IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 2, NO.

4, DECEMBER 2016

465

Regenerative Braking Modeling, Control, and

Simulation of a Hybrid Energy Storage System
for an Electric Vehicle in Extreme Conditions
Khaled Itani, Alexandre De Bernardinis, Member, IEEE, Zoubir Khatir, Member, IEEE,
Ahmad Jammal, Senior Member, IEEE, and Mohamad Oueidat

Abstract This paper will present the regenerative braking

quantification, design control, and simulation of a hybrid energy
storage system (HESS) for an electric vehicle (EV) in extreme
conditions. The EV is driven by two 30-kW permanent magnet
synchronous motors. The HESS contains a Li-Ion battery and
ultracapacitor (UC) storage element sources as well as a dissipative resistor. The UC will be mainly involved in braking and
traction modes. The role of the resistor is to protect the dc bus
and the battery according to the voltage and current constraints.
The sizing of the elements takes into consideration the extreme
braking conditions of the vehicle while respecting the Economic Commission for Europe Regulation No. 13 Harmonized.
Controllers are being used in order to regulate the various
electrical variables of the overall system. A sequential logic
controller is also being introduced. The role of the sequential
logic controller is to activate the different existing regulation
controllers and to ensure the switching between the storage
elements depending on the system states. Simulation tests will be
performed covering a wide operation range for variable braking
load, according to vehicle speed and road type, and extreme
braking conditions.
Index Terms Control system synthesis, electric vehicles (EVs),
energy storage, hybrid power systems, lithium batteries,
supercapacitors.

I. I NTRODUCTION
A. General

EHICLE electrification started its evolution from 1950

(introduction of the car radio) and continues to evolve,
where electrification constitutes a major part of the vehicle
system (electric power steering, brake electrification, engine
electrification, etc.). An overview of this aspect has been

Manuscript received April 19, 2016; revised July 23, 2016; accepted
August 29, 2016. Date of publication September 12, 2016; date of current
version December 1, 2016.
K. Itani is with the Electrical Department, Institut Suprieur des Sciences Appliques et EconomiquesCnam Liban, 113-6175 Hamra Beirut,
Lebanon (e-mail: khaled.itani@lecnam.net).
A. De Bernardinis and Z. Khatir are with Systmes et Applications des
Technologies de lInformation et de lEnergie/Institut Franais des Sciences et Technologies des Transports, de lAmnagement et des Rseaux,
78000 Versailles Cedex, France (e-mail: alexandre.de-bernardinis@ifsttar.fr;
zoubir.khatir@ifsttar.fr).
A. Jammal is with the Ministry of Higher Education, Beirut, Lebanon
(e-mail: ajammal@higher-edu.gov.lb).
M. Oueidat is with Institut Universitaire de TechnologieSaida Lebanese
University, Saida, Lebanon (e-mail: mohoueidat@yahoo.com).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TTE.2016.2608763

presented by Lequesne [1]. An electric vehicle (EV) is an

electrical propulsion vehicle where the only energy source is
an electrical source (battery, fuel cells, etc.).
The use of a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) for
electric, hybrid electric, and plug-in hybrid electric instead
of a simple element storage source is essential in order
to take advantage of the characteristics of each storage
element [2][5].
The considered HESS is composed of a Li-ion battery,
presented as the main electrical source, and an ultracapacitor (UC), involved in braking and acceleration. The purpose of
using a UC is to reduce the electrical constraints on the battery,
mainly during severe braking, and to extend its life cycle.
In extreme braking conditions, the amount of kinetic energy
stored in the vehicle momentum must be transferred (or converted) into another form of energy, and this for a minimum
period of time while respecting the ECE regulations for braking performance [6], thus requiring a high power flow. This
energy will be dissipated as friction (heat) energy in the rear
wheels and as friction and electrical energy in the front wheels
(hybrid braking system). According to the front wheel braking
force, the applied force in priority will be electrical, which
means that the mechanical force is the difference between the
braking force needed and the maximal electrical force that
could be delivered by the electrical motors, for a certain speed.
In that case, the HESS will be highly solicited.
The electrical energy should be, in priority, recovered by
the high power density storage element (the UC). The power
transferred is limited to 60 kW, equal to the total power
of the two 30-kW electrical motors. The interference of the
battery comes only after the UC is fully charged. However,
at extreme braking conditions, a controlled chopper connected
to a braking resistor reduces the effect of high transient
electrical signals located in the dc bus, hence protecting the
battery from excessive currents and overvoltage while assuring
a maximum braking capacity and a high-efficiency behavior.
Carreira et al. [7] use a sample buck-boost converter to
recover energy while braking without a UC voltage controller
or simply use a passive HESS where the UC is directly
connected in parallel to the battery [8]. In that case, the UC
is not efficiently used since the voltage variation is reduced.
However, a controlled active HESS can recover a sufficient
amount of power from the motor taking advantage of the dc/dc

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466

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2016

converter assuring a wide range of voltage variations [2], [9].

The energy management strategy of the HESS can be investigated using fuzzy-logic-based controllers [10], [11] or by
transforming the problem into a convex optimization problem,
for example, minimizing the magnitude/fluctuation of battery
power and power loss [12] or proposing linear equations that
provide reference values for the HESS power satisfying bound
conditions [13].
Other system topologies and the power split control strategy
can be found in [14] and applied to an electrical powertrain
for EV composed of two propulsion machines. The effect
of regenerative braking on the overall energy consumption of
an electric taxiing system, which is integrated in the main
landing gear of a single aisle midsize aircraft, has also been
investigated by Heinrich et al. [15]. Results of the considered
drive cycles show that regenerative braking can potentially
enable a reduction in the overall energy use to electrically
taxi the aircraft on ground of up to 15% on average.
Concerning
EV
drive
control
aspects,
some
authors have presented a robust regenerative charging
control scheme for brushless dc (BLDC) motor
drives in advanced electric vehicle [16]. In the
developed method, Zhang et al. [16] formulate the
TakagiSugeno (T-S) fuzzy model to represent its nonlinear
dynamics. By combining the merits of T-S fuzzy technique
with sliding-mode control (SMC) method, they develop
T-S fuzzy SMC (TSFSMC)-based constant-voltage charging
control to guarantee both high performance and robust
stability. Compared with conventional methods, TSFSMC
does not need the input channel to be identical and can
simultaneously achieve dual goals of electric braking and
regenerative charging without any additional devices. Paul
et al. [17] propose a brake force distribution strategy for an
all-wheel-drive electrified vehicle with a single electric motor,
based on the estimation of the tire road friction coefficient
() using a fuzzy logic estimation approach. The proposed
strategy takes into consideration the motor efficiency and
available speed reduction ratios in order to find the optimal
brake force distribution, which maximizes regenerative power
during braking, for a given vehicle speed and deceleration
demand.
The main contribution of this paper consists in the design
of the appropriate synthesis of the controllers of the HESS
in order to be integrated into a more global system that
includes the vehicle model and other functional block modules
defined in Section VI. The application is dedicated exclusively
to extreme recovery braking energy while controlling and
verifying the electrical transient signals elaborated in the
HESS during these hard conditions according to the different
designed controllers and also for different road types and
conditions. Extreme braking conditions correspond to the
maximal braking forces that could be applied to the vehicle
for a certain road type and condition while ensuring stability
and maneuverability and avoiding wheel locking.
Even though the complexity of the overall system is obvious, the obtained results show the realistic and the coherent
aspect of the integrated model, demonstrating more and more
the functionality of the use of simulation software as a first

Fig. 1.

Structure of the HESS.

Fig. 2.

Bidirectional three-level dc/dc converter from [19].

step to the final prototype.

In Section I, the electrical configuration of the system is
presented. Sizing of elements and energy quantification are
treated in Section II. Section III analyzes the control aspects
of the three-level converter interfacing the UC and the dc bus.
The pseudocascade controller of the braking chopper is presented in Section IV. A sequential logic controller concerning
the activation of the three-level converter is briefly analyzed
in Section V. Simulation tests are performed, and the analysis
is provided in Section VI.
B. Electrical Configuration
Among several configurations [2], a three-level dc/dc converter is proposed as the interface between the UC and the dc
bus. This configuration allows the UC voltage to be used in
a wide range, maximizing the energy recovered. An insulated
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switch, located downstream the
braking resistor, will permit the switching between the UC and
the battery in recuperation mode (Fig. 1).
The reasons for choosing a three-level converter (Fig. 2)
are treated in [18][20]. The appeal of a three-level converter
can be summarized as the reduction by half of the voltage
constraints across the electronic power switches and reduction
of the size of the inductor (and the UC) and improvement
of the dynamic performance of the converter. However, the
controller design is much more complex relative to a classical
buck-boost converter topology involving UC and batteries
HESS [21], [22].
II. S IZING OF E LEMENTS
A. Battery Sizing
The structure of the battery chosen for the simulation is
the same as that of the Nissan Leaf battery. The 24-kWh

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467

TABLE I

TABLE II

V OLTAGE L EVEL OF THE Li-Ion BATTERY

PARAMETERS FOR P OWER C ALCULATION [25], [26]

traction battery is a laminated manganese oxidelithium ion.

It contains 48 NEC modules with 4 LiMn2 O4 cells/module in
pairs [23]. The Nissan Leaf uses 33.1-Ah cells, two in parallel
and 96 in series (192 in total). The total capacity of the battery
is then 66.2 Ah. The voltage level of the chosen battery is
shown in Table I.
The energy density is of 140 Wh/kg and the power density
is of 2.5 kW/kg.
B. Ultracapacitor Sizing

TABLE III

1) Ultracapacitor Model: The choice of the UC is mainly

based on the nominal voltage of the UC module, the nominal
capacitance, and the conversion efficiency [24]. The maximal voltage of the UC should be less than the dc bus
voltage and the dc/dc converter gain should be less or equal
to one.
The minimal voltage operation is determined by the maximal current value of the dc/dc converter Ic0max . In general,
it is chosen at 40% or 50% of the maximal voltage, such
that
Uc0min

P0
Ic0max

(1)

The model used of the UC is a one-level RC model defined

by the equivalent series resistor taken as a constant and a
frequency-independent resistance Rc0 , the equivalent capacitance consisting of a linear capacitance C0 and a voltagedependent capacitance C(u c ) connected in parallel. The total
capacitance of the UC is a voltage-controlled capacitance
defined by
Cc0 (u c ) = C0 + kc u c

(2)

where kc is a coefficient, modeling the Faraday effect and the

reactions on the UC layers.
The total energy that could be recovered from an initial
voltage Uc0min to the final voltage Uc0max is
E c =

 2  3

C0  2
2
3
Uc0max Uc0min
+ kc Uc0max Uc0min
.
2
3
(3)

2) Energy and Power Quantification: According to

ECE R13 regulations [6], in order to efficiently brake a vehicle
running at a speed of V = 80 km/h, the vehicle should
decelerate at a rate higher than 5.8 m/s2 and a distance d
traveled, such that
d 0.1V +

V2
.
150

(4)

V EHICLE S IZING

A security margin of 30% will be taken into consideration,

which should generate a deceleration of 7.54 m/s2 and a stop
time of 3 s.
The braking power is expressed as
Pbrake = f m Mtotal a Vbrakem/s Mtotal g fr
Vbrakem/s cos air A C D Vbrakem/s

(Vbrakem/s v w )2
2

+ Mtotal g Vbrake m sin

s

(5)
where Table II presents the different parameters.
The inertia effect of all the rotating elements is neglected.
The total power to brake is therefore 316 kW.
The power has to be shared between front and rear wheels.
The ratio between the friction front force and the total friction
force respecting the ECE R13 regulations [27] while assuring
that a maximal front/rear braking ratio is expressed by the
coefficient

2 0.07L b h g + L b + 0.07h g
.
(6)
hb-max =
0.85L
Table III presents the vehicle dimensions.
Eighty-one percent of the total power should be recuperated
by the front wheels and dispatched between electrical and
mechanical brakes. The electrical flow power should not
exceed the maximal power of 60 kW, which constitutes, in
this particular case, 23.4% of the front power braking. It is

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2016

TABLE IV
PI G AIN C ONTROLLERS AND E LECTRICAL S PECIFICATIONS
FOR THE T HREE -L EVEL DC/DC C ONVERTER

Fig. 3.

Control structure for the three-level converter.

Fig. 4.

Repartition of braking forces.

Fig. 5.

Large-signal average model of three-level dc/dc converter [18].

assumed that no losses are dissipated in the reduction gears,

motors, inverters and the dc/dc converter.
In terms of kinetic energy, the energy stored in the vehicle is
Ec =

1
2
Mtotal Vbrake
.
m/s
2

(7)

Similarly, by performing the same repartition, the UC should

be able to absorb 86.4 kJ when the vehicle speed passes from
80 to 0 km/h in 3 s.
A series of 120 Maxwell BoostCap BCAP1200 P270 K04/5
UC cells [28] will be used. Table IV specifies the desired UC
characteristics.
C. Inductor Sizing
For a maximum ripple i c0max and a dc bus voltage VBUSmax , the filter inductance L 0 is computed as
L0

VBUSmax
.
16 i c0max f sw

(8)

D. Braking Resistor Sizing

The value of the braking resistor should satisfy
Rmax <

2
Vmin
.
Pmax

In order to design both the dc bus and UC voltages controllers,

it is assumed that the current i c0 perfectly follows its reference i c0ref . Indeed, the dynamic of the internal control system
is more rapid than that of the external loops.
In braking mode operation, the dc bus capacitor will be
charged and the dc bus voltage v BUS will increase gradually.
Achieving a threshold of 400 V, the control system of the
converter will then be activated. The reference u c0ref will start
to increase. The current amplitude is then adjusted according
to the power flow and UC voltage.
If the braking energy becomes greater than the storage
capacity of the UC, the UC voltage will achieve Uc0max and
i c0ref instantly falls to zero. The sequential control system will
then activate the IGBT switch in order to let the energy to
be dispatched into the battery and/or to be dissipated by the
braking resistor (Fig. 4).

(9)

III. C ONTROL A SPECTS OF THE

T HREE -L EVEL C ONVERTER
A. Introduction
In braking mode, the control system should regulate the dc
bus voltage at the desired value of 400 V, the UC voltage, and
the UC current rather than regulate the dc bus voltage and the
UC current [29], [30].
The proposed control system for the three-level converter is
based on three control loops in serial cascade (Fig. 3), such
that there are the following components:
1) an internal control loop for the UC current control;
2) two external loop for the voltages.

B. Current Loop Controller Design

1) Three-Level DC/DC Converter: The dc/dc converter [18]
is modeled in Fig. 5 as a large-signal average model.
According to [18], the duty cycles d1 and d2 are generated
by nonlinear controller such that
u 0 + u c0
+ d, and
v BUS
u 0 + u c0
d2 =
d
v BUS
d1 =

(10)
(11)

where u 0 is the main control variable generated by the

current controller and d(s) is the balancing duty cycle as
an auxiliary control variable generated by the voltage error
controller [v c (s)].

ITANI et al.: REGENERATIVE BRAKING MODELING, CONTROL, AND SIMULATION OF AN HESS

Fig. 6.

469

Design of the ic0 current loop.

In this model, the transfer functions in a matrix form can

be written as [18]

 


G ic0u0 (s) G ic0d (s)
u 0 (s)
i c0 (s)
=
v c (s)
G vcu0 (s) G vcd (s)
d(s)


G ic0B (s)
+
i B (s)
(12)
G vcB (s)

Fig. 7. Bode magnitude and phase plot set for the UC current open-loop
transfer function.

where [i c0 (s), v c (s)]t is the output vector, [u 0 (s), d(s)]t

is the control vector, and i B (s) is the perturbation signal.
The transfer functions are expressed as
sC
(13)
s 2 L 0 C + sC R L0 + 2D 2
sCVc 2D Ic0
G ic0d (s) = 2
(14)
s L 0 C + sC R L0 + 2D 2
D
G vcu0 (s) = 2 2
(15)
s L 0 C + sC R L0 + 2D 2
s L 0 Ic0 + (R L0 Ic0 + DVc )
G vcd (s) = 2 2
. (16)
s L 0 C + sC R L0 + 2D 2
2) Current Loop Controller Synthesis: The tuning of the
PI controller is done in the continuous Laplace domain. Delays
have been introduced, due to the delays in the discrete system
regulated by the controller. These delays are as follows [31].
1) The delay due to the digital calculation (control algorithm); the delay is introduced by a first-order transfer
function having the time constant Tsw = 0.04 ms
(switching frequency of 25 kHz).
2) The delay due to the sample and hold element
(sampling); the delay is introduced by a first-order
transfer function that has a time constant equal to Tsw /2.
The i c0 current loop is presented in Fig. 6.
If the balancing duty cycle (D) is zero, the dominant pole
of the dc/dc current to be canceled is ic0 = L 0 /R L0 . The
i c0 controller is presented by
G ic0u0 (s) =

kiic0
1 + ic0 s
= k pic0
(17)
s
ic0 s
where kpic0 and ki ic0 are, respectively, the proportional and
integral gain of the current controller.
The transfer functions of sampling, algorithm calculus, and
the zero-order hold element will be merged as a one-order
transfer function with a global time constant Tsi = 2 Tsw .
The open-loop transfer function in this case will be
G ic0 (s) = k pic0 +

k pic0
1

.
(18)
ic0 s R L0 (1 + Tsi s)
The optimal modulus design criterion is used in order to
calculate the gain of the PI current controller, where the
damping factor is = 0.707. Based on this criterion, the
OLTFic0 =

Fig. 8.

Model of the entire power conversion system.

generic open-loop transfer function for a second-order system,

with the damping factor = 0.707 can be expressed as
1
1
.
(19)
2 s (1 + s)
Comparing the generic expression of the second-order transfer
function with the open-loop transfer function of the current i c0 ,
the gains of the PI controller are calculated as
G(s) =

k pic0 = ic0

R L0
2Tsi

(20)

k pic0
.
(21)
ic0
3) UC Current Closed-Loop Stability: The stability is measured by the gain margin and phase margin of the open-loop
transfer function. Using the designed controller synthesis, and
for a d varying from 0.01 to 0.1, the Bode diagram is plotted
in Fig. 7.
For different values of d, the gain margin of 15.2 dB at
a cutoff frequency of 22 263 rad/s and the phase margin of
63 at 0dB cutoff frequency of 5988 rad/s remain the same.
The major perturbation is the current signal perturbation i B .
The simulation results in Section VI show the robustness of
the UC current controller.
kiic0 =

C. Synthesis of the Voltage Controllers

1) Three-level DC/DC Converter Model for Voltage Controllers: The three-level dc/dc converter modeling is extensively treated in [24] and [32]. The model of the entire power
conversion system is presented in Fig. 8.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2016

UC voltage closed loop.

In this model, it is considered that the current i c0 is well

controlled by the internal loop controller. The current i c0 will
be taken then as a control variable. The transfer functions form
of the system can be written as

 



0
G c0 (s)
u c0 (s)
=
i (s) +
pLOAD(s).
v BUS (s)
G BUS (s) c0
G P (s)
(22)
The transfer function G c0 (s) relating the UC voltage u c0 (s)
to the UC current i c0 (s) is approximated by
G c0 (s) = Rc0

C 0 +2kc Uc0
Rc0 [C 0 +2kc [Uc0 Rc0 Ic0 ]]2
2kc Ic0
+ [C +2k [U
2
c c0 Rc0 Ic0 ]]
0

s+
s

= Rc0

(24)
(25)

where CBUS and RESR are, respectively, the capacitance and

the resistance of the dc capacitor filter.
2) Ultracapacitor Voltage Controller: The UC voltage
closed loop is presented in Fig. 9.
According to [24], the proportional gain k puc0 of G uc0 (s) is
given by
k puc0

i c0max
Uc0max

Fig. 11.

DC bus voltage controller.

The closed-loop transfer function for the UC voltage can be

written as

where z and p exclusively depend on the parameters,

current and voltage, of the UC. Rc0 is the UC internal
resistance.
The dc bus voltage v BUS (s) is related to the UC
current i c0 (s) taken as a control variable [according to the
G BUS (s) transfer function] and to the load power pLOAD taken
as a perturbation variable [according to the G P (s) transfer
function].
It is considered that the inverters operate in static state,
the load power and the UC power are in equilibrium, and
the UC capacitance C0 (also the UC voltage Uc0 ) is very
large according to the bus capacitance CBUS (also the internal
drop voltage Rc0 Ic0 ). By approximating, G BUS (s) and G P (s)
should be
Uc0 (1 + sCBUS RESR )
sCBUS VBUS
(1 + sCBUS RESR )
G P (s) =
sCBUS VBUS

Root locus of the UC voltage closed-loop characteristic equation.

CLTFuc0 (s)

s + z
s + p
(23)

G BUS (s) =

Fig. 10.

(26)

where i c0max is the maximal value of the UC current consisting

of a maximal power regeneration while the UC voltage is at
its minimal value and Uc0max is the maximal value of the
UC voltage error allowed by the controller.

s 2 k puc0 +s(kiuc0 + p k puc0 )+ p kiuc0

.
s 2 (1+ Rc0 k puc0 )+s(Rc0 (kiuc0 +z k puc0 )+ p )+Rc0 z kiuc0
(27)

The integral gain kiuc0 is chosen in order to have real negative

poles for CLTFuc0 (s) transfer function. kiuc0 should then
verify the second-order equation
2
2
kiuc0
+ 2Rc0 kiuc0 ( p 2z Rc0 z k puc0 )
Rc0

+ ( p + Rc0 z k puc0 )2 = 0.

(28)

The solution of the equation is

kiuc0
=

( p 2z z k puc0 Rc0 )
Rc0

( p 2z z k puc0 Rc0 )2 ( p + z k puc0 Rc0 )2
+
.
Rc0
(29)

3) UC Voltage Closed-Loop Stability: The stability of the

UC voltage closed loop depends on the poles locus of
CLTFuc0 (s) transfer function (27). The coefficients of this
equation are highly dependent on the UC current and voltage
(via z , p , and kiuc0 ). For a regenerative power varying
from 0 kW to the maximal power value (60 kW) and an
ultracapacitor value varying from Uc0min to Uc0max , the root
locii are presented in Fig. 10.
The roots are situated in the left half-plane, and the system
is considered stable with a relatively high damping factor.
4) DC Bus Voltage Controller Synthesis: The dc bus voltage
loop controller is presented in Fig. 11.
In order to find the transfer function of the internal loop, the
UC current loop is replaced by a unity gain transfer function
(high bandwidth), leading to
G uc0 (s)
i co (s)
.
=
u coref
1 + G uc0 (s) G c0 (s)

(30)

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471

The UC capacitor is taken very large and G c0 (s) is then

replaced by the UC internal resistor Rc0 . In that case, the
ratio is written as
sk puc0 + kiuc0
i co (s)
.
(31)
=
u coref
s(1 + k puc0 Rc0 ) + kiuc0 Rc0
The UC voltage bandwidth is smaller than the dc bus voltage
bandwidth. For this reason, the integral gain kiuc0 has a small
value, leading to the simplification
k puc0
i co (s)
.
=
u coref
1 + k puc0 Rc0

(32)
Fig. 12. Root locus of the dc bus voltage closed-loop characteristic equation.

The open-loop transfer function is



k puc0
Uc0 (1 + sCBUS RESR )
G(s) =

1 + k puc0 Rc0
sCBUS VBUS
1 + sCBUS RESR
= C V (1+k R ) .
(33)
puc0 c0
s BUS BUS
k puc0 Uc0

where r1 and r2 are the roots of the equation such that


(43)
r1/2 = n j n 1 2 .
Therefore

According to [33], a transfer function having a form of

1 + b1 s
G(s) =
a0 + a1 s + a2 s 2

(36)
(37)

(39)
(40)
(41)

with K i = K p /Ti .
The characteristic equation of a second-order equation can
be written as
1 2 (r1 + r2 )
s +
s+1=0
(42)
r1 r2
r1 r2

CLTFvbus(s) = X

p1 =

(35)

In this case, it is deduced that a0 = a2 = 0, a1 = CBUS

v BUS (1 + kpuc0 Rc0 )/(kpuc0 Uc0 ) and b1 = CBUS RESR .
By identification, it is deduced K p , Ti , and Td such that
a1 ( p1 b1 )
p2 b1 ( p1 b1 )
Ti = ( p1 b1 ), and
Td = 0

(r1 + r2 )
.
r1 r2

(45)

and

where p1 and p2 are the coefficients of the characteristic

polynomial P(s) = 1 + p1 s + p2 s 2 . The coefficients
p1 and p2 are known and dependent on the desired dynamic
performance of the system. Taking N as the filter coefficient,
the controller form is


1
Td s
.
(38)
+
C(s) = k p 1 +
Ti s
1 + Td s

Kp =

(44)

(34)

has proportionalintegralderivative parameters as

(a1 a2 /b1 )( p1 b1 ) a0 p2
Kp =
p2 b1 ( p1 b1 )
( p1 b1 )K p
Ti =
, and
a0 + K p
a2
Td =
b1 K p

1
r1 r2

p2 =

Having the damping factor and the natural pulsation n of

the desired poles, r1/2 , r1/2 then p1/2 is computed. Having a1
and b1 , the PI gains could be deduced by
k pvbusmax =

a1 ( p1 b1 )
p2 b1 ( p1 b1 )

(46)

k pvbusmax
.
( p1 b1 )

(47)

and
kivbusmax =

5) DC Bus Voltage Closed-Loop Stability: The internal

UC voltage closed-loop transfer function can be written as
a constant gain, expressed in (32). The closed-loop transfer
function for the dc bus voltage can be written in (48), as shown
at the bottom of this page, where
X=

Uc0 k puc0
.
VBUS (1 + k puc0 Rc0 )

(49)

The roots of the characteristic equation are plotted in Fig. 12,

for a UC voltage varying from Uc0min to Uc0max .
As mentioned, the controller has been designed in order to
have negative real roots. The frequency response of the system
is presented for the two extreme UC voltages in Fig. 13.
The robustness can be measured by the phase margins
varying between 76 and 83 with 0dB cutoff frequencies
of 387 and 746 rad/s, respectively.

s 2 k pvbusmaxCBUS RESR + s(k pvbusmax + CBUS RESR kivbusmax ) + kivbusmax

s 2 (1 Xk pvbusmaxCBUS RESR ) s X (k pvbusmax + CBUS RESR kivbusmax) Xkivbusmax

(48)

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Fig. 15.

Representation of the battery and braking resistor.

Fig. 16.

Flowchart of pseudocascal control strategy.

Fig. 13. Bode magnitude and phase plot set for the dc bus voltage open-loop
transfer function.

Fig. 14.

Antiwindup controller structure for the uc voltage.

IV. P SEUDOCASCADE C ONTROLLER S YNTHESIS FOR

DC/DC C ONVERTER B RAKING R ESISTOR
A. Introduction

6) System Robustness: The major perturbation is the regenerative power coming from the inverters. This perturbation
should negatively affect the dc bus voltage value if the dc bus
voltage controller is poorly designed. The effect of parameter
value uncertainties and model approximation assumptions will
not be treated in this paper.
The simulation results in Section VI show the robustness of
the system due to several tests.

D. PI Antiwindup Controllers
PI antiwindup controllers have been used for the UC voltage
controller and the dc bus voltage controller. When a controller
saturates, it therefore operates in a nonlinear region. The action
consisting of increasing the control signal will have no effect
on the system output, known as wind-up effect. This leads to a
characteristic step response with a large overshoot and a very
high settling time [34], [35]. The windup effect will postpone
the intervention of the controllers, which will delay the UC
recovering and create a high transient and hardly controlled
signal on the UC voltage and dc bus voltage sides.
In order to solve the problem, it has been decided to use an
internal tracking feedback loop to discharge the PI controller
integrators for the UC voltage and dc bus voltage controllers,
known as backcalculation antiwindup. In Fig. 14, the backcalculation antiwindup structure of the UC voltage PI controller
is represented.

When the UC state of charge (SOC) is full, the battery

should interfere in order to recover the braking energy. If the
current absorbed by the battery exceeds the maximal current
allowed or the voltage of the battery reaches its maximal
value, the braking resistor should absorb either a ratio of the
dissipated energy or the full electrical energy of the braking.
A pseudocascade controller, introduced by Lestage et al. [36],
is developed in order to control the dc/dc converter of the
braking resistor.
The pulsewidth modulation duty cycle (D) at fixed frequency f h applied at the IGBT gate is calculated through
a pseudocascade structure. In controlling the duty cycle, the
converter absorbs a controlled output current IHi through the
resistor R, which consequently produces a controlled input
current IHi absorbed by the IGBT (Fig. 15).
B. Control Strategy
The problem consists in defining a control structure that
ensures the constraints of a system having an input current (IHi ) and two outputs. The first output is the battery
current (I B ) with an amplitude that must evolve between the
lower and upper limits. The second output V B should not
exceed a specific value, such that
I Bmax I B 0
V B V Bmax

(50)
(51)

where I Bmax is the maximal charging current of the battery

(negative in braking mode) and V Bmax is the maximal battery
voltage.

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473

The diagram analysis reveals the presence of two state

variables X and Y , such that
S2 = X = S1 (e f + f y + e x y)

(53)

Y = x (e + y) + x y (e + f )

(54)

and
Fig. 17.

Sequential diagram of the braking control activation.

where x and y are, respectively, the previous values of the

state variables X and Y .
The control strategy is summarized by the flowchart
in Fig. 16. The mathematical model, pseudocascade
scheme controller, and controller synthesis are described
in [36] and [37].
V. S EQUENTIAL L OGIC A NALYSIS OF THE T HREE -L EVEL
DC/DC C ONVERTER ACTIVATION
A. Introduction
A sequential logical circuit is used for activating the
three-level dc/dc converter depending on the braking/traction
demand, the UC SOC, and the dc bus voltage. Knowing that
the traction mode is not treated in this paper, it has, however,
been introduced in the model and could be described in another
paper. In braking mode (or traction mode), when the threelevel converter is not activated, the UC reference current i c0ref
is set to zero.
Indeed, two logic circuits are designed. The first is a pure
combinatory circuit and the second is a sequential logic circuit.
The first logic circuit controls the IGBT switch located
downstream of the braking resistor. It permits connection
of the battery to the dc bus in braking mode. Its inputs
are the SOC of the UC and the load demand in terms of
acceleration/deceleration. The output (S1 ) of the circuit is

S1 = ab
c + a b d

(52)

where a is a logical variable indicating an acceleration

demand, b is a deceleration demand, c is an SOC of the
UC higher than 95%, and finally d is an SOC of the UC lower
than 25%. Hysteresis blocks are used in order to define
c and d.
B. Analysis of the Sequential Circuit
This circuit enables/disables the deceleration control/
traction control. It has as inputs the output S1 from the latter
circuit, the acceleration/deceleration demand (logical input e),
and a dc bus voltage value higher than 400 V (logical input f ).
The output of the circuit is noted S2 . If S2 is set to one, the
deceleration (braking) control is enabled. Fig. 17 shows the
sequential diagram of the braking control activation.
The (11/0) state cannot be taken into consideration because
if there is a deceleration demand and the dc bus voltage is
greater than 400 V, the activation of the regulation should be
triggered. Only if the SOC is full, in that case, the recovery
should be done on the battery. The state (00/1) is also not
taken into consideration, because if there is not a deceleration
demand, there will be no need to regulate.

VI. S IMULATION VALIDATION

A. Introduction
The hybrid energy storage system and its correspondent
controllers are integrated into a much complete Simulink
model. The model presents the integration of developed and
validated Matlab/Simulink design models and control modules
in order to simulate the entire braking energy transfer of
a two front-wheel-driven EV. The overall system modules
consist of the hybrid energy storage system, two interior
permanent magnet synchronous motors (IPMSMs30 kW
each), and the vehicle model. Other designed blocks like
braking forces distribution module and electrical/mechanical
braking forces quantification are also present. The types and
conditions of roads are also integrated in order to study the
vehicle behavior. In fact, authors used previous research works
concerning several modules of the overall system [38]. The
repartition and calculation of braking forces according to ECE
R13 regulations constraints control method has been developed
in [38]. Optimal traction and regenerative braking control for
the driven motors combining three torque control methods
has been designed according to [39]. Integration of all the
submodules and the kinematic and dynamic analyses of the
vehicle are treated in [40]. The HESS is placed in the IPMSM
& HESS Modeling & Control module of Fig. 18.
B. Simulation Model
The main objective of the simulation tests is to validate the
performances of the UC voltage and current controllers, dc
bus voltage controller, and braking resistor controller. For that
reason and for the reason to accelerate the simulation time and
reduce computer memory use, the inverters of the two motors
are replaced by unity gain. In that case, the voltage applied
to the motors is exactly equal to the voltage commanded by
the motors current regulators. This simplified inverter model is
used to evaluate the control methodology and expected system
performance.
The input of the HESS model is the power regenerated
by the two electrical machines. The current derived from
this power quantity will be applied to a Simulink controlled
current source block, connected to the HESS model as shown
in Fig. 19.
Table IV shows the PI gains and specifications for the
three-level dc/dc converter.
f SW is the switching frequency of the three-level bidirectional dc/dc converter and u c0max is the maximal accepted
tracking error for the voltage of the UC.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2016

Fig. 18.

Overall system modules.

Fig. 19.

HESS simulink model.

Fig. 20.

Input power to the HESS for a medium friction road type.

At the beginning of the simulation, a MATLAB program

script will be launched in order to define:
1) The vehicle parameters, the external dynamic parameters, and the road type parameters (depending on
simulation choices).
2) The motors parameters, limiting operation points, and
regulators gains.
3) The HESS characteristic parameters and the corresponding regulators gains, to plot the corresponding figures
and to output the characteristic physical and electrical
values of the overall system.
C. Simulation Results
1) Tests Selection: In order to validate the control design
system for a wide operating range, three simulation tests will

Fig. 21.

Signal representation of u c0 /u c0ref and ic0 /ic0ref .

be carried considering different vehicle speeds, road types

and conditions, and SOCs of the storage elements in order
to verify all the control aspects of the HESS system. All tests
are performed at extreme braking condition.
The first test will validate the energy recovering at a medium
friction road for a minimal SOC of the UC. The second
test will be performed at a low-friction road, verifying the
switching operation between the UC and the battery. At the
third test, and for a high friction road coefficient, the UC
voltage is initiated at its maximal voltage value and the battery
SOC at 99.92%, leading to high current and voltage signal
constraints applied to the battery while recovering.

ITANI et al.: REGENERATIVE BRAKING MODELING, CONTROL, AND SIMULATION OF AN HESS

Fig. 22.

UC SOC and power recovery.

Fig. 23. DC bus voltage regulation for medium friction road type at Uc0min .

Fig. 26.

Input power to the HESS for a low-friction road type.

Fig. 27.

Signal representations of u c0 /u c0ref and ic0 /ic0ref .

Fig. 28.

UC SOC and power recovery.

475

Fig. 24. Battery measurement for medium friction toad type test at Uc0min .

Fig. 25. Storage elements recovered energy for medium friction toad type
test at Uc0min .

2) Medium Friction Road Type Test at Uc0min: The braking

is applied on a wet cobblestone road type in good condition.
The vehicle parameters are defined in Tables II and III,
for an initial speed of 80 km/h. The input power of the
HESS (Fig. 20) derives for the two driven motors, working
as generators, as shown in Fig. 1. The voltage of the UC is
at its minimal accepted value of 165 V, corresponding to an
SOC of 45%.

Fig. 29. DC bus voltage regulation for 5-cm shallow snow road type at
Uc0 = 290 V.

The UC voltage and current follow their references according to Fig. 21. The maximal current UC reached is 210 A.
At the end of the stopping time of 6.97 s, the UC voltage
and SOC (estimated by MATLAB/Simulink) have attained
229 V and 66%, respectively.
The maximum power recovering of the UC is 39.2 kW
(Fig. 22). The 3-kW difference between the UC power and
the HESS maximal power input of 42.3 kW largely comes
from the joule losses performed on the 70-m resistor of
the inductor. Fig. 23 shows that the dc bus voltage regulation

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Fig. 30.
290 V.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2016

Battery measurement for 5-cm shallow snow road type at Uc0 =

Fig. 31. Storage elements recovered energy for 5-cm shallow snow road
type at Uc0 = 290 V.

Fig. 32.

HESS power input.

is well performed. The voltage oscillations decrease along

with the power input. The maximal overshoot happens at the
beginning of the regulation at time t = 100 ms, representing
an approximate overshoot of 11% (at 446 V). The battery
measurements are shown in Fig. 24. No current is being drawn
from the battery. Fig. 24 shows a leakage current of 3 mA.
The total recovered energy by the UC is 140.5 kJ (Fig. 25).
3) Ultracapacitor Voltage at 290 V: The braking is applied
on a 5-cm shallow snow road type. It is performed at an initial
vehicle speed of 60 km/h, an initial UC voltage of 290 V, and
an initial battery SOC of 80%. The input power of the HESS
(Fig. 26) deriving from the two driven electrical machines
is quantified according to the road type and condition, as
well as other electrical, dynamic, and cinematic characteristic
parameters of the system, as shown in Fig. 18. The reduced
input power is related to the low-friction coefficient of the
road. The applied electrical braking torque avoids the lockup
of the wheels on such a road type.
The UC voltage and current follow their references according to Fig. 27. The maximal current UC reached is 69 A. The
energy recovery switches to the battery at time t = 4.6 s.

Fig. 33.

Battery measurement for asphalt dry road type at Uc0 = 325 V.

Fig. 34.

DC bus currents of the battery and the resistor.

Fig. 35. Recovered energy and dissipated energy by the battery and controlled
resistor, respectively.

The maximum power recovering of the UC is 20.25 kW

(Fig. 28). Fig. 29 shows that the dc bus voltage regulation is
well performed due to the three-level dc/dc converter control.
The battery measurements are shown in Fig. 30. The current
absorbed starts at 30.7 A and decreases with the vehicle speed.
This value current does not induce any electrical constraint
to the battery. After 10.2 s of stopping time, the amounts
of energy recovered by the UC and recovered by the battery
are 74.5 and 32.6 kJ, respectively (Fig. 31).
4) UC Voltage at 325 VBattery SOC at 99.92%1C-Rate
Charge: The braking is applied on an asphalt dry road type.
The test is performed at an initial vehicle speed of 90 km/h,
an initial UC voltage of 325 V, and an initial battery SOC
of 99.92%. The UC does not interfere in the recovery. The
input power of the HESS is shown in Fig. 32. For that type of
road, the braking forces distribution and quantification system
allows a greater braking torque and thus power. The power
achieved its maximal value at 63.4 kW, which is higher than
the maximal power of the two motors (60 kW). This is due
to the motors control method adopted in [39].

ITANI et al.: REGENERATIVE BRAKING MODELING, CONTROL, AND SIMULATION OF AN HESS

Fig. 36.

Simulation test comparison on an asphalt dry road type for the first simulation.

Fig. 37.

Simulation test comparison on a shallow snow road type for the second simulation.

The maximal battery charging current is given equal to its

capacity rate, which is 66.2 Ah. The lithium manganese oxide
battery has a typical fast charging current at a rate of 1C.
Its maximal charging current rate could reach 3C, but this
type of charging would reduce the battery life. It has been
chosen the SOC of the battery at 99.92% in order to observe
the performance of the pseudocascade in regulating the battery
current and voltage.
For the first 170 ms, the battery takes all the recovery. The
battery voltage is close to its maximal voltage (due to its
high SOC) and the current is being regulated at a rate of 1C
(Figs. 33 and 34). At t = 0.42 s, the battery voltage reaches the
maximal allowable voltage of 400 V and the pseudocascade
enters the voltage regulation mode. After 2.55 s of stopping
time, the amount of recovered energy by the battery is 47.2 kJ
and the amount of energy dissipated by the controlled resistor
is 54.9 kJ (Fig. 35).
D. Comparison Simulation Tests
Comparison simulation tests have been performed between
the proposed serial cascaded dc voltage control loop regulation
and the regulation proposed in [32]. The simulation conditions
were exactly the same (initial speed, UC SOC, road type, etc.).
It is noted that the regulation current system for both tests is
taken as proposed in Section III.
For the first simulation (Fig. 36), it has been considered that
the vehicle runs on a good condition asphalt dry road type,
with an initial speed of 80 km/h. The initial voltage of the
UC is taken at its minimal value of 165 V. For that type of
simulation state, the UC power and current achieve its maximal
value, as well as the dc bus voltage oscillation. The overshoot
(also time settling) for the proposed regulation reaches 445 V
(also 267 ms), whereas it attains 513 V (also 452 ms).

477

For the second simulation (Fig. 37), it has been considered

that the vehicle runs on a shallow snow road type, with an
initial speed of 60 km/h. The initial voltage of the UC is
taken equal to 290 V. The overshoot (also time settling) for
the proposed regulation reaches 425 V (also 158 ms), whereas
it attains 467 V (also 358 ms).
E. Impact of a Battery Degradation on the
Braking Performance
The battery peak power is inversely proportional to its
internal resistance. Under highly dynamic power profiles, the
battery of an EV can be greatly overstressed, which negatively
affects the longevity of its lifespan and induces degradation at
the cell level, which leads to an increased internal resistance
causing a power capacity fade [41]. To optimize the battery
service life, a powerful air-/liquid-cooling structure (air cooling in the case of the Nissan Leaf) and a battery management
system at the cell level are required to overcome its short
calendar life issue and to reduce Li dendrite formation and
excessive heating [42].
For the proposed HESS structure (Fig. 1), the UC is dimensioned to overtake the complete braking power fulfillment.
If the braking operation is performed on a full UC, the battery
power recovery is assisted by the braking resistor controller,
dissipating all the residual power. For the present study, the
braking resistor is dimensioned at the maximum dissipated
power of 60 kW. Thus, in worst cases, it can dissipate
the maximum available power. The braking performance as
such would not then be affected by a degenerated battery
performance, in contrast to the energy conversion efficiency
of the whole system. In fact, in the MATLAB program script,
a decreased value of I Bmax would simulate this kind of battery

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2016

degradation. In that case, the braking resistor current would

respect the rules represented by the flowchart shown in Fig. 16.
VII. C ONCLUSION
This paper proposes the control aspects of energy recuperation of a two front-wheel-driven EV. The hybrid model is
based on a dual energy storage system and braking resistor
dissipation. The main storage element is a lithium-ion battery
(lithium manganese oxide technology) having a high energy
density relative to the UC used as a storage element for
acceleration and deceleration (high power density).
A logical circuit assures the switching of energy recuperation between the battery and the UC. A three-level converter
has been used to recover the energy to the UC. When the UC
is full, the energy is dispatched to the battery. If the battery
voltage or current constraints are violated, the IGBT chopper
connected to the braking resistor will be activated according
to a pseudocascade controller.
The synthesis of the regulators and their integration in the
global system constitute an important part of the overall work.
The validation of the hybrid energy storage system and its
corresponding controllers has been verified in a more comprehensive simulation model representing the vehicle, including
the inverters/motors association and control and the braking
system quantification and distribution.
Three simulation tests have been performed under extreme
braking conditions and for different vehicle speeds and road
types. The first test will validate the energy recovering at a
medium friction road for a minimal SOC of the UC. The
second test will be performed at a low-friction road, verifying
the switching operation between the UC and the battery.
At the third test, for a high friction road coefficient and a
high battery SOC, the braking resistor controller will be then
activated. These tests have validated the controller synthesis
applied to the three-level dc/dc converter, showing an accurate
UC voltage and current tracking performance and fast dynamic
response. The electrical transient signals and the evolution of
the system states under hard conditions of operation are also
represented. The switching between the UC and the battery
according to the designed sequential logic system has been
demonstrated. The pseudocascade controller performance and
control strategy of the IGBT chopper are also verified.
The obtained results show the realistic and the coherent
aspect of the integrated model, demonstrating more and more
the functionality of the use of the simulation software as a first
step to the final prototype. An experimental validation at scaledown vehicle prototype will be designed and developed after
testing the consistency of each modules of the overall system.
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Alexandre De Bernardinis (M12) was born

in 1972. He received the engineering degree in electrical engineering from the cole Polytechnique de
lUniversit de Nantes, Nantes, France, in 1995, the
D.E.A. (M.Sc.) degree from the University of Nancy,
Nancy, France, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the
Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine, Nancy,
in 2000, and the Diploma degree Habilitation
Diriger des Recherches (accreditation to supervise research) from the cole Normale Suprieure
de Cachan, Cachan, France, and Paris-Saclay
University, France, in 2015.
Since 2001, he has been a Research Scientist at Institut Franais des
Sciences et Technologies des Transports, de lAmnagement et des Rseaux
(French institute of science and technology for transport, spatial planning,
development and networks), Versailles, France, and the Systmes et Applications des Technologies de lInformation et de lEnergie Laboratory, cole
Normale Suprieure de Cachan, Cachan. His current research interests include
power electronic architectures for fuel cells systems, fault-tolerant aspects
of electrical drives, and energy management for transport and microgrid
applications.

Khaled Itani received the engineering degree

from cole Suprieure dElectricit (Suplec), Paris,
France, in 1998. He is currently pursuing the
Ph.D. degree with the cole Normale Suprieure de
Cachan, Cachan, France.
In 1999, he became a Lecturer at Institut Suprieur
des Sciences Appliques et Economiques-CNAM
Liban, Beirut, Lebanon, the associated Lebanese
Center with the Conservatoire National des Arts et
Mtiers, Beirut. In 2006, he became the Electrical
Chief with the Department of Institut Suprieur des
Sciences Appliques et Economiques-Cnam Liban. He was a Consultant in the
industrial and electrical fields. His research interests include the regenerative
braking recovery for electric vehicles.

Mohamad Oueidat received the engineering degree

in electrical engineering from the Electricity High
School (Suplec), Paris, France, in 1993, and the
D.E.A. (M.S.) degree in electrical engineering and
the Ph.D. degree from the University of Paris VI,
Paris, in 1993 and 1997, respectively.
From 1997 to 2000, he was an Associate Professor
with the Institute of Applied and Economic Sciences
(associated with CNAM, Paris). From 2000 to 2015,
he was an Associate Professor with the University
Institute of Technology, Lebanese University, Saida,
Lebanon, where he is currently a Professor. His current research interests
include power electronics, signal processing, data compression, and data
mining.

Zoubir Khatir (M16) received the Dipl.-Ing.

degree in solid-state physics and the Ph.D. degree
from the Institut National des Sciences Appliques
de Toulouse, Toulouse, France, in 1984 and 1988,
respectively.
He has been with the Laboratory of New Technology, French National Institute for Transport and
Safety Research, Versailles, France, since 1988,
where he is in charge of high-power semiconductor
device modeling and computer-aided design tool
development. He is currently a Senior Scientist with
the Systmes et Applications des Technologies de lInformation et de lEnergie
Laboratory, French Institute of Science and Technology for Transport, Development and Networks, Versailles, France. His current research interests
include the reliability in high-temperature environments of silicon and wide
bandgap high-power electronic devices in the field of transport applications.

Ahmad Jammal (SM00) received the Ph.D. degree

in electrical engineering from Lyon-I University,
Lyon, France, in 1986 and the diploma degree
Habilitation Diriger des Recherches from the
same university in 1994.
He was a Research and Development Engineer
with Leroy-Somer Enterprise, Angouleme, France,
from 1986 to 1988. He was a Professor of Power
Electronics, Machines and Drives with University
Claude Bernard-Lyon I, Lyon, from 1988 to 1996,
and Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon, from
1996 to 2002. He teaches courses on ac/dc drives and systems at the
Conservatoire National des Arts et Mtiers, Beirut. He has been the Director
General of Higher Education at Lebanon, since 2002, and is currently the
Vice President of the Council of Higher Education.