Course 1. Introduction.

Fundamental concepts of rheology

- Heraclitus de
Samos
Everything will flow if you
wait long enough
Science of the flow and deformation of all forms of matter
was proposed by Bingham and Reiner accepted by American
Society of Rheology in 1929.
The origin comes from Greek words: rheos the river,
flowing, streaming and logos science.
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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
A rheological mathematical
model is presented by
a mathematical equation.
Constitutive equations/rheological equation of
state - mathematical equations/functions between
shear stresses/shear forces, strains/deformations or
shear rates and the material properties which describe
the material behavior.
In complex materials these equations may include
variable such as time, temperature and pressure.
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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
Rheological behavior
depends on:
-

time (the period of experiment) and

- space (considering the homogeneity or

heterogeneity of materials).
The rheological properties are important in
synthesis processes, in processing of polymers,
plastic materials, ceramic products, emulsions,
dispersions, foods, cosmetics, drugs, oils, fluid
transportation etc.
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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
Aim of Rheology
To explain the rheological properties and
measurement techniques
- To determine the behavior of fluids/materials under
a known load (e.g. ideal plastic, elastic or viscous,
viscoelastic, viscoplastic etc.)
To establish correlations between rheological
properties and composition/structure of materials
- To determine the change of rheological properties
during heating and cooling.
-

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Researches in the field of rheology:
- Amenemhet the ancient Egyptian scientist - first
description of a water clock (Antiquity);
- Leonardo da Vinci water flow in pipes and sewerage
systems;
Galileo Galilei and Robert Hooke in the field of solids
elasticity;
-

Newton liquids flow and Poiseuille laminar flow in pipes;

Euler, Voigt, Stokes, Navier etc. developed equations for

the flow of different materials, very useful for theoretical
rheology;
-

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Bingham - 1928 introduced the term of rheology for the

Fundamental concepts of rheology

The rheology is relevant in many fields of study:
-

geology and mining,

concrete technology,

soil mechanics,

tribology (study of lubrification, friction and wear),

polymers
dispersion,
-

and

composites,

point

flow

blood, bioengineering,

interfacial rheology, structural materials,

electro-rheology,

food

and

pharmaceutical

and

pigment

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products,

and

Fundamental concepts of rheology

RHEOMETRY (REOMETRIA) measuring technology used
to determine rheological data, containing the measuring
systems, instruments, test and analysis methods.
Instruments:
-

Viscometers devices that only measure viscosity;

Rheometers equipments which measure rheological

properties;
-

Both, liquids and solids can be investigated using rotational

and oscillatory rheometers.
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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Rotational instruments:
- tests with controlled shear rate (CSR) when the
speed/shear rate is set and controlled, ex. to investigate if
viscosity depends on shear strain;
- tests with controlled shear stress (CSS) when the shear
stress/ torque is set and controlled, ex. to investigate if
viscosity depends on shear rate;
- oscillatory tests used to investigate the elastic and viscous
response of the material at different oscillation frequencies.

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Rotational geometry: parallel plate, cone and plate,

concentric cylinder operate at low shear rates;
Tube types:
- glass capillary (Fenske) suitable for Newtonian
fluids; - pipes - high pressure capillary operate at high
shear rates.

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Specific deformation, shear rate and shear stress
1. DEFORMATION
2 Types of deformation:
- Volumetric strain/deformation compression and
elongation/extension/tensile/stretching

modification of the dimensions (lengths) for the same

shape and
- Shape deformation modification of the shape
(angles of shear) for the same dimensions.
A finite deformation of a real body can be seen as
a result of the two types of deformation.
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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Deformation tensor

Displacement components of M to
M1 before movement: ux, uy, uz
Displacement components of N to
N1 after movement : ux, uy, uz
Assuming that the function of
deformation is continuous (the
Taylors series can be written):
u x' u x

u 'y u y

Deformation of a line from a body (MN before deformation, M1N1 after

deformation).

u z' u z

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u x
du
du
dx x dy x dz
dx
dy
dz

u y
dx

dx

du y
dy

dy

du y
dz

dz

u z
du
du
dx z dy z dz
dx
dy
dz

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

It can be define:
Relative specific lengths
(lungimile relative
specifice):
u x
dx
u
a1 d 2 ad

x
x 11

x
dx
x
ad
u y

y 22

a1b2 ab
ab

dy
u y
y

dy
y

u z
dz
u

z
z 33
z
dz
z

Deformation of a parallelepipeds
side.

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Deformation of the
parallelepipeds side.

Specific sliding - angular deformation (alunecarea

specific - deformare angular) angle of shear which
results from rotation of edge to its previous state, and is equal
to the shear
u x strain/deformation:
u x
u x
dy
tg

b2b1

a1b2

y
y
y

u
u
1 y
dy y dy 1 y
y
y

tg

(for
small
angles)

y 1

u x
y

u y

and
x
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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Specific sliding is the angular deformation of a right
angle, and in xOy system is:
xy

u x
u y
dy
dx
1
1 du x du y
y

dx

2
dy
dx
2 dy
dx

and than:
zx

1 du z du x

2 dx
dz

yz

1 du y du z

2 dz
dy

General expression:
ij

1 du i du j
1

ij

2 dj
di
2

i, j = 1, 2, 3.

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Deformation of the elementary parallelepiped can be
characterized by 9 components.
Specific deformation tensor written in form of matrix:
9 components (3 normal for volumetric deformations and
6 tangential/angular for shape deformations):

1
1

xy xz
2
2

1
1
yx y
yz
2
2

1
1
zx zy z
2
2

x xy xz

ij yx y yz

zx zy z

Dou to
reciprocity:

Average deformation for each

direction:

x xy xz

ij

y yz
z

1 V 1
m
x y z
3 V
3

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Sometimes is useful to separate the deformation tensor:
Volume change is characterized by the normal tensor of
specific strain spherical tensor (isotropic):
m 0 0

When only the normal tensions

are acting, the volume will
change, and the shape will be
the same.

ij 0 m 0

0 0 m

Shape variation/change is characterized by the deviator of

specific strain tensor and has the form:

( x m ) xy

When the tangential tensions are

acting the shape will be modified
and the volume will be the same.

xz

ij

( y m ) yz

( z m )

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

2. SHEAR STRESS (tensiunea de forfecare)
Shear stresses tensor

F
A

Volume element
separated from a
continuous medium
and typical stresses

xx xy xz

ij

xy yx

zx xz

etc.

yy yz

zz

1
m ( x y z )
3

Shear stress tensor (Symmetric tensor)

Average normal shear
stress
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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Particulare cases of strain:
a. isotropic presure for a static body (normal stresses
when results stretching/compression)
b. simple stretching or tensile (normal stresses are zero,
excepting the direction of stretching)
c. simple shear stress.

xz zx

p0 0

00

ij

0 p0 0

ij 0 0 0

000

0 0 p0

xx 0

ij

yy 0

0 zz

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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
3. SHEAR RATE (shear gradient, velocity gradient, strain
rate or rate of deformation)
(gradient de vitez sau reopanta)
Two-Plates-Model
s

1.

Viscous and ideal

viscous flow
Considering:
- the (shear) area A (m2)
- the velocity v (m/s) for
the upper plate
- the distance between the
plates h (m)
The shear rate (gammadot): v
dv
h

ds ds
d dh dt dv

const.
dt dt dh dh

dh

const.

v(h)

Velocity distribution and

shear rate in the shear
gap of two-plates-model
Using
differential
variables

The unit of shear rate

reciprocal seconds.
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Laminar and ideal

viscous flow in the
form of fluid layers
dv =const.,
const.

is

(1/s),

dh

called
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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
Calculation of shear rates of technical processes
a. Buttering bread
v
0.1
v = 0.1 m/s

100(s 1 )
h 0.001
h = 1 mm = 0.001 m
b. Painting with a brush
v = 0.1 m/s
h = 100 m = 0.0001 m

v
0.1

1000(s 1 )
h 0.0001

c. Filling bottles using a filling machine (e.g. drinks in food

industry)
V 0.001
4
3
Gv

10
(
m
/ s)
3
V = 1 l = 0.001 m
t
5
t = 5 s (filling time per bottle)
D = 10 mm, diameter of the circular
geometry of the injection
4Gv
4 2 10 4

2548(s 1 )
nozzle.
3
3
R
3.14 0.01
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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
Two-Plates-Model
2. Elastic deformation/strain
- The (shear) area A (m2) is
deflected by the (shear)
force F (N)
- The shear deformation
(also shear strain)
s

(%)

S=
0

Shear deformation of a
material in the shear
gap of two-plates-model

Deflection path s (m) and

The distance between the
plates h (m).
It is assumed in both cases that the following shear conditions
are existing:
1. The sample adheres to both plates and does not slide or slip
along them
2. The sample is deformed homogeneously throughout the entire
shear gap (no plastic deformation is Course
occurring).
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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Types of laminar shear flow models

- Simple Shear (Forfecare simpl sau plan (A)) moving fluid layers
are flat and parallel - Flow between two parallel plates
- Rotational Shear (Forfecare de rotaie (B)) fluid layers are coaxial
cylinders that rotate at different speeds - Circular flow in the annular
gap between two coaxial cylinders,
- Telescopic shear (Forfecare telescopic (C)) fluid layers are coaxial
cylinders that slide at different speeds, parallel to their common axis Flow through capillaries, hoses, tubes or channels,
- Torsional shear (Forfecarea de torsiune (D)) fluid layers are
stacked disks that rotate at different speeds around their common axis
- Flow between a cone and plate or flow between two parallel plates.
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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
Shear rate tensor
Considering the rate:

wx

u x
t

the shear rate or shear gradient

will be:
w
w
w
d xx

d ij

x
j

d xx d xy d xz
d ij d yx d yy d yz

d zx d zy d zz

d ij

x i

d ij 2

d
ij
dt

dw i dw j
d du i
d du j
d du i
d du j

dt dx j dt dx i
dx j dt dx i dt
dx j dx i

In the case of simple shear, the shear rate

is:

d x dw x

dt
dy

d ii 2 ii

The shear rate variation in the movement

direction, in elongation.

ij 2 ij

The shear rate variation on perpendicular

direction of the movement, in simple
shear.
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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Effects of shear stresses:

Pure Shear
0 xy 0

ij yx 0 0
0 0 0

Simple Shear
Shear

0 0 0

ij yx 0 0
0 0 0

Rotational
0 0

xy

ij yx 0 0
0 0 0

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Shear Viscosity
For all flowing fluids, the molecules
are showing relative motion between
each other, and this process is always
combined with internal frictional
forces. Therefore for all fluids in
motion, a certain flow resistance is
occurring.
(1643 1727)

Viscosity the resistance of liquids to flow due to the

defectus lubricitatus - mechanical energy dissipates as
heat.
Shear viscosity
Newtons law:F

dw x
xy

dy

Kinematic viscosity
(mm2/s)

xy

(dynamic
viscosity)

(Pas, mPas, cP)

(mm2/s, m2/s)
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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
Shear modulus the reversible-elastic deformation range
(previously sometimes called modulus of elasticity in
shear or rigidity modulus) - the ratio of the shear
deformation:
stress and the corresponding
G

(Pa, kPas, MPa, GPa,

dyne/cm2)

Reveals information about the rigidity of a material.

Modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus or tensile
modulus) characteristic to elongation deformation ratio
of the normal tension and relative elongation:
E

xx
xx

(Pa)

Compression modulus of elasticity for a body which

reduces the volume without changing its shape when pressure
is isotropic and is subjected to pressure and deformation ratio
p
of specific volume:
Ev
V

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Fundamental concepts of
rheology
Poissons coefficient correlates deformations caused by
normal strains into a single direction of the body, causing
elongation in the direction of application (x) and shrinking on
yy
the other two directions (y
or z):
xx

The majority of materials have: 0 < < 0.5. Materials with =0.5
are incompressible because the sum of all deformations lead to zero
volume changes.

Conversion between Gand E-values:

E 2G 1

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

Real materials combination of viscous and elastic
proportion:
Reiner has defined Dea dimensionless
criterion, called
/T
Deborah's number:

- time characteristic factor of the material (fluid response time),

T - characteristic time of deformation (process characteristic time,

flow time).
Conclusion: - solid like behavior - De very high values ( = ,
Hookean body, ideal elastic),
- liquid like behavior - De - low values ( = 0, Newtonian fluids).
Two examples may help to improve the understanding of the
Deborahs number:
a. If water is ejected from a nozzle at a very high speed and the
droplets hit a hard wall, they will flatten. The droplets then spring
back and recover their sphere shape in no time as the result of
elasticity and surface tension. At these extremely fast
deformation processes - T being very small results in the
Deborah-number being high - even water
with
Course
1 its low -value

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Fundamental concepts of rheology

b. The famous glass windows of the Cathedral of Chartres in
France have flown since they were produced some 600
years ago. The glass panes had a uniform thickness from top
to bottom in mediaeval times, but today the glass molecules
have flown under the influence of gravity so that the
thickness at the top is now paper-thin while the panes
thickness has more than doubled at the bottom. The very long
time T of this flow process results in a low Deborah-number.
Thus one can state that solid glass, in spite of its high -value
at room temperature under conditions as stated above,
belongs to the group of fluids if you wait long enough!
An important conclusion of the concept of Deborah
numbers is: substances such as water or glass cannot be
classed as liquids or solids as such, but rather they exhibit a
liquid or solid behavior under certain conditions of stress,
shear rates or time.
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