable radios and clocks, which still use dry cells today.
- The lead cell also led to the invention of many other types of batteries such as the
alkaline cell.
Environmental impact
- Minimal environmental problems, since the manganese(III) is readily oxidised to
stable insoluble manganese(IV) oxide.
- Small quantities of zinc are insignificant and ammonium salts and carbon are
harmless

 The fuel cell can be recharged simply by adding more chemical (fuel) and can operate
definitely, since it operates without the electrodes undergoing any change in the electrode
reactions
- In the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, the electrodes are porous carbon membranes with
catalytic surfaces
- Hydrogen and oxygen flow slowly across the
separate electrodes while there is a potassium
hydroxide solution between the electrodes
- At the anode, hydrogen is oxidised:
-

At the cathode, oxygen is reduced:

- Overall:
Cost and practicality
- Fuel cells have small mass and high fuel efficiency, since they provide a direct
conversion of chemical to electrical energy.
- However the theoretical emf is difficult to attain. The main problem is developing
catalytic electrodes that can provide sufficiently fast electrode reactions for the cells
to produce high currents.
Impact on society
- Spacecraft including the Apollo programs have been using fuel cells for many years
as a source of electrical energy and water.
- The hydrogen and oxygen are stored as liquids until needed. Their prevalence in
society is still limited due to the problems with the catalytic electrodes.
Environmental impact
- Fuel cells have minimal environmental impacts and are seen as an environmentally
friendly alternative to fossil fuels. The only direct by-product is water.

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

1.5.1) distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under
which a nucleus is unstable
Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number (number of protons) but different
mass numbers, meaning they have a different number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from the decay of an
unstable nucleus.
o usually changes the composition of the nucleus
o Atoms with radioactive nuclei = radioisotopes
A nucleus is unstable if it has an atomic number of 84 or
more (Z > 83)
A nucleus is also unstable if its neutron to proton ratio is
too high or low.
o For stable isotopes
Z < 20 : n to p ratio = 1
Z > 20: n to p ratio > 1
Z < 83: (bismuth)
o For unstable isotopes
Z >83: isotopes with too many protons are

unstable
N to p ratio is outside the stability zone

Types of Radiation
3 types of radiation: alpha (), beta () and gamma ()
o Alpha Particles
Are helium nuclei
i.e. that are ejected from a heavy unstable
nucleus (usually Z>83)

Low penetrating power (stopped by sheet of paper but HIGH ionising

power
o Beta Particles
A stream of fast-moving electrons ejected from an unstable nucleus with
high n:p ratio

Moderate penetrating power (stopped by 0.5mm of lead) and ionising power

BUT... electrons from the nucleus??!!?

YES, because excess neutron in the nucleus, decay to form proton +

electron (+ anti-neutrino *)

Dont
need to
write

o Gamma Particles
High-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted from a nucleus in an excited
state
Also often accompanies alpha and beta decay

HIGH penetrating power but LOW ionising power

Note: Ground state most stable state. Electrons will want to be in this state
1.5.2) process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements
Of the 25 transuranic elements to be created, only the first three were produced within
nuclear reactors via neutron bombardment (atomic numbers 93, 94 and 95). The remaining
transuranic elements were created in particle accelerators via positive ion bombardment.
Often, their extremely unstable nature means they can only exist for a fraction of a second
before dying
One transuranic element which has been created is Americium, which is produced by the
bombardment of Pu-239 with neutrons. Americium is often used in smoke alarms.
One transuranic element which has been discovered far more recently is darmstadtium, an
element discovered in Darmstadt, Germany.
o Previously known as ununnilium, darmstadtium has an atomic number of 110 and is
produced by bombarding Lead-208 with Nickel 64.
o This radioisotope decays within microseconds as it is highly unstable, with its more
stable isotopes such as Darmstadtium-281 having a half-life of around 11 seconds

1.5.3) describe how transuranic elements are produced

 Nuclear Transmutation (transformation): the change of one element to another (one

isotope), which involves a change in nuclear composition.
Carbon -14 Nitrogen -14 + Antineutrino + Electron
Natural transmutation is achieved by emission of alpha and beta
o decay:

o - decay:

Artificial transmutation is achieved by bombarding a target nucleus with various

particles e.g. neutrons or other nuclei.

Commonly used to produce commercial industrial and medical radioisotopes

insert pic.

Transuranic elements (Z >92) are elements which follow uranium in the periodic table.
They are unstable and are artificially synthesised by nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators.
Transuranic elements (Z < 95) can be made in a nuclear reactor via neutron
bombardment.
o Since neutrons are uncharged , they do not experience electrostatic repulsive forces
with the nuclei and electrons, and can be readily absorbed by the target nucleus.

Heavier transuranic elements (Z>95) can be made by positive ion bombardment in particle
accelerators such as cyclotrons.
o Due to the electrostatic repulsion between positively charged particles and positively
charged nuclei, they must be accelerated to extremely high speeds.

 insert pic

1.5.4) describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Are produced for medical + industrial applications
o Neutron-rich radioisotope made in nuclear reactor (e.g. OPAL at Lucas Height)
Suitable target nuclei are placed in the reactor core and bombarded with
neutrons to produce the desired isotope. Sometimes this isotope may decay
further into other isotopes.

o Neutron- deficient radioisotopes made in particle accelerators (e.g. National Med

Cyclotron at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital)
Suitable target nuclei are placed in the particle accelerator and bombarded

with charged particles to produce the isotope.

insert pic

Many radioisotopes decay extremely quickly. As such, commercial production facilities must be
located relatively close to where they will be used, and importing or exporting radioisotopes is
altogether impossible for many.

1.5.5) identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic Film (qualitative) Radiation was first detected using photographic film
o Darkens upon exposure to radiation
Radiation has a similar effect on film as light, with the degree of darkening on
the film corresponding to the length of exposure and the intensity of the

radiation.
Silver halide in the film decomposes to from Ag (s)
2AgX 2Ag + X2
Workers handling radioactive substances now wear radiation badges
containing photographic film to monitor their levels of exposure

Ionisation Counter (quantitative)- The most common type of ionisation counter is the
Geiger-Muller counter, which uses ionising properties of radiation, especially
beta particles

o Radiation enters through the thin end window of the Geiger tube, which is a metal
tube containing argon gas, a cylindrical copper electrode and a central electrode.
o As the radiation strikes an argon atom, it ionises it and produces argon ions and free
electrons
Ar(g) Ar+(g) + eo The high voltage can then accelerate electrons and as they gain speed and energy,
they can ionise more gas molecules, leading to a cascade of electrons reaching the
central electrode
o This creates an electric current which is amplified and measured with an audio
amplifier or electronic digital counter
o The

argon ions move to the

negative casing and

accept

electrons to complete the

circuit.

Scintillation Counter (quantitative)

o Some substances emit a flash of light when stuck by ionising radiation (, , ) e.g.
NaI
o These flashes can be collected and amplified in a photomultiplier, generating a n
electrical signal which then operates as electronic counter.

Wilson Cloud Chamber (qualitative) - detects radiation from a nucleus, allowing the
radiation to be studied
o It contains a vapour of a polar substance (e.g. alcohol or water), which is
supercooled by dry ice (for condensation), and supersaturated by felt rings soaked in
the same substance
o Radiation emitted from a nucleus enters through the side of the chamber, which is
able to be viewed through the transparent Perspex cover

The Perspex cover should be rubbed with a cloth to charge it and attract any

internal dust particles which may affect the tracks

o When charged radiation travels through the air and vapour, it ionises air molecules
o Polar vapour molecules condense onto these ions, creating visible droplets or cloud
trails that reveal the path of the ionising radiation
o The nature of the track can determine the radiation emitted by the nucleus
Alpha particles form straight, thick but short cloud trails, since they are

relatively heavy, strongly ionising and low penetration

Beta particles form thinner, longer and sometimes zigzag trails, since they are

relatively light, less ionising and more penetrating

Gamma rays generate even fainter tracks and have long wispy trails, since

they are weakly ionising but highly penetrating

A magnetic field may be applied to the chamber to better distinguish radiation, due to
differing charges

1.5.6) identify one use of a named radioisotope in industry and in medicine

1.5.7) describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes and
explain their use in terms of their chemical properties
Half Life (T1/2)
o Time required for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo decay
Unaffected by the initial amount or external conditions e.g. temp. or pressure

Medical Radioisotopes used for two main purposes

Diagnosis: non-invasive investigation of organ and tissue functions
o e.g.
Treatment: targeted therapy for cancer cells
o e.g.
Usually or radioisotopes with relatively short half-lives
Technetium 99m
o Most widely used isotope for medical diagnosis
Emits gamma radiation that can be detected outside the body

Its short half life of 6 hrs is good since the patients exposure to radiation is

minimised
It has variety of oxidation states, so it can be combined with other compounds

to study various parts of the body

o Use to assess function of almost every organ
Brain, heart, lungs, thyroid, lie, bone, blood...
For example, when combined with a tin compound, Tc-99m can be injected
into the bloodstream intravenously (IV) where it becomes attached to red
blood cells. Hence the blood flow can be traced and abnormalities in the heart

and blood vessels detected. Combined with other substances, Tc-99m can be
used to study the brain, kidney, bone and liver.
o Due to its short half life of 6 hrs, it needs to be produced at the hospital
Formed by the beta decay of molybdenum-99(T 1/2= 66 hrs), which is a

fission product of uranium-235.

Mo-99 is placed in portable generators, where it continuously decays into Tc99m

Iodine -131
o Used in treatment of thyroid cancers
NaI is tagged with iodine-131 then given IV or orally
The iodine-131 concentrates in the thyroid gland where it undergoes -decay
to kill cancer cells (t1/2 = 8 days)

Industrial Radioisotopes
Wide variety of uses
o Thickness gauges: Strontium-90
o Leak detectors: Sodium-24
o Smoke alarms: Americium- 241
o Irradiation of food: Cobalt-60
o Sterilisation of medical equipment: Caesium-137
Industrial radioisotopes will have a larger half-life than medical isotopes so they can last
longer.

Strontium-90
o Used in thickness gauges to monitor thickness of sheet materials e.g. steel, paper
Emits low-energy radiation with t1/2 = 28 years

o The intensity of radiation passing through to a detector is an indicator of thickness

An automatic feedback system can be built to control the materials thickness

 Sodium-24
o Used to detect leaks and their locations in underground water and gas pipes
o It is produced by the neutron bombardment of sodium-23

o Emits and

radiation and can therefore act as a radiotracer

o Hand held detectors can scan along the pipe and locate areas of higher radioactivity,
which indicate that the sodium-24 radiotracer has leaked into the soil surrounding the
pipe. This overcomes the need to dig up the entire pipeline to find a leak
o It is suitable since it has a short half life of 15 hrs, so that after the leak has been
found, the sodium-24 quickly decays and the water or soil becomes safe to use again
the environment is quickly decontaminated.

1.5.8) Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use of
radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine
Many radioisotopes are used in medicine (e.g. cobalt-60, technetium-99m). They can
provide non-invasive diagnostic procedures and have introduced radiotherapy. For example,
technetium-99m can diagnose abnormalities in various parts of the body such as blood
vessels and the heart, and can rapidly decay to cause minimal damage to the patient. Can
do things previously impossible.
Radioisotopes also perform many useful functions in industry since they are more sensitive,
precise, reliable and efficient than previous equipment. They can measure the thickness of

objects, check pipes for leaks, and irradiate food. Cobalt-60 and Caesium-137 can be used
to minimise spoilage of foods and therefore increase shelf life. Can do things previously
impossible.

However, radioisotopes can have damaging effects on living cells. Ionising radiation
exposure from alpha, beta and gamma radiation can cause tissue damage, which is
immediate and can lead to radiation sickness. They disrupt cellular processes by ionising
DNA and proteins, forming free radicals/ions. This can lead to cancers, particularly
leukaemia (Sr-90 replaces Ca in bones) and lung cancer which has serious long term
effects. Radiation can also cause genetic damage and alter sex cells, causing defects in the
offspring. Exposure to radiation can be monitored with photographic film in badges.
Another major problem is transport, storage and disposal, due to the hazardous nature of
radioisotopes
The irradiation of food is also a controversial topic, since it may lead to the formation of
harmful compounds in the food and laxity with food hygiene standards