C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Chng 1
C S TON HC
1.1 TENX V C HC MI TRNG LIN TC (CHMTLT)
Cc i lng vt l, hnh hc c trng cho tnh cht ca mi trng lin tc c
bn cht khng ph thuc vo vic la chn h ta . Trong mi h ta , cc i
lng ny c biu din qua mt s cc gi tr gi l thnh phn ca cc i lng.
Khi thay i h trc ta , cc thnh phn ny thay i, song theo mt quy tc nht
nh. Nhng i lng trong CHMTLT c thnh phn thay i theo quy lut c gi
l tenx. Nh vy, tenx nh mt i tng ton hc, tn ti c lp vi cc h trc
ta .
Cc nh lut vt l ca CHMTLT thng c biu din bng ngn ng tenx, di
dng cc phng trnh tenx. Quy lut bin i cc thnh phn tenx khi thay i h
ta mang tnh tuyn tnh v ng nht nn cc phng trnh tenx ng trong
h ta ny th cng ng trong h ta khc.
Sc mnh ca cc php tnh tenx trong CHMTLT chnh l tnh bt bin ca cc
h thc tenx i vi php bin i ta .
Nu php bin i gii hn ch nhng h ta vung gc th tenx c gi l
tenx cc. Tenx cc s dng kh nhiu trong CHMTLT nn thut ng tenx
trong gio trnh ny c hiu l tenx cc nu khng c ch thch g thm.
Tenx phn loi theo hng hay cp ng vi s thnh phn ca n.
V d: Trong khng gian clt ba chiu, chng hn khng gian vt l thng thng,
tenx hng N c 3N thnh phn.
*

Tenx hng khng: 30 = 1 thnh phn.

Tenx hng khng ch c mt thnh phn trong h ta bt k. l i lng

v hng (scalar).
a

a, song a = a

V d: khi lng, mt , nhit , chiu di . . .

*

Tenx hng nht: 31 = 3 thnh phn

Tenx hng nht c 3 thnh phn ta trong khng gian 3 chiu, gi l vct.
V d: vn tc, lc, gia tc...
* Tenx hng hai (cn gi l iaic), rt cn thit trong vic miu t cc c trng
trong CHMTLT, gm 32 = 9 thnh phn.
V d: ng sut ij, bin dng ij
* Tenx hng ba (triaic), tenx hng bn (ttraic) v.v cng c nh ngha v
s dng nhiu trong CHMTLT.

Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

1.2 V HNG V VCT

1.2.1 Khi nim
V hng: Cc i lng vt l ch c ln, nh khi lng, chiu di, thi
gian (tenx hng 0)
K hiu: v hng a, b, c (ch thng, nt nghing)
Vct: Cc i lng vt l c trng bi tr s v hng, nh lc Fi, vn tc vi, gia
tc ai
K hiu: vct a, b, c (ch in m) hoc a , b, c (ch thng, c gch di)
Tr s vct a , k hiu l a hoc a
Hai vct bng nhau nu cng hng v di
Vct n v: c di n v, k hiu l hoc i
Vct m so vi vct cho l vct c cng mun nhng hng ngc li.
e
a

Hnh 1.1: Cc vct

1.2.2 Cng v tr vct
Quy tc hnh bnh hnh hay tam gic:
c = a+b

(1.1)
b

a+b
a

a+b

b
b

-b
a-b=d

a+b

b+g g

a+b+g

Hnh 1.2. Cac phep tnh vector

Tnh giao hon:
a+b = b+a

(1.2)

Tnh cht kt hp (hnh 2c)

(a+b) + g = a+(b+ g)

(1.3)

Nhn vct vi v hng: c tnh kt hp v phn b

Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Nhn vct vi nghch o mun ca n s nhn c vct n v c cng hng:

b
b =
b
Biu din vct:

(1.4)
z, 3
a

k
O

y, 2

x, 1

Hnh 1.3. H vect c s

Trong h ta trc giao cc (h ta thun), bt c vct no cng c biu

din dng t hp tuyn tnh ca ba vct khc khng, khng ng phng cho trc
ca h, gi l vct c s.

H vct c s trc chun: h vct n v to nn tam din thun trong h ta

cc. V d: i, j, k - h vct c s trc chun nh trn hnh 1.3
Vct a bt k c biu din theo h c s trc chun nh sau:
a = a x i + a y j + a zk

( 1.5)

1.2.3 Tch v hng v tch vct:

Tch v hng:
a

b
Hnh 1.4. Tch vo hng vec t

a.b = a b cos = abcos

(1.6)

Tch v hng ca cc vct c s trc chun:

i = j j= k k = 1
j= j k = k i = 0

(1.7)

a = a x i + a y j + a z k
b = bx i + b y j + bz k
a.b = axbx + ayby + azbz

(1.8)

Tnh cht ca tch v hng

Giao hon:
Chng 1. C S TON HC

a.b = b.a
3

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

a.(b+c) = a.b + b.c

Phn b:

z, 3

k
O

y, 2

x, 1

Hnh 1.5. Phng vector

v = v x i + v y j + v z k
Trong :
vx = vi = v .1. cos
Vct n v theo hng v

v =
V :

v
= v x i + v y j + v z k = (cos )i + (cos )j + (cos )k
v

(1.9)

v x = v .i = cos

v y = v .j = cos

(cos, cos , cos l cosin ch phng ca v )

v z = v .k = cos

(1.10)

Gc gia hai vct:

a.b = ab cos

cos =

a x bx + a y b y + a z bz
a.b
= 2
2
ab
(a x + a y + a z2 )1 / 2 .(bx2 + b y2 + bz2 )1 / 2

Tch vct:(hnh 1.6)

c =axb

Hnh 1.6. Tch vector

c trc giao vi a v b sao cho a, b, c to thnh h thun
Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

a x b = -b x a = (absin ),

(0 )

(1.11)

c vct n v c hng sao cho khi quay theo quy tc bn tay phi (quy tc vn nt
chai ) quanh c mt gc s dn a n b. Moun c bng din tch hnh bnh hnh.
Tch vct khng giao hon:

a x b = -b x a
i vi h vct c s trc chun

i x i = j x j = k x k = 0
i x j = k , j x k = i , k x j = i

j x i = - k , k x j = - i , i x k = - j
Hnh 1.7 Hoan v ch so

Tch vct c tnh phn b

a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c
a x b = (aybz azby) i + (azbx axbz) j + (axby - aybx) k
hay

a x b = ax

ay

az

bx

by

bz

Tch vct khng kt hp, tch vct kp:

a x (b x c) ( a x b) x c
Mc n biu thc trn ch th t nhn.
Biu thc: a x b.c c ngha l (a x b).c y khng cn ngoc n v biu thc ny
ch c ngha khi ta tnh tch vct trc.
Tch hn hp:

c b
a

Hnh 1.8. Bieu dien tch hon hp

[abc] = a x b.c = a.b x c =

ax

ay

az

bx

by

bz

cx

cy

cz

(1.13)

Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

C tr s bng th tch hnh hp xin c cnh a, b, c. Nh vy tch hn hp, tch

vct v tch v hng c th i ch cho nhau.
Xc nh vct n v trc giao vi hai hng cho trc: phi xc nh n vung gc
vi a v b
n
n =

a v b

a.b
a.b

(1.14)

1.3 K HIU CH S V BIU TNG

Thnh phn tenx hng bt k c th biu din r v gn nh k hiu ch s.

V d: ai, bj, Tij , ijk , Rpq ..

Ch s t do (hoc c ngha) l ch s gp mt ln trong biu thc, c th nhn cc
gi tr t 1, 2,., n (n nguyn dng, xc nh khong bin thin ca ch s).
Ch s tng (hoc cm) l ch s lp li hai ln trong biu thc. Ch s cm mt i khi
tng c thc hin v c th thay n bng bt k ch khc m khng thay i gi tr
phn t.
Quy c php ly tng: Ch s lp hai ln c ngha ch s ny ly tt c cc gi tr
trong khong bin thin ca ch s v mi thnh phn tng ng vi mi mt gi tr
ca ch s c cng li.
V d:

ai bi

= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

akmbm = ak1b1 + ak2b2 + ak3b3

gss

= g11 + g22 + g33

Mt ch s t do c vit ng nu n xut hin trong mi mt phn t ca h thc

tenx.
V d:

cij cjkxk tng theo j v k, vit ng

cmj cmm xm ch s m lp 4 ln, khng hiu c
xj = aij bi + dj ng
xj = aij bi + dk khng c ngha

Hng tenx ca phn t cho bng ch s t do trong phn t ny.

p
+ Tenx hng nht (cc vct): ai, ai, aijbj, Fikk, R qp
, ijkujvk

+ Tenx hng hai: c vit di dng Dij , D ij hoc D ij , Dij

Trong h trc ta cc khng c s phn bit ch s trn v di ca tenx
(thnh phn phn bin v hp bin). iu ny khc vi h ta cong.
+ Cn tenx hng khng (v hng) , kk
Trong khng gian vt l thng thng: vct a bt k hon ton c cho bi ba
thnh phn ai (xem 1.2)

Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

(ai) = (a1, a2, a3) hay

{ ai }

a1

= a2
a
3

Tenx hng 2 (iaic) Aij ( i,j = 1,2,3) c 9 thnh phn:

A11
[ Aij] = A21
A31

A12

A13
A23
A33

A22
A32

Tng qut, tenx hng N trong khng gian n chiu c nN thnh phn.
K hiu ch s (hay biu tng Gibbs) tht thun tin vit cc h phng trnh rt
gn.
V d:

1) vi = ij nj ( i = 1,2,3)
c dng khai trin
v1 =11 n1 + 12 n2 +13 n3
.

. . .

. .

. .

v3 = 31 n1 + 32 n2 + 33 n3
2) i,j = 1, 2 th biu thc
Aij = Bip Cjq Dpq
C dng khai trin l 4 h thc
A11 = B11 C11 D11 + B11 C12 D12 + B12 C11 D21 + B12 C12 D22
A12 = B11 C21 D11 + B11 C22 D12 + B12 C21 D21 + B12 C22 D22
A21 = B21 C11 D11 + B21 C12 D12 + B22 C11 D21 + B22 C12 D22
A22 = B21 C21 D11 + B21 C22 D12 + B22 C21 D21 + B22 C22 D22
Mt s k hiu c bit:
K hiu Kronecker delta ij (tenx n v hng hai)
1 ,
ij =
0 ,

i= j
i j

(1.15)

11 = 22 = 33 =1; 12 = 23 =31 =21 = 32 =13 = 0

K hiu hon vijk (tenx hng ba Levi-Chivit)
1
ijk =

-1
0

nu i,j,k = 1,2,3 hoc lp thnh hon v chn t 1,2,3

nu lp thnh hon v l t 1,2,3
nu hai ch s bt k bng nhau

(1.16)

V d: ii = 11 + 22 +33 = 3

Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

1.4 I S TENX -CC

1.4.1 Quy lut bin i thnh phn tenx
Cho xi v xi' l hai h ta cc trc giao c chung gc ta 0
aij = cos( xi , x 'j )

(1.17)

Xc nh h s aij nh sau:
x1'

x 2'

x3'

x1

a11

a12

a13

x2

a21

a22

a23

x3

a31

a32

a33

Theo nh ngha ca cosin ch phng (1.10) ta c:

x3

x3

v
x2

-1

cos a13
-1

cos a31

x1

x2

x1
Hnh 1.9. Xoay he truc toa o
Ni chung, a ij a ji (Xem Hnh 1.9)
Biu din vct n v i j trong h ta xi'

i = a11 i ' + a12 i ' + a13 i '

1
1
2
3
. ....... ..................

i = a31 i ' + a32 i ' + a33 i '

3
1
2
3
Hay

i = aik i '
i
k

i ' = a11 i + a21 i + a31 i

1
1
2
3

( 1.18)

. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

'
3

Hay

= a13 i1 + a23 i 2 + a33 i 3

i ' = aki i
i
k

(1.19)

Vct v c th biu din nh sau:

Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

v = v1i1 + v2 i 2 + v3i3
v = v ' i ' + v ' i ' + v ' i '
1 1

Hay

v =

Theo (1.19)

2 2

=

v i

k k

3 3

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

v j i 'j
'

= v 'j akj i k

( v k v 'j a kj ) i k = 0

Hay
Suy ra:

v k = akj v 'j

(ch s th nht k ca akj l ch s t do)

(1.20)

y l quy lut bin i thnh phn vct khi quay trc ta .

Tng t:

v 'j i 'j = v m i m
Theo (1.18)

v 'j i 'j = v m a mk i k'

( v k' v m a mk ) i k' = 0

v k' = a mk v m

Hay

(1.21)
(ch s 2 t do)

Do tnh cht ca h vct c s trc chun:

i ' . i ' = pq v
p
q

i . i = nm
n
m

Ta c:
akp i k . alq. i l = pq

ank i k' . aml. il' = nm

akp . alq. i k . i l = pq

ank aml. kl =

nm

Suy ra:
akp. akq = pq v ank amk =nm

(1.22)

y l iu kin trc giao ca ma trn quay gm 9 phng trnh. Ma trn chuyn i

h ta [aij] l ma trn quay trc giao
Php bin i tuyn tnh dng (1.20) hay (1.21) chnh l qui lut bin i thnh phn
tenx cc bc nht khi xoay h trc ta .
Theo quy tc bin i vct (1.21) ca ui vj ta c:
uivj' = ( api up ) ( aqj vq ) = api aqj up vq
M rng cng thc (1.23), ta c qui tc bin i tenx cc bt k hng hai:

(1.23)

Tij = api aqj Tpq

(1.24)

Nhn (1.24) vi aki alj, s dng iu kin trc giao (1.22), thu c
Chng 1. C S TON HC

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Tij = aip ajq Tpq

(1.25)

Tng qut ha cho tenx cc hng N

Tijk = api aqj ark Tpqr

(1.26)

Tijk = aip ajq akr Tpqr

(1.27)

V ngc li:
Khi nim tenx cc
Tenx cc l i lng c cc thnh phn khi chuyn t h ta ny sang h ta
khc th bin i theo qui lut (1.26) v (1.27)

V d: Cho vct a = (2,1,1) xc nh trong h trc xi. Tm ai khi quay x1, x2 quanh
x3 mt gc 300.
Li gii:
x1

x2

x3

x1

cos300

cos1200

cos900

x2

cos600

cos300

cos900

x3

cos900

cos900

cos00

x2

x2
30

x1

300

x1

x3, x3

Hnh 1.10. V d

[a ]
ij

2
1
=
2
0

1
2
3
2
0

= [a ]
=
T

ij

0
0
1

2
1

2
0

Chng 1. C S TON HC

1
2
3
2
0

0
0
1

2 2,232
1 = 1,344

1 1

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

1.4.2 Cc php tnh tenx

Cng tenx cc (tenx cng hng): Tng hoc hiu hai tenx A v B cng hng l
tenx T cng hng, mi thnh phn ca T l tng hoc hiu hai thnh phn tng
ng cng ch s ca hai tenx A v B.
Aijk Bijk = Tijk

(1.28)

Tch v hng vi tenx cho tenx mi cng hng

hoc b = a

bi = ai

Bij = Aij hoc B = A

Nhn tenx (nhn ngoi)
Tch ngoi ca hai tenx hng ty l mt tenx mi m mi thnh phn ca n c
biu din bng tch c th c ca tng thnh phn tenx ny vi tng thnh phn
tenx kia theo ng th t ch s. Tng hng cc tenx thnh phn l hng ca tenx
nhn c.
V d:

aibj = Tij

i Fjk = ijk

Dij Tkm = ijkm

ijk vm = ijkm

V d: a (1, 2, 3), b (2, 2, 3)

Cij = ai bj
C11 = a1b1 = 1.2 = 2 , c12 = a1b2 = 2
C21 = a2b1 = 2.2 = 4 , c22 = a2b2 = 4
C31 = a3b1= 3.2 = 6 , c32 = a3b2 = 6
C13 = a1b3 = 1.3 =3
C23 = a2b3 = 2.3 = 6
C33 = a3b3 = 3.3 = 9

2
Tc = 4
6

2
4
6

3
6
9

Php cun hay co tenx (php ly tng) cho ta tenx mi (tch chp) c hng gim 2
n v so vi tenx ban u.
V d:

Tii , uivi
Eij aj , Eii ak

Php nhn trong: kt hp ng thi php nhn ngoi v php cun tenx.
V d: tch v hng aibi hay a b
Tch vct:

ijk ajbk = a x b

Nhn ngoi

Nhn trong

K hiu biu tng

aibj

aibi

ab

aiEjk

aiEik = bk

aE = b

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

Eij Ekm

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

EijFjm = Gim

EF = G

1.5 MA TRN V NH THC

1.5.1 nh ngha
Bng ch nht cc phn t t trong du ngoc vung v tun theo mt quy tc kt
hp nht nh, c gi l ma trn.

A11 A12 ... A1N

A
A22 ... A2 N
[ Aij] = 21

AM 1 AM 2 ... AMN

M hng, N ct

(1.29)

Ma trn [Aij]: i - s th t hng, j - s th t ct

Nu M=N: ma trn vung

Ma trn hng 1xN

[A1k] = [A11, A12,

(1.30)

Ma trn ct Mx1

[Ak1] =

A1N] hay (A1k)

A11
A
21

AM 1

(hay {ak 1} )

(1.31)

Tenx c th biu din bng ma trn:

V d: [ij], (vi) hay {vi}

Cc khi nim

Ma trn khng: cc phn t bng khng

Ma trn cho: ma trn vung c cc phn t nm ngoi ng cho chnh

bng khng

Ma trn n v I: nu cc phn t trn ng cho bng n v

1
I=

0
1


Ma trn chuyn v: [Aij]T (nhn t ma trn [Aij] bng cch i hng thnh ct)

Ma trn i xng:[ Aij]T= [Aij]

Ma trn phn i xng:Aij = -Aji

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Suy ra, i vi ma trn phn i xng, Aii = 0.

1.5.2 Cc php tnh ma trn
Cng ma trn: ma trn cng cu trc c th cng (hay tr) phn t vi phn t
V d:

A11
A2 x 3 =
A21

A12

A13
,
A23

A22

B11
B2 x 3 =
B21

B12

B13

B22

B23

A11+ B11  A13 + B13

C 2 x 3 = A2 x 3 + B2 x 3 =

A21+ B21  A23 + B23

Nhn ma trn v v hng

kA11  kA13
kA2 x 3 =

kA21  kA23
Nhn hai ma trn A, B: ch xc nh trong trng hp hai ma trn tng thch
(comformable) c ngha l s ct ca A bng s hng ca B
VD:

ALxM BMxN : tng thch

BMxN ALxM : khng tng thch

Ma trn nhn vi nhau khng c tnh giao hon.

K hiu: C=AB
Hoc

[Cik] = [Aij] . [Bij]

(MxN)

(MxP)

(1.32)

(PxN)

Quy tc: tng ly t 1 n P cho ch s cm (ch s lp).

Tnh cht:
T

Aij B jk [Ckl ] = [Ckl ] B jk Aij

(1.33)

Trong khng gian Euclid 3 chiu, quytc bin i vct v tenx bc 2 c th biu
din dng ma trn:
T

(1.34)

{v 'i } = aij {vi }

T

(1.35)

{vi } = aij {v 'i }

T

T 'ij = a pi T pq aqj
Tij = aip T ' pq a jq

Chng 1. C S TON HC

(1.36)
(1.37)

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

1.5.3 nh thc ma trn vung

K hiu:

Aij hay det [Aij ]

nh thc con ca phn t Aij: k hiu Mij l nh thc cn li ca ma trn vung [Aij]
sau khi loi b hng v ct cha Aij
Phn ph i s:
Aij* = ( 1) i + j M ij

nh ngha nh thc ca [Aij]: tng cc tch s ca phn t theo hng (hoc ct bt

k) nhn vi phn ph i s tng ng:

[ ]

det Aij = Aij Aij* (i l hng bt k , khng ly tng theo i)

j =1

[ ]

det Aij = Aij Aij* (j l ct bt k , khng ly tng theo j)

(1.38)

i =1

nh l 5.1
Gi tr nh thc khng thay i nu ta i hng vi ct
det [Aij] = det [Aij]T

(1.39)

nh l 5.2
Nu thay i hai hng (hay hai ct) bt k, nh thc s i du.
nh l 5.3
Nu hai hng (hai ct) ging nhau hoc t l, nh thc bng 0.
nh l 5.4
Nu [Aij] v [Bij] l hai ma trn vung cng bc, th:
det [[Aij] [Bjk]]= det [Aij]det [Bjk]

(1.40)

+ Ma trn suy bin: [Aij] suy bin nu Aij = 0

+ nh thc ma trn vung [Tij] c th biu din bng ch s theo nhiu cch:
det [Tij]= ijk Ti1 Tj2 Tk3

(1.41)

= ijk T1i T2j T3k

(1.42)

ijk det [T ] = lmn T T T

ij
li mj nk

(1.43)

= lmn Til Tjm Tkn

(1.44)

det [Tij] = 1/6 ijk lmn Tli Tmj Tnk

(1.45)

= 1/6 ijk lmn Til Tjm Tkn

(1.46)

+ Ma trn lin hp: thu c bng cch thay mi phn t bng phn ph i s sau
i hng v ct.

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

+ Ma trn nghch o: Nu ma trn vung [Aij] khng suy bin th s tn ti ma trn

nghch o [Aij]-1, xc nh nh sau:
Aij*
Aij =
Aij
1

(1.47)

Tnh cht
[Aij]-1[Aij] = [Aij][Aij]-1= I (ma trn n v)
1.6 H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH & BI TON TR RING
1.6.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh:

11 x1 + .... + 1n x n = b1

x + .... + x = b
nn n
n
n1 1
[ ij ] {x j } =

{bi }

(1.48)
hay

ij xj = bi

(n xn)

bi, ij - nhng s hng bit, xi - n s

Nu

{bi } = {0}

Nu

{bi } {0} h c gi l khng thun nht

h c gi l thun nht

Nghim h phng trnh (1.48)

Cramer:

{xi } =

{x } = [ ] {b } )
1

ij

{ i }
det[ ij ]

c xc nh theo quy tc
(1.49)

Hay dng ch s:
xi =

i
det[ ij ]

(1.50)

Trong i, i = 1, 2,, n l nh thc nhn c t [ij] bng cch b i ct i

thay vo l ct ma trn {bi }.

C 4 trng hp:
Trng hp 1: det [ij]#0, {bi } # 0
Nghim duy nht v khng tm thng
Trng hp 2: det [ij]#0, {bi } =0
Nghim duy nht v l nghim tm thng
Trng hp 3: det [ij]=0, {bi } =0

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

C v s nghim. Cc phng trnh ca h ph thuc tuyn tnh. y l

trng hp c lin quan ti bi ton tr ring.
Trng hp 4: det [ij]=0, {bi } # 0
Tn ti v s nghim, nu mi i trong (6.2) bng 0. Nu khng s khng

c nghim.

V d 1: (trng hp 1)

x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 = 8

2 x1 + x 2 + x3 = 7
x + x + x = 6
2
3
1
1
[ Aij ] = 2
1

1
1
1

1
1

Tm nghim bng hai cch:

[ Aij ]1 =

(i )

adj[ Aij ]
[ Aij ]

adj[ Aij ] = ?
* Ma trn phn ph i s C:

0
C = 1
1
* nh thc

0
adjA = C = 1
1

1
1
3

(a)

{A}=(0)1+2(-1) +1(1)= -1

1
0
1

0
[ Aij ] = 1
1
1

[ ]

{xi } = Aij

1
0
1

1
0
1

0
{b j } = 1
1

Chng 1. C S TON HC

(b)

1
1
3
1
1
3
1
0
1

1
1
3

8 1

7 = 2
6 3

(c)

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

(ii ) Cramer :
8
1 = 7

2
1

1
1 = 1

2 = 2

1 = 2

3 = 2

7 = 3

, x1 =

1
1
=
=1
det[ A] 1

, x2 =

2
2
=
=2
det[ A] 1

, x3 =

3
3
=
=3
det[ A] 1

V d 2:
det[ ij ] 0 , {b j } = 0

{xi } = [Aij ]

0
{b j } = 1
1

1 0 0

1 0 = 0
3 0 0

0
1

V d 3:
det[ ij ] = 0 , {bi } = 0

x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = 0

2 x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
3x + 3x + 2 x = 0
2
3
1

(a )
(b)
(c )

det A = 2
3

1
3

1 =0
2

Phng trnh (c) =phng trnh (a) + phng trnh (b) suy ra ta c 2 phng trnh, 3
n s :

x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 = 0

2 x1 + x 2 + x3 = 0
x1 x 2 = 0

khng ph thuc tuyn tnh

V s nghim
x1 = x2 = 0 ,

x3 = 0

(nghim tm thng)

x1 = x2 = 1 ,

x3 = -3

x1 = x2 = 10 ,

x3 = -30

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

y l bi ton tr ring
Trng hp 4:

ij = 0 ,

{b } 0
j

T cng thc Cramer, ta suy ra nghim bt nh, vi mi (i = 0

Nu khng, h phng trnh s v nghim

x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 = 1

2 x1 + x 2 + x3 = 2
3 x + 3 x + 2 x = 3
2
3
1

(a)
(b)
(c )

D thy 1=2=3 = 0
V phng trnh (c) =phng trnh (a) + phng trnh (b) cho nn ch c (a) v (b) c
lp tuyn tnh
x1 x2 = 1
V s nghim:
x1 =1 , x2 = 0 , x3 = 0
x1 =2 , x2 = 1 , x3 = -3 v.v.
1.6.2 Bi ton tr ring

1. Khi nim:
Xt h n phng trnh thun nht:
[ ij] {xj } {xi } = 0

(1.51a)

(ij - ij) xj = 0

(1.51b)

Hay dng ch s:
Vi l mt s, ij k hiu Kronecker.
(1.51a) hay (1.51b) s c nghip khng tm thng nu phng trnh:
Det[ij - ij] = 0

(1.52)

l phng trnh a thc bc n i vi .

Bi ton biu th dn n phng trnh dng (1.51) c gi l bi ton tr ring.
+ Phng trnh a thc bc n (1.52) c gi l phng trnh c trng, nghim
ca n c gi l tr ring ca ma trn [ij].
+ ng vi mi tr ring c mt nghim {xj}#0, tc l nghim khng tm thng
ca (1.51), c gi l vect ring hay vect c trng.
+ k l tr ring. Khi , theo (1.51)
[ij] {xj (k)}= k {xj (k)}

( ) , khng ly tng theo k

(1.53a)

hay

ij xj (k)= k xj (k)

( )

(1.53b)

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Cc phng trnh (1.53a) l ph thuc tuyn tnh, cho nn cc vc t ring

x1(k) , x2(k) , , xn(k) khng xc nh c mt cch tng minh m c xc nh
di dng tha s ca mt cc vec t trn, chng hn xl(k) v phi khc 0.
C th chng minh tnh cht sau:

Ma trn i xng thc c tr ring thc v cc vect ring trc giao

0 , ( k l )
xj(k) xj(l) =
1 , ( k = l )

(1.54)

Chng minh: ????

2. Chuyn i ma trn v dng ng cho
Xt ma trn thc, i xng (trng hp M=N=3)
Xy dng ma trn P c ct l nhng vect ring c chun ha thnh vct n
v:
( x (jk ) x (jk ) - vect ring n v)
x1(1)

P = x2(1)
x (1)
3

x1(3)

x2(3)
x3(3)

x1(2)
x2(2)
x3(2)

, Pij = xi( j ) ij

(1.55)

Pji = x (ji ) ji
Ma trn chuyn tr PT c dng:
x1(1)

PT = x1( 2)
x (3)
1

x 2(1)
x 2( 2 )
x 2(3)

x 3(1)

x 3( 2)
x 3(3)

, PT P = I ( ma trn n v)

P l ma trn trc giao. Tht vy, t (1.54) ta c:

ij ik = ik
Ta xt:

ij x (jk ) = ij jk

(1.56)
(1.57)

Mt khc, t (1.53a):

(1)
ij x (1)
j = 1 xi
(2)
ij x (2)
j = 2 xi
(3)
ij x (3)
j = 3 xi
T , ta xy dng

ij x (jk ) = k x i( k ) , (khng ly tng theo k)

Hay:

ij ik = k ik , (khng ly tng theo k)

Chng 1. C S TON HC

(1.58)

19

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

T (1.57) v (1.58):

ij jk = k ik

(1.59)

Nhn c hai v (1.59) vi il :

ijjkil = kikil
hay :

ijjkil= klk

(1.60)
(1.61)

C th vit di dng ma trn

[ il ] [ ij ][ jk ]
T

1
= 0
0

2
0

0
0
3

(1.62)

(3 3)
C th m rng cho trng hp n bt k

3. Ta chun v ta m rng
H n phng trnh tuyn tnh:
(1.63a)

ij x j = bi
ij { x j } = {bi }
a ra php bin i tuyn tnh:

(1.63b)
(1.64a)

x j = jk yk

{ x } = { y }
j

jk

(1.64b)

t (1.64a) vo (1.63a):
(1.65)

ij jk yk = bi
Nhn hai v vi il, s dng (1.65), tm c

l yl = il bi

( )

(1.66)

Hay

yl =

il bi
l

( )

(1.67)

Nh vy, phng trnh (1.48) c th tch ra bng php bin i (1.64a)

Ta gi y l ta chun, x - ta suy rng.

4. Dng ton phng

Dng ton phng ca ta suy rng xi:
T

V = { xi } ij { x j } = ij xi x j
Vi php bin i (1.64a), V c dng chnh tc ca ta chun yl:

(1.68)

V = k yk yk = 1 y12 + 2 y22 + ... + n yn2

(1.69)

k =1

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Tnh xc nh dng:
(i)Vi V xc nh theo (1.68): Ma trn thc, i xng [ij] v dng ton phng
(1.68) c xem l xc nh dng nu V>0 vi mi {xi} thc #{0}.

iu kin cn v [ij] v V xc nh dng l (theo Frazer, Duncan v Collar,

1938):

11 12 13
11 12
> 0 , 21 22 23 > 0 , , det ij > 0
11 > 0,

21 22
31 32 33

(1.70)

(ii) Vi dng chnh tc (1.69), tnh xc nh dng c tha khi v ch khi mi I>0

Mt s trng hp ring
+Xt phng trnh c trng (1.52), khi n=2

11 12
=0,
21
22

ij = ji

(1.71)

2 ( 11 + 22 ) + ( 11 22 12 )2 = 0

Nghim:
1

1
2
2 2

1,2 = 11 + 22 ( 11 22 ) + 4 12

(1.72)

+Xt phng trnh c trng (1.52), khi n=3

3- I12 + I2 -I3 = 0

(1.73)

Vi
I1= ii

(1.74a)

12 22 23 11 13

I 2 = 11
+

+
21 22 32 33 31 33

(1.74b)

I 3 = det[ ij ]

(1.74c)

I1, I2, I3 l bt bin.

Tht vy, vi [ii] trng vi ma trn chnh tc:

0

Ta c: det ij ij = (1 )(2 )(3 )

Khi = 0: ij = 123
Phng trnh c trng (1.52) c dng:

3 (1 + 2 + 3 ) 2 + (12 + 23 + 31 ) 123 = 0

(1.75)

So snh (1.73), v (1.75), rt ra Ik (k=1, 2, 3) bt bin.

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Nghim ca phng trnh (1.73):

a ra k hiu:
1 2

a = 3 ( I1 3I 2 )

b = 1 (2 I 3 9 I I + 27 I )
1
1 2
3

27

(1.76)

Ta c th ch ra 27b2 4a3 0
(i)Nu 27b2 4a3= 0 c 3 nghim thc, trong t nht 2 nghim bng nhau
1

1 = (4b) 3 +

I1
3

(1.77a)

b 3 I
2 = 3 = + 1
3
2
2
3
(ii) Nu 27b -4a < 0, c 3 nghim thc khc nhau

(1.77b,c)

a 2
I
1 = 2 cos + 1
3
3 3

(1.78a)

a 2
2 + I1
2 = 2 cos
+
3
3 3

(1.78b)

a 2
4 + I1
3 = 2 cos
+
3
3 3
3 3b
cos =
3
2a 2
1.7. Trng tenx. Cc nh l
1.7.1. Trng tenx

(1.78c)
(1.79)

x3
xi,t
0

x2

x1

Hnh 1.11 Khong gian xi, t

nh ngha:
ng vi mi im x ca khng gian v mi thi im thi gian t, tenx T (x,t)
c mt gi tr. Tp hp mi gi tr to thnh trng tenx: (x,t) (T (x,t)
Bn knh vct x (hay xi) bin i trong min cho ca khng gian,
t thay i trong khong thi gian cho.
Chng 1. C S TON HC

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Trng tenx lin tc (hay kh vi) nu thnh phn ca trng l lin tc (kh vi)
theo xi v t.
Nu cc thnh phn l hm s ch ph thuc vo x th trng tenx c gi l
dng.
Trong h ta cc trc giao, bn knh vct ca im bt k c biu din:
x = xi i
i

Cc trng tenx c hng khc nhau c th vit di dng ch s v biu tng:

Trng v hng
= (xi , t) hay = (x,t )
Trng vct
vi = vi(xi , t) hay v = v(x,t)
Trng tenx hng 2
Tij = Tij(xk , t) hay T = T(x,t)
1.7.2. Vi phn trng tenx
Vi phn cc thnh phn tenx theo ta xi c k hiu bng ton t vi phn

(hay (i).
xi
C th ch ra rng y l mt ton t tenx hng nht:
'
() () x j () x k
()
= '
= ' a kj
= aij '
x i x j xi x j
xi
x j

(1.80)

C th dng k hiu nabla ( vit ton t ny di dng tenx:

= i i
= ii i
x i
Vi phn theo bin xi c th vit bng ch s di sau du phy:

= ,i
x i

v i
= v i,i
x i

vi
= vi,j
x j

2 vi
= v i, jk
x j x k

Tij
x k

= Tij, k

2 Tij
x k x m

= Tij, km

Ta nhn thy khi vi phn s nhn c tenx c hng cao hn mt bc nu i l

ch s t do v thp hn mt bc nu i l ch s ly tng.

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

1.7.3. Mt vi ton t vi phn quan trng trong CHMTLT:

grad = =
ii hay i = ,i
x i

(1.81a)

div v = .v

hay i v i = v i,i

(1.81b)

rot v = x v

hay ijk i v k = ijk v k, j

(1.81c)

rot v =
x
vx

y
vy

z
vz

Ton t Laplace:
2 = .
hay

trong h ta -cc

ii= ,ii

(1.81d)

1.7.4. Cc nh l trong trng tenx

1.7.4.1 nh l phn k Gauss chuyn t tch phn khi sang tch phn mt.
Cng thc thng dng ca nh l: i vi trng vct v = v(x),

div v dV = n. v dS
V

(1.82)

Vi n l vct n v php tuyn ngoi ca mt S gii hn th tch V m trong v

c xc nh. Cng thc c vit di dng ch s:

i,i

dV = vi n i dS

(1.83)

M rng nh l trn cho trng hp tenx hng bt k:

ijk

..., p dV = Tijk ...n p dS

(1.84)

1.7.4.2 nh l Green (trong mt phng) chuyn t tch phn ng sang tch

phn mt.
S min phng kn gii hn bi chu tuyn kn C (khng t ct chnh n) trn mt
phng x1, x2. Cho hm M(x1,x2), N(x1, x2) lin tc v c o hm lin tc trong min
S. Khi :

N M
dx1dx 2
(1.85)
+ Ndx 2 ] =

x1 x 2
C
S
C th tng qut ha nh l trn thnh nh l Xtc (n =3)
1.7.4.3 nh l Xtc
i vi mi hm F = Fi ii lin tc v kh vi, tch phn ca hm F dc theo chu tuyn
kn C c th chuyn sang tch phn theo mt S c bin l chu tuyn C (xem hnh v):

[Mdx

Chng 1. C S TON HC

24

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Hnh 1.12 Mat S va bien la ng cong C

F d x = n .rotFdS

(1.86)

C th vit di dng ch s hoc khai trin:

F 3 F 2
F
F3
cos (n , x 1 ) + 1

x 3 x 1
x 2 x 3
F i dx i = (rotF) n dS =
C (*)
S
S
+ F 2 F1 cos (n , x 3 )
x 1 x 2

cos( n , x 2 ) +

dS

1.8. Hnh hc vi phn

1.8.1. ng cong v mt khng gian

x3

xi(u+
u)
xi = xi(u + u) xi(u)
xi(u)

x2

x1

Hnh 1.13 ng cong khng gian

Trong khng gian vt l thng thng, cho bn knh vct x l hm ca v hng u:
xi = xi(u) vi u - thng s. im cui xi v nn mt ng cong khng gian khi thng
s u thay i.

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

x i dx
=
tn ti, gii hn ny l vct hng theo phng tip tuyn vi
u 0 u u0
du
dx
ng cong khng gian v c thnh phn cc i
du
dx
Nu u (t, i l vn tc vi im cui xi vch nn ng cong
dt
Nu lim

2
dv i d x i

= 2 - gia tc ca im xi dc theo ng cong

dt dt
Nu u s (chiu di cung o t mt im c nh trn ng cong) th
dx i
= Ti - vct tip tuyn n v vi ng cong
ds
Nu Ni v Bi l vct php tuyn v ph php tuyn chnh n v (nh hnh v).

Tng t

x3

Ni
O

Bi

Ti
x2

x1

Hnh 1.14 Vect tiep tuyen va phap tuyen vi ng cong khong

gian
Ti, Ni v Bi vung gc i mt.
Bi=ijkTj Nk
(1.87)
Ta c cng thc Frenet Serret:
dB i
dTi
dS = KN i , dS = N i

(1.88)
dN i
dS = B i KTi

K, l cong v xon, = K-1 v = -1 bn knh cong v bn knh xon tng

ng.

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

1.8.2 Cc phng trnh ng thng v mt

Phng trnh thng s im (x1, x2, x3) nm trn ng thng ni
(y1, y2, y3) v (z1, z2, z3) (Xem Hnh 1.15 a)
x1 y1 x 2 y 2 x 3 y 3
(1.89)
=
=
z1 y1 z 2 y 2 z 3 y 3
Trn (Hnh 1.15b) biu din vct v tr xi ni yi v z vi ta :
xi = zi - yi
(1.90)
3

(y1,y2,y3)

yi
zi - yi

(x1,x2,x3)

yi
xi

zi

(z1,z2,z3)

zi

2
2
xi

1
(a)

(b)
Hnh 1.15 Bieu dien ng thang

Phng trnh mt phng i qua ba im khng thng hng (1, 2, 3),

(1, 2, 3) v (1, 2, 3):
ax1+ bx2 + cx3 +1 = 0
(1.91)
Vi a, b, c thu c t iu kin c ba im trn cng nm trn mt mt phng:

x1 1 x 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2

x 3 3
3 3 = 0
3 3

(1.92)

yi

xi

zi - xi
zi
2

1
Hnh 1.16 Mt phng cha ba im khng thng hng
Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

Phng trnh mt phng vung gc yi v i qua im cui zi c dng:

(zi xi) yi = 0
xiyi = yizI
(1.93)
Hay x1y1 + x2y2 + x3y3 = y1z1 + y2z2 +y3z3

dng khc: Chia 2 v cho y

(1.94)
xini = d
ni vct php tuyn n v v d l khong cch ngn nht t gc ta n mt
phng.
Cho mt bt k:
(xi) = const
Vi phn ton phn ti v tr xi:

d =
dx i = ,i dx i = 0
x i

grad .dx = 0

Gradient ca mt bt k l vct php tuyn i vi mt .

Thnh phn ca vct php tuyn n v vi mt (xi) = const
,i
ni =
, j , j

(1.95)

Du c chn sao cho ni hng ra ngoi b mt.

Cng c th biu din bn knh vct ca im nm trn b mt nh sau:
xi = xi( , )
(1.96)
x i
x i
Vi v l hai thng s c lp.
v
nm trn mt phng tip tuyn vi b

mt.
Vct php tuyn vi mt (1.96) s cng hng vi vct xc nh nh sau:
x j x k
ijk
0
(1.97)

ngha hnh hc:

Phng trnh b mt: = const

d=

dxi = grad. dx = 0
xi

dx tip tuyn b mt, suy ra gradsong song php tuyn vi b mt

V d: Tm n ca mt cu ti im ( 3 , 2, 3) nm trn mt cu, tm gc ta , bn
knh R = 4.
Gii: Phng trnh mt cu : x12 + x22 + x32 = 16 = A
grad A = 2x1e1 + 2x2e2 + 2x3e3

Ti ( 3 ,2,3): grad A = 2 3 e 1 + 4 + 6 e 3

gradA =

= 8

Chng 1. C S TON HC

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C HC VT RN BIN DNG

=

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

gradA
2 3
1
6
=
e1 + e 2 + e 3
gradA
8
2
8

1.9. Hm irc delta v hm bc Heaviside

1.9.1. Hm irc detta
nh ngha:
(t a) l hm suy bin v kh tch.
, t = a
(t a) =
0, t a

(1.98)

(t a)dt = 1

(b< a<c)

Nu (t)_ hm lin tc theo t trong ln cn t = a

c

(t ) (t a)dt = (a)

(b<a<c)

(1.99)

Hnh 1.18 Biu din th hm Dirac - delta

(t a)
1/2

0
t=a

Hm Dirac delta khng phi l hm s bnh thng m ng hn l gii hn ca

chui c bit cc hm s thng. Hnh 1.19 l gii hn ca hm xung (pulse).
- Biu din lc tp trung, nu t l bin s ta thi gian
- Biu din lc xung, nu t_ bin thi gian
(t)

t
0

Chng 1. C S TON HC

t=a
Hnh 1.19 Biu din hm ((t) ti t = a

29

C HC VT RN BIN DNG

PGS.TS NGUYN TH HIN LNG

1.9.2. Hm bc Heaviside
Trng thi tnh hon ton trc thi im t = 0 (c coi l mc)
1 ,
t > 0
H(t) =
t < 0
0 ,
H(t)

(1.100)

H(t a)

1
t

Hnh 1.20 Biu din th hm bc Heaviside

1.9.3. Tnh cht ca (t - a) v H(t a)
Gi thuyt (t) lin tc ti t = a
c

(t)
b

dH(t a)
d (t)
dt = (c)(1) (b)(0) H(t a)
dt =
dt
dt
b
c

(1.101)

= (c) d (t) = (a)

a

dH(t a)
= (t a)
dt
So (1.98) vi (1.99) :
(t ) (t a ) = (a ) (t a )

So vi (1.99) :

(1.102)
(1.103)

Nu (t) kh vi :
c

(t) (t a )dt =
(1)

(1)

(a) (b< a<c)

(1.104)

Chng minh: Tng qut ha, nu (t) kh vi bc n

c

(t) ( t a ) dt = ( 1)
(n)

(n) (a)

(1.105)

tn(n)(t) = (-1)n n(n 1)(n 2)(1) (t)

v tm(n)(t) = 0
(m>n)
Vi phn ca hm (t) H(t)
d
[ (t)H(t)] = (0)0)+ (1) (t)H(t)
dt
Suy rng,

n 1
dn
[

(t)H(t)
]
=
(n 1i) (0) (i) (t) + (n) (t)H(t)

dt n
i =0

Chng 1. C S TON HC

(9.9a)
(9.9b)
(9.9c)

(9.9)

30