Transmission System

As we learned above with our detailed look at the distribution system, it takes many
parts working together to make the transmission system possible. It is this grid, owned
and maintained by CAECs Generation and Transmission provider, PowerSouth, as well
as transmission lines owned by Southern Company that makes delivery of electricity
possible to our members. And it all starts at the generation plant:
Generation
The generation of electricity begins at the power plant where fuel sources such as
coal, natural gas or hydro are used to transform water to steam by a heating process.
For example, in most coal fired power plants, chunks of coal are crushed into fine
powder and are fed into a combustion unit where it is burned. Heat from the burning
coal is used to generate steam which is piped throughout the plant.
Turbines/Generator

Since steam is water in a highly pressurized state, it is

sent to a turbine where the pressure causes the blades on the turbine to spin at a high
rate of speed. A shaft is connected between the turbine and a generator. Inside the
generator is a magnetic field which produces voltageor electricity at approximately
15,000 volts (V). For the power needs of CAECs members and the consumers of
PowerSouths other distribution cooperatives, it takes about 10-12 years and between
$700 million and $3 billion to build just one generation plant.
Transmission Substation
The high voltage power produced by the generator enters a transmission substation at
the power plant. Inside the substation large transformers convert the generators voltage
up to extremely high voltages (115,000-500,000 V range) in order for it to travel more
efficiently over the transmission lines to transmission substations and transmission stepdown substations.

Transmission Lines and Poles

Once stepped up to the appropriate voltage,

the power is then placed on the transmission system which consists of lines and poles
owned, wholly or jointly, by PowerSouth. PowerSouth maintains more than 2,200 miles
of transmission line and more than 300 substations across Alabama and the Florida
panhandle. The planning for and siting of new transmission equipment can be a long
and tedious process. It often involves a number of complex and critical environmental,
reliability, economic, social and technical issues that must be examined before
decisions can be made and the required permits (i.e. environmental impacts, rights of
way) are issued. The investigation and research of each of these key areas, and the
action of planning and forecasting the need and placement of transmission equipment
can be a 10-20 year process and take an additional two to five years to actually
implement.
Switching Station

Once the power reaches its delivery point, it goes

through a step-down (or reduction of voltage) process at switching stations. Here the
115,000-500,000 V is stepped down to approximately 115,000-46,000 V before being
sent to the first component of the distribution systemthe substation and eventually
to your home.
Such a large system can take years or decades to plan and can cost millions of dollars.
For example, one-mile of a 115,000 V line on the transmission grid can cost
approximately $400,000from planning and development to implementation. When you
think of the time and effort it takes, as well as the investment, to build and maintain the
thousands of miles of line to deliver power to our homes, the value of electricity
becomes much more apparent.

Distribution System

Substation

CAEC purchases energy from our generation and

transmission co-op, PowerSouth, which generates or purchases the electricity and
transmits it over long distances on transmission lines to distribution utilities, like CAEC.
Our substations are the point at which power grid infrastructure becomes distribution.
Distribution substations step down the voltage coming in from the transmission lines in
order to begin the process of sending power to your home. A lot of work goes into
planning new substations or even substation upgrades. CAEC uses long-term
forecasting to plan for new substations, which has a direct impact on reliability. When
you sign up for service, no matter what your intentions are for that meter, we have to
factor in your current and future needs for power into these forecasts. Siting and
building a substation is no simple process; in fact, from the planning phase to
implementation, it takes two to three years to complete just one, at a cost of
approximately $1.5 million.
Power Transformer
The voltage coming to the substation, at 115,000 or 46,000 volts, is too high to go
directly into your neighborhoods. Power transformers are used to step the voltage down
to an acceptable level to bring into your neighborhoods.
Distribution Transformer

Were not ready to get the power to your house just yet; the
voltage coming from the power transformer, at 25,000 or 13,200 volts, is still too high to
go directly into your home. From there, power is distributed across miles (depending on
how far your home is from the substation) of power lines to reach a distribution

transformer, which steps the power down again to the voltage level required by your
home, which is 120/240 Volts. In the last five years the cost of transformers has risen 50
percent, partly due to escalating material costs and also to federal regulations requiring
higher efficiencies.
Service Drop and Meter
From the distribution transformer, a service wire is connected to your house, which is
called the service drop. If your service is overhead, CAEC connects the service wire to
your weatherhead, which is the point of connection between CAECs facilities and the
homeowners. If your service wire is underground, CAEC connects the service wire to
your underground meter box. The tie that is made on the source side of the meter is the
point of connection between CAEC and the member. The meter box in both cases
allows CAEC to measure the amount of energy used.
Power to Your Home
From the meter box, a wire usually connects to the homes breaker box, which functions
as a safety mechanism for your home. At this point your home wiring comes into play
and enables energy to be sent to your plug outlets and light switches at the touch of a
button or flip of a switch.
This only covers a few major pieces of equipment we use to keep your power on more
than 99.9 percent of the time. Some other vital equipment we use includes highside and
lowside breakers, voltage regulators and lightning arrestors. This process also does not
cover the maintenance we must perform and personnel it takes to ensure the
infrastructure we have put in place stays in top condition. This includes our vegetation
management program, line and substation inspections and other critical programs.

Electric Power Generation

Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it
carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution
substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to
medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use
of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power
to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution
transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage of household appliances
and typically feed several customers through secondary distribution lines at this voltage.
Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines
through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be
connected directly to the primary distribution level or the subtransmission level.

Generation and Transmission

Electric power begins at a generating station, where the potential difference can
be as high as 13,800 volts.[6] AC is usually used. Users of large amounts of DC power
such as some railway electrification systems, telephone exchanges and industrial
processes such as aluminium smelting usually either operate their own or have adjacent
dedicated generating equipment, or use rectifiers to derive DC from the public AC
supply. However, High-voltage DC can be advantageous for isolating alternating-current
systems or controlling the quantity of electricity transmitted. For example, HydroQubec has a direct-current line which goes from the James Bay region to Boston.[7]
From the generating station it goes to the generating stations switchyard where a stepup transformer increases the voltage to a level suitable for transmission, from 44kV to
765kV. Once in the transmission system, electricity from each generating station is
combined with electricity produced elsewhere. Electricity is consumed as soon as it is
produced. It is transmitted at a very high speed, close to the speed of light.
Distribution Overview
The transition from transmission to distribution happens in a power substation,
which has the following functions:[8]

Circuit breakers and switches enable the substation to be disconnected from the
transmission grid or for distribution lines to be disconnected.

Transformers step down transmission voltages, 35kV or more, down to primary

distribution voltages. These are medium voltage circuits, usually 600-35,000 V.[9]

From the transformer, power goes to the bus bar that can split the distribution
power off in multiple directions. The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which
fan out to customers.

Urban distribution is mainly underground, sometimes in common utility ducts. Rural

distribution is mostly above ground with utility poles, and suburban distribution is a mix.
[9]
Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps the primary distribution power
down to a low-voltage secondary circuit, usually 120 or 240V, depending on the region.
The power comes to the customer via a service drop and an electricity meter. The final
circuit in an urban system may be less than 50 feet, but may be over 300 feet for a rural
customer.
Primary Distribution
Primary distribution voltages are 22kV or 11 kV.[10] Only large consumers are fed
directly from distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected to a transformer,

which reduces the distribution voltage to the low voltage used by lighting and interior
wiring systems.
Voltage varies according to its role in the supply and distribution system. According to
international standards, there are initially two voltage groups: low voltage (LV): up to
and including 1kV AC (or 1.5kV DC) and high voltage (HV): above 1 kV AC (or 1.5 kV
DC).
Network Configurations
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network. [12] A radial
system is arranged like a tree where each customer has one source of supply. A
network system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel. Spot networks are
used for concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly used in rural or suburban
areas.
Radial systems usually include emergency connections where the system can be
reconfigured in case of problems, such as a fault or required replacement. This can be
done by opening and closing switches. It may be acceptable to close a loop for a short
time.
Long feeders experience voltage drop (power factor distortion) requiring capacitors to
be installed.
Reconfiguration, by exchanging the functional links between the elements of the
system, represents one of the most important measures which can improve the
operational performance of a distribution system. The problem of optimization through
the reconfiguration of a power distribution system, in terms of its definition, is a historical
single objective problem with constraints. Since 1975, when Merlin and
Back[13] introduced the idea of distribution system reconfiguration for active power loss
reduction, until nowadays, a lot of researchers have proposed diverse methods and
algorithms to solve the reconfiguration problem as a single objective problem. Some
authors have proposed Pareto optimality based approaches (including active power
losses and reliability indices as objectives). For this purpose, different artificial
intelligence based methods have been used: microgenetic, [14] branch exchange,
[15]
particle swarm optimization[16] and non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm.[17]
Secondary Distribution
Electricity is delivered at a frequency of either 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the
region. It is delivered to domestic customers as single-phase electric power In some
countries as in Europe a three phase supply may be made available for larger
properties. Seen in an oscilloscope, the domestic power supply in North America would
look like a sine wave, oscillating between -170 volts and 170 volts, giving an effective

voltage of 120 volts.[18] Three-phase power is more efficient in terms of power delivered
per cable used, and is more suited to running large electric motors. Some large
European appliances may be powered by three-phase power, such as electric stoves
and clothes dryers.
A ground connection is normally provided for the customer's system as well as for the
equipment owned by the utility. The purpose of connecting the customer's system to
ground is to limit the voltage that may develop if high voltage conductors fall down onto
lower-voltage conductors which are usually mounted lower to the ground, or if a failure
occurs within a distribution transformer. Earthing systems can be TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or
TN-C.

Service Drop
In electric power distribution, a service drop is an overhead electrical line
running from a utility pole, to a customer's building or other premises. It is the point
where electric utilities provide power to their customers.[1] The customer connection to
an underground distribution system is usually called a "service lateral". Conductors of a
service drop or lateral can be owned and maintained by the utility company or by the
customer.

Transformer Working Principle

A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of
electric power in one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
The voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or
decrease in the current ratings.
The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two
circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two
coils that are electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a
path of reluctance. The working principle of the transformer can be understood from the
figure below.

Transformer Working
As shown above the transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there
are some narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These staggered
joints are said to be imbricated. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual
electro-motive force is induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up
in the laminated core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage.
Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus
produces the mutual induced electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive
force can be explained with the help of Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction as
e=M*dI/dt
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is
transferred magnetically from the first to the second coil.
The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the
primary winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called
as the secondary winding.
In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:
1.
2.

Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.

3.
4.

Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.

The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

Transformer Construction
For the simple construction of a transformer, you must need two coils having mutual
inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and
from the steel core. The device will also need some suitable container for the
assembled core and windings, a medium with which the core and its windings from its
container can be insulated.
In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the winding from the tank, apt
bushings that are made from either porcelain or capacitor type must be used.
In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made out of transformer
sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum
of air-gap included. The steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
For this to happen, the steel should be made of high silicon content and must also be
heat treated. By effectively laminating the core, the eddy-current losses can be reduced.
The lamination can be done with the help of a light coat of core plate varnish or lay an
oxide layer on the surface. For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the lamination
varies from 0.35mm to 0.5mm for a frequency of 25 Hertz.

A. According to construction

1. Core type transformer

In the core type transformer the coil used are form-wound and are of cylindrical type
.These coils general form may be circular or oval or rectangular. A simple rectangular
core is used in small size core type transformer. Which are being circular or rectangular
in form. But round or circular cylindrical type coil are used in large size core type
transformer.

2. Shell type transformer

In shell type transformer also the coil are form-wound .but there are multi -layer discs
type usually wound in the form of pancakes. In this type transformer multi-layer discs
are insulated each other by paper.

Add caption

B. According to output voltage

According to output voltage there are classified in two types

1. Step-up transformer
The transformer is called step-up transformer which Secondary winding turn is greater
than primary winding turn which means the transformer which output voltage is greater
than input voltage is called step-up transformer .In this type transformer secondary
voltage or output voltage is more as compare to primary voltage or input voltage. it is
depend only on number of turns in primary winding and secondary winding .logically
these relation shown in below.
But primary current is greater than secondary winding current because power become
same in both circuit. When transformer work.

P=V*I

Secondary Winding Voltage > Primary Winding Voltage

Or
Output Voltage > Input Voltage

Secondary Winding Turns > Primary Winding turns

Primary Winding current > Secondary Winding current

2. Step-Down transformer
The transformer is called step-down transformer which primary winding turns is greater
than secondary winding turns we are called step-down transformer which primary
winding number of turns is greater than secondary winding number of turns bit primary
winding current is less than secondary winding current is greater than primary winding
current because in both circuit power are being same ,P=V*I
Which means when voltage will increase then current will decrease.
Primary Winding Voltage > Secondary Winding Voltage
OR
Input voltage > Output Voltage
Output current > Input Current
Secondary Winding Current > Primary Winding current.

C. According To Phase

According to phase transformer divide in two parts

1. Single phase transformer

Single phase transformer has single phase winding in primary and secondary it is work
on single phase it has one phase and one neutral. It has two single phase winding
primary and secondary winding. Its input and output supply is being single phase .

2. Three phase transformer

Three phase transformer has three phase winding in primary and secondary it works on
three phase it has three separate winding consequently R,Y ,B.
Its input and output supply is being three phase.
In this type of transformer connected in two type of connection
Star connection ( In which produced neutral )
Delta connection
Transformers output depend In these both connection

D.According to service

According to service transformer also classified in two parts

1. Power Transformer
The transformer having rating above 200 kv and are used in generating station and
substation for stepping up voltage is known as power transformer.

2. Distribution Transformer
The Transformer up to the power rating about 200KVA used to step down the
distribution voltage stranded services voltage are known as distribution transformer.

Transformers can also be classified according to the type of cooling employed. The
different types according to these classifications are:
1.

Oil Filled Self-Cooled Type

Oil filled self cooled type uses small and medium-sized distribution transformers. The
assembled windings and core of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil-tight
steel tanks provided with a steel cover. The tank is filled with purified, high quality
insulating oil as soon as the core is put back at its proper place. The oil helps in
transferring the heat from the core and the windings to the case from where it is
radiated out to the surroundings. For smaller sized transformers the tanks are usually
smooth surfaced, but for large size transformers a greater heat radiation area is
needed, and that too without disturbing the cubical capacity of the tank. This is achieved
by frequently corrugating the cases. Still larger sizes are provided with radiation or
pipes.
2.

Oil Filled Water Cooled Type

This type is used for much more economic construction of large transformers, as the
above told self cooled method is very expensive. The same method is used here as
well- the windings and the core are immersed in the oil. The only difference is that a
cooling coil is mounted near the surface of the oil, through which cold water keeps
circulating. This water carries the heat from the device. This design is usually
implemented on transformers that are used in high voltage transmission lines. The
biggest advantage of such a design is that such transformers do not require housing
other than their own. This reduces the costs by a huge amount. Another advantage is
that the maintenance and inspection of this type is only needed once or twice in a year.
3.

Air Blast Type

This type is used for transformers that use voltages below 25,000 volts. The transformer
is housed in a thin sheet metal box open at both ends through which air is blown from
the bottom to the top.

Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS)

A transfer switch is an electrical switch that switches a load between two
sources. Some transfer switches are manual, in that an operator effects the transfer by
throwing a switch, while others are automatic and trigger when they sense one of the
sources has lost or gained power.

An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is often installed where a backup generator is

located, so that the generator may provide temporary electrical power if
the utility source fails.
Operation of a transfer switch
As well as transferring the load to the backup generator, an ATS may also
command the backup generator to start, based on the voltage monitored on the primary
supply. The transfer switch isolates the backup generator from the electric utility when
the generator is on and providing temporary power. The control capability of a transfer
switch may be manual only, or a combination of automatic and manual. The switch
transition mode (see below) of a transfer switch may be Open Transition (OT) (the usual
type), or Closed Transition (CT)) .
For example, in a home equipped with a backup generator and an ATS, when an
electric utility outage occurs, the ATS will tell the backup generator to start. Once the
ATS sees that the generator is ready to provide electric power, the ATS breaks the
home's connection to the electric utility and connects the generator to the home's main
electrical panel. The generator supplies power to the home's electric load, but is not
connected to the electric utility lines. It is necessary to isolate the generator from the
distribution system to protect the generator from overload in powering loads in the
house and for safety, as utility workers expect the lines to be dead.
When utility power returns for a minimum time, the transfer switch will transfer the
house back to utility power and command the generator to turn off, after another
specified amount of "cool down" time with no load on the generator.
A transfer switch can be set up to provide power only to critical circuits or to entire
electrical (sub)panels. Some transfer switches allow for load shedding or prioritization of
optional circuits, such as heating and cooling equipment. More complex emergency
switchgear used in large backup generator installations permits soft loading, allowing
load to be smoothly transferred from the utility to the synchronized generators, and
back; such installations are useful for reducing peak load demand from a utility.

Types of ATS

Open transition[edit]
An open transition transfer switch is also called a break-before-make transfer
switch. A break-before-make transfer switch breaks contact with one source of power
before it makes contact with another. It prevents backfeeding from an emergency

generator back into the utility line, for example. [1] One example is an open transition
automatic transfer switch (ATS). During the split second of the power transfer the flow of
electricity is interrupted. Another example is a manual three position switch or circuit
breaker, with utility power on one side, the generator on the other, and "off" in the
middle, which requires the user to switch through the full disconnect "off" position before
making the next connection.

Closed transition
A closed transition transfer switch (CTTS) is also called a make-before-break transfer
switch.
A typical emergency system uses open transition, so there is an inherent momentary
interruption of power to the load when it is transferred from one available source to
another (keeping in mind that the transfer may be occurring for reasons other than a
total loss of power). In most cases this outage is inconsequential, particularly if it is less
than 1/6 of a second.
There are some loads, however, that are affected by even the slightest loss of power.
There are also operational conditions where it may be desirable to transfer loads with
zero interruption of power when conditions permit. For these applications, closed
transition transfer switches can be provided. The switch will operate in a make-beforebreak mode provided both sources are acceptable and synchronized. Typical
parameters determining synchronization are: voltage difference less than 5%, frequency
difference less than 0.2 Hz, and maximum phase angle between the sources of 5
electrical degrees. This means the engine driving the generator supplying one of the
sources generally must be controlled by an isochronous governor.
It is generally required that the closed transition, or overlap time, be less than 100
milliseconds. If either source is not present or not acceptable (such as when normal
power fails) the switch must operate in a break-before-make mode (standard open
transition operation) to ensure no backfeeding occurs.
Closed transition transfer makes code-mandated monthly testing less objectionable
because it eliminates the interruption to critical loads which occurs during traditional
open transition transfer.
With closed transition transfer, the on-site engine generator set is momentarily
connected in parallel with the utility source. This requires getting approval from the local
utility company.
Typical load switching applications for which closed transition transfer is desirable
include data processing and electronic loads, certain motor and transformer loads, load

curtailment systems, or anywhere load interruptions of even the shortest duration are
objectionable. A CTTS is not a substitute for a UPS (uninterruptible power supply); a
UPS has a built-in stored energy that provides power for a prescribed period of time in
the event of a power failure. A CTTS by itself simply assures there will be no momentary
loss of power when the load is transferred from one live power source to another.[2]
Soft loading[edit]
A soft-loading transfer switch (SLTS) makes use of a CTTS, and is commonly used to
synchronize and operate onsite generation in parallel with utility power, and to transfer
loads between the two sources while minimizing voltage or frequency transients. [3][4][5]
Static transfer switch (STS)[edit]
A static transfer switch uses power semiconductors such as Silicon-controlled
rectifiers (SCRs) to transfer a load between two sources. Because there are no
mechanical moving parts, the transfer can be completed rapidly, perhaps within a
quarter-cycle of the power frequency. Static transfer switches can be used where
reliable and independent sources of power are available, and it is necessary to protect
the load from even a few power frequency cycles interruption time, or from any surges
or sags in the prime power source.[6][7]

Home use
Homes with standby generators may use a transfer switch for a few circuits or
the whole home. Different models are available, with both manual and automatic
transfer. Often small transfer switch systems use circuit breakers with an external
operating linkage as the switching mechanism. The linkage operates two circuit
breakers in tandem, closing one while opening the other. Manufacturers of transfer
switches can provide installation guides to select the size of switch and provide
recommended installation procedures.
Electrical codes require transfer switches, like all other electrical apparatus, to carry
safety approvals. However, there have been problems with counterfeit circuit breakers,
particularly those sold via the Internet. [8][9]