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Chapter 21
Chapter 21
699
Transformer
Tie-Feeder
~------1--~----
700
Chapter 21
Chapter 21
701
adjacent transformers being connected to the same supply circuit, should be used to keep the spare capacity in
the network tu a minimum. The additional length of
supply circuit usually is more than out-weighed by the
saving in network unit capacity. See section 13.
The construction used for the subtransmission circuits
depends on available rights of way, subtransmission voltage, and the value of the protection from lightning,
storm, and tree hazards afforded by underground constnwtion. Prevailing subtmnsmi;.;sion circuits usually
establish the type of construction to be followed by primary-network supply circuits. Closely built up areas may
require underground or aerial cable lines while open areas
may permit using overhead open-wire construction.
One important advantage of the network system is that
the subtransmission circuits can be straight radial circuits
protected by simple ovcrcurrent relaying Rystcms because
service to all the loads in the network area is independent
of the continuity of operation of any subtransmissiou
circuit. The complicated relaying and duplication of supply circuits required by the subtransmission grid (See
Chapter 20) are not necessary for the operation of a primary network. However, it is important that the supply
circuits originate at bulk pmver stations that are closely
interconnected so that the voltages on the various subtransmission circuits are maintained practically equal and
in phase. This is necessary to insure uniform load distribution among the supply circuits.
Automatic reclosing of the breaker at the supply end
of an open-wire suULn:tnsmissiun circuit, supplying primarynetwork units is not as important as it is for primary
feeders or subtransmission lines in a simple radial system.
In the primary-network system a fault on a subtransmission circuit does not interrupt any load. Furthermore, it
is not necessary to restore the faulted eircuit to operation
to maintain service to any loads served from the network.
Reenergizing a suhtram;mission line connected to a faulted
network transformer almost invariably would reestablish
the fault and cause unnecessary damage to the transformer.
If considerable radial load in addition to network load is
served by an overhead subtransmission circuit, automatic
reclosing of the subtransmission-line breaker may be justified by the reduction of the duration of outages for the
radial load when temporary subtransmission-linc faults
occur. Rcclosing is not used on subtransmission cables
because a fault in a high-voltage cable usually does not
clear 'vhen the cable is decnergized. Reclosing on faulted
cable circuits usually causes unnecessary damage to the
cable.
the reclosing to reenergize the primary feeders after a temporary fault is done by the transformer breaker. In the
system using t\VO breakers per tie feeder, substituting
fuses for these breakers is not practical because the fuses
do not provide means for reestablishing service on the tie
feeders in the case of temporary faults. Reelosing fuses
might be used for this purpose if suitable, accurate, long
time delays could be incorporated in Lhe fuse to insure
properly coordinated operation of the fuses at opposite
ends of the line. If fuses are used in place of mid-tie
breakers they must be coordinated carefully so that the
fuses in the various tie circuits operate selectively. One
important disadvantage of these fuses is that the tie feeders
must be patrolled frequently so that fuses adjacent to a
substation near which a tic-feeder fault has occurred do not
remain open for long periods of time and result in dropping
load around that substation when it is taken out of service
at some later time because of a transformer or subtransmission-line fault or for mainttmance or testing.
Primary networks are usually applied in areas \vhere
there is an existing distribution system. For this reason
it is often desirable to adapt existing substations to network operation. When the existing substations are equal
or nearly equal to the network units that are to be used,
it is necessary only to provide existing stations with net~
work relaying and properly coordinated over-rnrmnt relay...
ing and to make sure that existing breakers are of adequate
interrupting capacity. In larger stations it may be necessary to divide the station into sections nearly equal in
capacity to the new network uuiL:s to be insLallccl. In some
cases it may be feasible to segregate a small section of the
bus in a large substation for operation in the network system and supply this section of bus from the main station
bus through a bus-sectionalizing breaker and currentlimiting reactor so that the normal load and the available
short-circuit kva on the small bus section are comparable
to that of the network units. In this latter case the sectionali zing breaker is relayed in the same way as the transformer breaker in a network unit, and the feeder breakers
on the small bus section are provided with the same type
of control as other tie-feeder breakers in the nehvork.
Other modifications may suggest themselves in particular cases. Any modification should be made only after it
has been determined that tie-feeder sectionalizing devices
and network-unit transformer breakers are properly coordinated and correct operation of the network is assured.
702
Chapter 21
SUBSTATION
which in turn are energized by two or more primary-feeder
56 57
I
circuits. Automatic network protectors and the natural
,., I
tendency of low-voltage faults to clear themselves31 22 are
...0' ..."'0' ..."'0'
utilized to protect service from the secondary network from NETWORK PROTECTOR "'
NETWORK
all faults in the system, except complete failure of the
..."' "' "'
..
power supply.
Chapter 6.
/TRANSFORMER
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k?C
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SECONDARY MA IN'___..A'
S
Fi~.
Chapter 21
MCM conductor. The improvement in voltage regulation" is shown by Fig. 7. Two 250-MCM conductors in
parallel have the same copper cross-section and essentially
the same resistance as one 500-YIC:M. The paralleled
250-MCM cables provide better regulation because the
reactance of that circuit is about half that of the 500-MCM
circuit. The smaller cables arc easier to handle in the
limited space in manholes and vaults. Where transformers
larger than 500-kva are used in a network multipleconductor circuits always should be used.
The operation of the secondary network depends on
faults on the secondary mains being burned off and clearing without deenergizing the system. This is feasible on
low-voltage circuits such as 120/208-volt secondary-network mains because arcs are not sustained at that voltage.
For circuits operating at higher voltages such as 460 volts
this method of clearing faults is not dependable. Tests"
1.8
--
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...
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~
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100
90
---- -80
70
60
50
PERCENT POWER FACTOR
r---..
40
30
Fig. 7-Relative regulation per unit length of three-phase circuit for a balanced three-phase current at various power factors. A: Fora circuit consisting of three500-MCM single-conductor cables in a duct. B: For a circuit consistin~t of two
parallel three-phase branches each made up of three 250-
703
Conductor Size
I
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
250 MCM
350 MCM
500MCM
Overhead Circuit
Underground Circuit
1000
1200
1400
1700
2100
2300
1600
1800
2!00
2500
2900
3200
3000
4000
4000
5000
300 KVA
5% z
0.0072 OHM
300 KVA
5%
0.0072 OHM
fAULT/'1
I f - 425(a)MP. (85%)
300 KVA
5~
0.0072 OHM
(b)
704
Chapter 21
nccting switch provides means for disf'onnPd ing a transformer from the primary feeder and it may also incorporate
means for short circuiting and grounding the primary
feeder for the safety of workmen \Vhen the feeder is being
repaireJ or extendeJ. The network proteetor56 is an clcctrica.lly-operated air circuit breaker controlled by network
relays57 so that it automatically disconnects the transformer from the scf~ondary grid \vhen power flo\vs from the
grid to the transformer and reconnects the transformer to
the grid when the transformer can supply power to the
grid. An installation of three network units in a vault is
shown in Fig. 9.
Transformer-Three-phase transformers generally are
used because the space required and weight of the transformer is less for three-phase units than for an equivalent
bank of single-phase units and the cost is less for the threephase unit. Single-phase transformers offer no advantage
from the standpoint of service continuity because the
interconnected secondary grid maintains the service at a
transformer point even though that transformer is out of
operation. However, when existing single-phase transformers have impedances and voltage such that they can
be paralleled with network units 1 they can be used in a
network systP-m. 'This often ocr.nrs when nn existing rlistribution system is converted to a low-voltage secondarynetwork s.ystem. Single-phase transformers sometimes are
necessary because of space and \veight limitations of elevators, hallwayH, doorways, manholes, aml other means by
which the transformers must be moved into position in
vaults. This is particularly true for building vaults.
Oil predominates as the cooling and insulating medium
for network transformers primarily because of its relatively
low cost and because other suitable mediums were not
Chapter 21
705
test potential can be used on the feeder cables. Starconnected primary windings make it impractical to use
this type of switch because it is then practically impossible
to test the feeder cables without disconnecting the transformer from the feeder cables. The two-position disconnecting switch facilitates testing the feeder cables but has
type of protector that is mounted on the left end of the transformers in Fi&. 9.
oil-immlat<{l and non-inflammahlc-licptid-insulatcd transformers ea.n he used when' a submersible unit. is required.
Air-in~ulated transformers that use no liquid and eliminate
both the firo and explm:;ion hazardr.:; arc partieularly suitable for inpta1lations in buildings.
In add it ion to providing for a primary switch and means
for mounting a low-voltage protector, u network transformer i~ carefully constructed to reduce the probability
of internal faults. Suhmersihlc-tnm:sformcr tanks arc
rott"tnH'tPd to resist corrosion result in~ from submersion.
HC>si:->tan('e to corro:::,ion is obtained by heavier tank bottoms and cooling tubes, alloy hard,,ar<', and spc\'ial paint.
The size of a network tranf'fonrwr is made as small as
possible, con;-;istcnt wiLh proper electrical construction 1 to
save tran:::.f(,rnwr-\ault spaee.
Tlte High- Voltage Switch. with whit'h a network
tran:-:fornwr j:-; gNH'rally provided, mny hr a two-posit ion
fSl'!JUlU!ing ~\Yiteh, a two-po:-;ition disconnP!ting; 8\\'iteh, or
a thn'('-po~itiou dii'!connc<"ting and grounding S\\~tch. The
f\qJ-po;;ition grounding switc:h dot'S not diseonnP<'t- the
from its primn.ry fN~dPr; it ~hnrt circnits ::tnd
grouml." tht' nrimary-fce(h-r ('il'('llit at th( transforrner prinU\1',\' tlrminals. From tlw e;tandpoiut of :-;afety thi:-. type
of :-;,,itch i;.: adequat(' hnt it has 1bt> dis:vlYantage ihatdiZ'lcdrie tc~ts on the primary-feed!'!' tahl1s must lw mttde
\rith 1hr: primary ''indin~s of thn nd,,nrk transt'ornlel'B
connect('d to the eaGle cirt"uits. If ihc::;e \\'indings arc deltatran~formN
706
Chapter 21
Chapter 21
differences~l2
707
Chapter 21
708
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ffil40~/'~--t--t~~-+JL"t--t~
ffi II vi--.. v
120o!:---'--.L--"_ _j2'---'--"-3-.L_j4
RATIO OF MAIN IMPEDANCE
TO TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
(c)
Number of Feeders
Ideal
Usually Attainable
2
3
0.50
0.67
0.75
0.80
0.40
0.54
0.58
0.83
--------
0.60
0.61
impedance of about five percent provides satisfactory operating conditions. The majority of network transformers
in operation have impedances ranging from four to six
percent.. 63 If an impedance outside this range appears desirable, the effect on voltage regulation and lamp flicker
should be carefully considered.
Interlacing Supply Circuits~The maximum load on
transformers in a network system when one feeder is out
depends not only on the ratio of secondary-main impedance to transformer impedance but alt::~o on the pattern of
the primary-feeder connections to the transformers in the
network. This latter effect is illustrated in Fig. 11 for a
uniformly loaded, regularly spaced network. Two extremes of primary feeder routing are shown in Figs. 11 (a)
and !!(b). One extreme is the parallel primary-feeder
arrangement in which all transformers along one line of
secondary mains are connected to one primary feeder as
shown in Fig. 11 (a). The other extreme is the interlaced
primary-feeder arrangement in which each transformer
connected to one feeder is surrounded by transformers, at
adjacent junetiun point~, that are connected to other feeders. The curves in Fig. ll(c) show that the maximum
transformer load when one feeder is out of service is considerably less, for all practical impedance ratios, with interlaced feeders than with parallel feeders.
Ratio of Load to Transformer Capacity-In order
to avoid overloading the transformers in a network it is
necessary to provide enough capacity in the network units
so that the maximum loading on any unit when one feeder
is out of serviGe does not exceed the capacity of the unit.
The necessary installed capacity depends on how well the
load divides among the units as determined by impedance
ratio and feeder interlacing and on the number of feeders
supplying the network. Under ideal conditions it is necessary to have twice as much transformer capacity as total
load in a network served by two primary feeders, so that
the network units served by one feeder can carry the total
load \vhen the other feeder is out of service. For networks
Ruppliecl hy Rix feeder::~ or less it is reasonable to assume
that not more than one feeder will be open at any time
during peak load. Table 3 gives the ideal ratio of peak
load to total transformer capacity in a network for two to
six interlaced feeders. Increasing the number of feeders
from two to three and from three to four improves the
ideal ratio rapidly; but, as the number of feeders is increased further, the saving in transformer capacity decreases so that there is little gain in using six feeders instead of five. This is especially true fur the ra.Lio that usually can be attained. The ideal ratio can be realized only
Chapter 21
709
The interconnected secondary grid places the duplication of supply paths as close as possible to the loads being
be made by eliminating the distribution substation normally required by other systems. Another source of sav-
tem generally is better than that provided by other systems. This is particularly true from the standpoint of
lamp flicker because abrupt load changes can divide between at least two paths of supply.
high-voltage switchgear required in radial systems to provide a high degree of reliability. Secondary copper can be
saved in many cases because the interconnected grid eliminates the need for separate secondaries frequently required
in radial systems for light and power loads. Capacity can
be added in thP secom:lary-nPtwork system in even smaller
economical means of supplying power. Under certain conditions Lhe secondary-network system is the most economical system even when a high degree of reliability is
not necessary. This is generally true where the entire
in the form of network protectors, tends to make the installed cost of the network system higher than that of a
radial system and counteraclti par~ of the gain from the
simplicity of the subtransmission and primary-feeder part
time, but a much longer time is required to locate and repair a fault in a cable circuit. The economic comparison13
of typical distribution systems shown in Fig. 4 shows that
if all distribution circuits are open-\vire the overhead net-
and the load growth usually varies from year to year and
from section to section. The fact that the secondary net-
primary~
710
700
600
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100
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Chapter 21
711
Chapter 21
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Fill;. 13-Present distributed loads along. the secondary main. in terms of kw of diversified demand at the distribution trans
former, and the corresponding concentrated loads at the intersections of the mains, in terms of diversified kva demand includ
ing, estimated load growth, form the basis for designing a secondary network in a typical load area.
When the loads and secondary plan have been determined the approximate ~izes and locations of transformers
can be selected. The transformer size will depend on the
type of system, size of concentrated loads, number of
feeders available, the feeder interlacing obtainable, and
spacing of the transformers. In general, the larger the
transformer the lower the cost per kva and the wider the
spacing between transformers in the network. But as this
spacing is increased the secondaries mm;;t h~ larger to keep
secondary voltage drop within reasonable limits and to
provide adequate carrying capacity. As the number of
transformers is reduced less primary cable is required.
The ideal size of transformer then is that which not only
handles thP. loads but also gives a minimum total cost
including costs of primary feeders, transformers, and
secondary mains. In the initial trial plan for the network
the transformers should be located at the major loads and
at the various junctions where the concentrated loads are
large enough so that the distance between transformers is
not greater than about two blocks or 600 to 800 feet.
t; sually the spacing is less than this because of the locations
of loads. It is generally desirable to select not more than
two sizes of network transformers. This permits stocking
fewer spare transformers and protectors. Also, interchangeability of units and part~ is increased by using only
one or two sizes. At points where large concentrated loads
are served it is desirable to use multiple installations consi:sting of two or more transformers rather than one transformer much larger than the rest of the unit:;j. This avoids
a large number of Rizes and the use of a few units of a size
that is not interchangeable with any of the predominating
712
Chapter 21
f2 0
380
16
(c\
t
248
c
16- h
all with the same rating. (c) Ratio of total fault current from
the network to the short-circuit current of one oi the network
transformers for a solid three-phase fault at the secondary
terminals of the transformer at the center of the network.
Curve A is for the network shown in {a) and Curve B is for the
142
54
Chapter 21
the current to a fault at the center of large and small networks having regularly-spaced equal-capacity network
units. The curves give the ratio of the total current from
the network to the short-circuit current of a network transformer. As indicated by the curves the ratio increases as
the ratio of secondary-main impedance to transformer
impedance decreases. Total current from the network
does not include the current from the transformer at the
fault point. The total fault current from the network
divides equally among the four secondary mains terminating at the faulted junction point. One or the other of the
arrangements shown in Fig. 15(a) or 15(b) usually approximates the actual network arrangement where fault currents are to be eAtlmated. To URe the curvf's it is first
necessary to determine the average impedance of the
network-main sections surrounding the fault point. The
ratio of this impedance to the impedance of a transformer
in the actual network is the entry point to the curve for
determining the C ratio of the network, Fig. 15 (a) or (b),
that. approximates the actual network. :Multiplying the
short-circuit current of the transformer, whose impedance
is the basis of the main-transformer impedance ratio, by
C ratio gives the total fault current supplied by the network. In a network having only one size of transformer
the impedance and short-circuit current of that size transformer is used for calculating fault currents. If there is
more than one size of transformer in the actual network
the predominating size is used. The fault currents determined in this way are correct only for a network arrangement like that in Fig. 15(a) or 15(b) for which the C
ratio is determined. The effect of minor deviations from
the regularity of the arrangement will depend on how
close the deviation is to the fault point. The effect of
deviations remote from the fault point is indicated by the
fact that each main a, Fig. 15(a), carries 3.5 percent of the
total fault current from the network when the impedance
ratio is 0.5 and a smaller percentage when impedance ratios
are higher. Each transformer T supplies less than three
percent of the fault current from the network for any
impedance ratio.
713
units. The network units in the building are interconnected hy secondary ties that usually are connected to the
secondary-network grid in the streets adjacent to the
building. In some cases the secondary tir,s between the
network units in the building do not serve any loads and
the loads on the various floors between network units are
supplied by short radial services from the network units.
In other cases the tie circuits are tapped to serve the
loads on the floors between network-unit locations. The
tapped secondaries may have to be somewhat larger than
untapped ones because the tapped ties have to supply
loadti as well as equalize the loads on the various network
units. However, tapping the secondary mains between the
network units eliminates the radial service circuits required
when the ties are not tapped.
The secondary network uses considerably less copper
than does a radial system because power is carried to the
various levels in the building over subtransmission or
primary-feeder circuits instead of over large low-voltage
services from se~ondary mains outsidP. the building. Furthermore, the network generally provides better voltage
\ -;,.
~
\--to
NETWORK UNITS
~TRANSFORMER
PROTECTOR
TIE TO STREET
NETWORK
(a)
REACTORS
SPOT NETWORK BUS
TIE TO STREET
NETWORK
(b)
BALANCING
TRANSFORMERS
SPOT NETWORK BUS
TIE TO STREET
NETWORK
SERVICES
(C)
714
Chapter 21
transformers interconnected with the balancing transformer whose primary circuit is open.
The use of balancing transformers permits taking services from a common bus. It is not necessary to have equal
industrial plant where a high degree of reliability of service is necessary.42 In its simplest form a spot network is a
bus to which power is supplied by two or more network
units, each of which is supplied by a separate primary
feeder or HnhtranRrniRsion cirt~tJit, Fig. 16(a). The opera-
tion of the spot network is the same as that of the ordinary network. Instead of an interconnected grid of
secondary mains the spot network uses a concentrated
bus from which the loads are l:5erveU.
Since a spot-network is a relatively low impedance path
between the associated supply circuitR large circulating
currents through the spot-network units, frequent protector operations, or extremely unequal load division
among the spot-network units may result from large
voltage differences between the supply circuits because of
other loads on those circuits. The most common methods
of reducing circulating currents and equalizing load division are shown in Figs. 16(b) and 16(c). Reactors" are
relatively inexpensive but their use depends on the prac-
reducing the likelihood of lamp flicker. Balancing transformers are generally used only when circulating currents
and consequent protector operations are likely to occur
frequently because of voltage differences between the circuits supplying the network unit:s. Inequalities of load
division among the network units usually do not justify
balancing transformers because sufficient network-unit
i 1 i Ii
I
3
I STATIONEN:RATORS[
NETWORK
TRANSFORMERS
that is, toward the spot-network bus from one unit and
from the bus to the other network unit, the voltages in
the balancing-transformer secondary windings oppose each
other. Therdore 1 there is no current in the balancing-
Chapter 21
715
Fig. 18--A low-voltage network unit consisting of an aircooled transformer, a high-voltage three-position selector
switch. and a network protector for use in industrial plants,
point of eeonomy. 60 70 A typical arrangeme11l of the network syst(~m for supplying po\\'cr-pbnt auxiliaries is shown
in Ji'ig;. 17. The network maim~ are carried through the
plant according to load locations and the loads are suppiled from these mains. The network unitH are distributed
POWER SUPPLY
BREAKER~
SECONDARY LOOP
PRIMIIRY FEEDER
SELECTOR SWITCH
CIRCUIT
716
Chapter 21
RURAL
AREA
DOWNTOWN
COMMERICAL
AREA
SERVED BY
SECONDARY
NETWORK
Fig. 20 A complete power system is a combination of generation. transmission. and several types of distribution systems.
The particular combination of distribution systems used in any power system depends on economics and the types of loads,
load densities, and quality of service required in local areas. ln this diagram A is a generating plant, B is a bulk power substation; Cis a plant where an industrial-plant network is applicable; D is an industrial plant served by a subtransmission
loop; Eisa plant served by a single subtransmission circuit; F is a plant served by duplicate subtransmission circuits; G is
a distribution substation supplying, radial primary feeders: H is a primary-network unit substation~ J is a single-circuit
distribution substation supplyina a primary feeder in a rural area.
REFERENCES
General
1. Overhead Syslem8 Reference Book, National Electric light Asrociation, New York, 1927.
2. Electrical Distribution Engineering, Howard P. Seelye, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1930.
3. Underground System8 Reference Book, National Electric Light
Association, Xew York, 1931.
4. Electric Distribution Fundamentals, Frank Sanford, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1940.
Primary Networks
5. 4-KV Network Saves 20 Per Cent, A. H. Sweetnam, Electrical
lVorld, Vol. 97, March 14, 11)31, pages 500-503.
6. Fundamentals of the Medium-Voltage Network, D. K. Blake,
General Electric Review, VoL 34, April, 1931, pages 210-216.
7. The Primary Network, R. M. Stanley and C. L. Sinclair,
A.l.E.E. Transactiona, Vol. 50, No.3, September, 1931, pages
871-879, (discussion 879--884).
8. Protecting A Medium-Voltage Network, JohnS. Parsons, Electric Journal, Vol. 28, September, 1931, pages 520--525.
9. The Primary Network System, H. Richter, Electric Journal,
Vol. 28, December, 1931, pages 661-664.
10. Primary Network Stations~ Vault, Building, Outdoors, R. J.
Salsbury and H. S. Moore, Electrical World, Vol. 100, September
3, 1932, pages 304 307.
11. Year of Experience Solves Primary Network Problems, R. J.
Salsbury and H. S. Moore, Electrical World, Vol. 100, November
5, 1932, pages 624--626.
12. Short Circuit Tests Prove Primary Network, R. J. Salsbury and
H. S. Moore, Electrical World, Vol. 100, December 24, 1932.
pages 849-851.
13. Primary Network Economical For Medium-Load Densities,
John S. Parsons and Leonard M. Olmsted, Electrical World,
VoL 10 I. June 24, 1933, pal";es 835-838.
14. Primary Network Proves Advantageous in Boston, St. George
T. Arnold, Electrical World, Vol. 112, August 26, 1939, pages
500-5!)2 and 6-18.
15. Simplified Primary Network Saves $110,160 on Investment, F.
W. Floyd, Electric Light and Power, Vol. 18, November, 1940,
pages 47-4U.
Chapter 21
Secondary Networks
16. Underground Alternating Current Network Distribution for
Central Station Systems, A. H. Kehoe, A.l.E.E. Transactions,
VoL 43, June 1924, pages 811-853, (discussion pages 860""874).
17. Motor Performance on Combined Secondary Networks, A. P.
Fugill, Electric Journal, Vol. XXII, July, 1925, pages 316-320.
18. Evolution of the A.C. Network System, H. Richter, Electric
Jnnrnal, Vol. XXII, July, 1925, pages 320--336.
40.
41.
42.
43.
338.
20. ThP. Automatic Network Relay, J. S. Parsons, Electric Journ<tl;
Vol. XXII, July, 1925, pages 339-344.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
717
718
Chapter 21
CHAPTER 22
Original Author:
S. B. Griscom
S. B. Griscom
OLTAGE regulation has been one of the most important problems of the electric industry since its
inception. The sizes of many parts of a power
system are determined largely by this one consideration
alone. A large proportion of the selling price of electrical
power is the interest and other fixed charges on production
and distribution facilities, so that any improvement in regulation is ultimately reflected in higher rates. Similarly,
types of load imposing exceptionally severe regulation requirements will also increase the cost of supplying energy.
In the early days of the industry, a relatively wide range
was at that time unaccustomed to uniform lighting intensity. Today, there is a greater consciousness as to
whether the voltage level is about right, as indicated by
5.0
~4.0
...1
the "whiteness" of the ligltt and by lamp life. \Vhile, however, a narrower voltage band is required than formerly,
this is not always the limiting factor in voltage regulation.
Numerous new devices have been added to pmver lines
in the last few years, which impose rapid and frequent
changes of load, with correspondingly rapid voltage
changes. Repeated observations have shown that rapid
changes of voltage are much more annoying than slow
ones, so that "flicker" effects may limit the useful loadcarrying ability of individual circuits long before maximum
steady-state regulation or heating is reached.
Consequently, the voltage regulation problem must now
bP. considered from two angles: the normal drop in voltage
from light load to full load, and the superimposed flickers
due to motor-starting and to various pulsating and irregular loads. The differences in voltage between light
and full load affect, the performance, efficiency, and life of
electrical equipment, and are treated in Chap. 10. The
present chapter considers only the flicker component of
voltage regulation, and deals primarily with the reaction
of the human eye to variations in electric light intensity.
I. PERMISSIBLE FLICKER
The permissible amount of flicker voltage cannot be
stated concisely for several reasons. There is first the
human element; one individual may think objectionable
a flicker not perceptible to another. The lighting fixture
used is of ~onsiOerab]e importance. Smaller '.vattage incandescent lamps change illumination more quickly upon
a change of voltage than lamps with heavier filaments.
The character of the voJtage change is also important.
Cyclic or rapidly recurring voltage changes are generally
more objectionable than non-cyclic. On non-cyclic changes
the annoyance due to the flicker is affected by the rate of
o"'
o""
~3.0
!i
.
U>
52.0
"
~0
,o ...
...1
1.0
"
FREQUENCY OF VOLTAGE PULSATION (CYCLE$ PER SEC.}
Fi~.
115~volt
719
"~
"""'
'
0
15
"
"
"
100
10
..
~_,_,
.x
I --~=--~X WENNERBERG
BROWN, FISHER
L5t.-
1000
0.5i-_:~-+~=~;;l:.....~:::=:=-.Jf0o
---
>~
.
0..
'-
w-'
<.> _, 4
o:,.
~~
~ ~3
I
"'"'
~~
"'wo
"'"'
.. "' 0
:52
.....
>-'
v-
"
\.
power lines.
....
ExVery
Infre- Fre- Fre- tremely
quent quent quent Fre1 quent
~--~--,
~l:5 ,J
~ 2 I(
II>W
W<.>
.... ....
--J'f:.'O'
15
voltage.
Class of Service
t:o
j::;o
10
.._;;;
->>
C.
D.
6
__--j
AND HURD
~ I.O~--~.--+-----+----~t~~~~
"
"
1.0
iii
Chapter 22
720
tungsten~filament
E.
I
8
No definit e Limi 1t
6
3"
5 .. 1
3 ..
*Loop Power Linea or their equivalent automatic throwover lines shall be conas Distribution Circuits.
**On Farm Lines this limit has been increased to six volts because motor starting
is so largely confined to daylight hours. This !unit permits us to reasonably cope
with the long distances encountered
siden~d
DEFl).JlTIONS:
1. InfNHJHmt Flicker shttll include co.eN< occurring silt timea or le&a in twenty~four
hours lout not. more than ontJJ bctweJJn 6:00p.m. and 12:00 midnight. This provisiou
is intended to t'over apparatus such as motor generators, fans. pumps. etc .. which
normally run continuoudy throughout the working day.
2_ Fr<e'!'"'nt Fliek<er ~hnll inrludf' t'"-"''S cweurring not nff.<ener thrm t.hrf'e timf!~ per
hour, exGcpt tiHtt between G:OO p.m. and 1200 midnight they shall not occur more
than om:e per hour. This t>rovi~ion is inteuded to Gover apparatu~ sudt as machine
tool!>, e!ettric furnaees, etc., which are periodically started and stopped throughout
the working day.
3, Very Frequent shall include cases occurrin!?. not oftener than once a minute
on the iH'Cr;1ge liUd shall indude all except rapidly and n:gularly recurring flickers.
Tlus provbion is intended to eovvr such apparatus as elevator nwton. automatic
pump~. IN~ umchin(s. etc" whid1 arc sblrted fairly frequJJntly but, in genJJral, are
not rq;tJ!aJ!y ~ta>ted ""'"'"!lime" a >uiuuL<".
4. E~lrerne!y F'rtqucnt shull indude all rases occurrin~ more frequently than the
ubovc. Thi~ proYi:;iou i~> intcmlcd to cover such apvaratus as f\a:;hing :sif.:n:o;, welrlcn<,
p;r:wd pit hoists, and certain elJJetrie furnaces, which are frequently and repeakdly
stOJ>P<'d and start<'d or rapidly lon.dod and unloaded dunng normo.l us<'-
ations are permissible for non-cyclie than for cyclic variations1 hut that the amount of tolerable dip depends upon
Chapter 22
721
1. Generating Equipment
Prime Movers-Engine driven generators are probably responsible for most of the rare cases of flicker origi-
""
"o
a:.
00
400
300
200
722
Ur-, -
Similarly, point (b) is calculated from synchronous reactance using the relation:
0-b=E,-Ixd
b
> )( ..-v
...
1&1
The transition from (a) to (x) and from (x) to (b) may
be calculated by using the appropriate machine time constants. This procedure is more fully described in Chap. 6.
From the standpoint of flicker voltage, the following points
)(
3!:
Chapter 22
t3'
~u
1
4
TIME -SECONDS
turbo~generator
0-a=Es-lx/'
The voltage rapidly falls further to a point (x) and at
a much lower rate to point (b).
The reason may be described approximately as follows.
At the instant of load application, the magnetic flux in
the air gap remains ~ubstantially constant, and the initial
drop in voltage is principally that due to reactance of the
armature winding. However, the armature currents set
up a demagnetizing effect to buck the field flux. The
decreasing field flux generates voltages and currents in the
field structure, which resist or delay the ultimate change.
The induced currents in some parts of the field structure,
such as the eddy currents in the pole face, damper windings, or rivets, subside rapidly because of the high resistance of the path, and allow part of the flux to change
quickly. In the average machine, about 0.1 second is
required for this change. Most of the change of voltage
between points (a) and (x) is due to this cause. The
majority of the field flux is encircled by the field winding
which is of very low resistance, and, therefore, constitutes
an effective damper to rapid changes of voltage. The
change in voltage from (x) to (b), therefore, constitute.s
an effective damper to rapid changes of voltage. The
change in voltage from (x) to (b) is, therefore, comparatively slow, from 3 to 10 seconds being required for 90
percent of the change to take place in large machines.
Point (x) is not directly calculable by using standard
machine reactances alone. Point (c), however, can be
calculated in the same manner as point (a), except that
transient reactance is used. That is
0-c=E,-lxl
are of interest.
For single load applications more than 10 cycles in duration (on a 60-cycle system), the voltage regulation point
(c) of Fig. 6, calculated from the transient reactance, is
the determining quantity. Fig. 2 shows that there is little
difference in perception lasting from 5 to 15 cycles of voltage drop. In average machines, the subtransient drop is
usually about two-thirds of the transient drop. However,
after about the first 5 cycles, the voltage drops to the value
determined by transient reactance. A further drop in
voltage takes place due to the decrement of the field,
reaching point (b) on Fig. 6. Usually, this synchronous
reactance drop is not more than two or three times the
transient reactance drop. Automatic voltage regulators
may limit the drop to less than 1Yz times the transient
drop. Reference to Fig. 3 shows that for a transition time
of the order required (3 to 10 seconds), the additional
voltage drop due to field decrement is not perceptible
For load durations less than 5 cycles, it is likely that the
regulation as calculated from the subtransient reactance
determines the permissible flicker. While the voltage drop
at the end of 5 cycles is greater than initially, the tranliition
is gradual and it is doubtful if the eye can discern so
small a difference.
For load durations between 5 and 10 cycles, it is probable that an average between subtransient and transient
reactances should be u:::;ed to calculate flicker voltages for
comparison with perception data similar to those given in
Figs. 1 to 3.
The proper reactance to be used to calculate the effect
of cyclic variations depends upon the frequency of their
occurrence. The following range is suggested for generators 5000 kva and above.
Pulsation FreqUFmcy
Cycles per Second
Reactance
1-4
5-12
12 30
Chapter 22
2. Utilization Equipment
Most of the flicker on central station systems is due to
the customers utilization equipment. The following are
some of the more common types of equipment knuwn tu
caw~e ftieker.
Motor Starting- Probably most of the flicker problems arc caused by the starting of motors. For reasons
of cost, efficiency, and reliability, commercial general purpose rnotor~ require a momentary starting current several
times their full load running current, in order to produce
sufficient starting torque.
Three general dasses of motor installations are of importance in the flicker problem.
( 1) Single phase fractional horsepower motors commonly used in homes and small stores.
(2) Integral-horsepower polyphase motors operated
from secondary distribution circuits, such as in
small shops, large stores and bui1dings, and recently in a small number of homes for air conditioning.
(3) Large integral-horsepower three-phase motors opw
crated from primary lines, mostly by industrial
concerns.
(I) Single phase fractional horsepower motors arc manufaetured in large quantities, and to maintain this extent
of usage, they must continue to be low in cost, economical,
rugged and reliable. These requirements huve led to several classes of motors depending upon the service, with
one class de~igned specifically for frequent starting with
low starting current. This motor is used in great quantities
in domestic refrigerators and oil burners, and the%' horsepower 110-volt elass usnally has a locked-rotor starting
current of 20 amperes or less. It is not unduly expensive
723
724
Chapter 22
25
72
50
75
85
---~
~~----~ -~~~.______._______
100
12S
78
87
go
Lamp Flicker
Chapter 22
<m
...
...
200
&!;too
0:
~ 180
0:
"':::l 160
"~ 140
...::>~ 120
POWER FACTOR
~ 90
...
.."'6
~ 80
..
~GO
0:
..
g"
..;( 100
50
80
40
...::>..J
60
...z
40
...
w
.."'"
0:
20
0
.."'
0
1---
70
30
10
>
;:: 0
..""'
"'
....
~
10
v
--
1/
...
7 .........
-
_....-
./
REACTIVE KVA;
-- -- f-7 - _...
T20
"'w
VARMATURE
CURRENT
)>. /
"'KVA\
8
REACTIVE
1\
I
40
80
\
120
160
PERCENT OUTPUT
00
20
30
40
eo
60
70
725
Power Systems
"'eiOo
"~
~ 160
"'
a
V.owER
1-
w 120
.."
!;(
~ 80
1-
"'~ 60
:r
"'~ 40
"
"'>
40
>=
~.
w
"'
...z
...~
o'/
1-
CURRENY
FACTOR
a:
..
80
li.'
"'a:
...z
"
:i
/!
v r-
a:
/.
./
/ /
/
~ VREACTIVE
KVA
40
80
120
160
200
PERCENT OUTPUT
for a power factor of 80 percent at full load, but for ordinary purposes the variations in reactive factor may be
superimposed on the initial reactive factor. Curve A is
for a rapid rate of fluctuation starting from full load 80
percent power factor; Curves B are for a rate slow compared to the field time constant with fixed terminal voltage.
Motor Driven Intermittent Loads-In this cat&
gory fall motor drives where the nature of the work calls
for heavy overloads, and for cyclic loads of long and irregular period. Saw mills and coal cutters are typical
examples of applications where heavy overloads, sometimes to the stalling point, are common and difficult to
prevent. The motor currents in such installations vary
rapidly from light load, through pull-out at heavy current
and high power factor, to the high locked-rotor current at
low power factor. Punch presses and shears are examples of
applications where the load goes through wide variations,
but where flywheels and other design features limit both
the rate of application and magnitude of the load swings.
Motors used to drive intermittent loads are likely to
have been designed with special characteristics. If possible,
the fluctuation in current and power factor should be obtained by test or from the manufacturer. In the absence
of such specific data, Curve B of Fig. 9 may be used for
slow cycling intermittent loads, and the curve of Fig. 10
may be used for applications where pull-out and stalling
occur.
Electric Furnaces- There are three general types of
electric furnaces-resistance, induction, and arc. The re~istance furnace usually causes no more fiicker than any
other resistance load of comparable size. Most induction
726
Chapter 22
Fi~.
727
Chapter 22
20,00
0\
'\
~10,00 0
15,000
KVA
-..;-
I<W
--
100
POW R FACT R
"
'
'""' ~
0,00 0
"
20
"
10
'
ARC RESISTANCE-OHMS
'
three~ phase
.4
0
I'-.
6
2
..
.4
I. 0
--r2
...... ........
'--
pOINER F
..:J
0.
I<VA SWING
,.
16
20 22
10 12
I
FURNACE TRANSFORMER RATING -MVA
0. 2
24
26
a st".condlO_
Chapter 22
728
Flash welders
Pressure butt welders
Proje-ction \veld~rs
Resistance welders
(a) Spot
(b) Seam
(a)
(b)
Chapter 22
R.-:sistan~e
729
CourtesvofPederalMachtm&. WeiMrC().
(a)
(b)
25000 KW
\20000
SLABS.
rQ- 0.104"x
36-1/8"
1\
\]\,
7
7
10000
(\
\11
Vl
L/L/) J
15000
--
ol.
I
90
(\_
15000
80
70
60
50
40
SECONDS
r''" ""'"'\\
FINISHING
\20000
\
I
10000
I I
.....
fl })
oi
60
50
120
140...1,.
59.9
TIME-SECONOS
40
30
20
r..
.._...t
70
I IOOZ
~"""'_:T~J F_R~_o_~~N-~;:,_.,.,so
_o.~ _:~n:R~NECTEO SYSTE;"'-=F~- t --- ---r-r , i i I,
+- +-
ROUGHING TRAIN
I
if
'~' ,,-
{bl
15000
TRAIN
~
~
+ -
"
10
20
30
60.
II)
u
>
u
25000 KW
eo
Chapter 22
730
/
0
10
SECOND$
Fig. 19-Load chart for a hot strip rolling, mill.
lar~e
intercon-
Chapter 22
3.
4.
5.
6.
Synchronous condensers
Series capacitors
Shunt capacitors
Voltage regulators
7. Booster transformers
1\iJ otor starters
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Excitation control
Load control
Flywheels
System changes
731
Chapter 22
732
Tlt.IE-SECONOS
sup~
plied by the g,enerator and the power taken from the system
LOAO ON GENERATOR
:l(
40
c-
:--t--
MOTOR
20
LOAD ON SYSTEM
60 0
f.-;;
'@
~60 0
~
;;
'400
g200
MOTOR
r>,
60 0
40 0
200
0
I
LO
2.0
3.0
4.0
5D
6.0
TIME-SECONDS
Chapter 22
733
jO
jl
II
1BAC1
4. Phase Balancers
In industrial plants a large percentage of the potential
causes of flicker are single-phase rlevices. A discussion of
phase balancers is, therefore, of interest, although there
have been few commercially im;talled.
In a single.phase circuit the flow of power pulsates at
a frequency twice that of the alternating supply, \Vhereas
in a balanced polyphase circuit the flow of posvcr is uniform. Therefore, in order to effect a conversion hP-twerm
a single--phase and a polyphase system, some energy storage is necessary. This storage may be made in static de-
PHASE
CONVERTER
SINGLEPHASE
SOURCE
Fig. 26-Schematic diaeram for phase converter used extensively on railway electrifications to convert sing.le-phase
power from the trolley to three-phase power for the locomotive motors. A rotating two-phase machine is connected
through the equivalent of a Scott-connected transformer to
the three-phase power system.
734
phase power system through the equivalent of a Scottconnected transformer, which also serves as the primary
for the single-phase load winding. The two-phase machine
may be of the induction type and act as a phase converter
only, or it may be synchronous and used for power factor
correction as well. Decause of the regulation of the machine, the source currents are not balanced during variable~
SINGLE
PHASE
LOAO
THREE PHASE
SUPPLY
Chapter 22
When a single-phase load is suddenly applied, a magnetizing transient results, so that part of the negative-sequence
component of load current is passed on the source. Although this transient subsides in about 0.1 second, it
detracts cont5iderably from the value of the scheme for
use with "choppy 11 loads.
The series impedance balancer shown in Fig. 28 consists
of an auxiliary induction-type machine in series with the
polyphase supply and with the main shunt machine.
The single-phase load is drawn from between the two.
The series machine rotates oppositely to normal direction
for positive-sequence applied voltage, and therefore, offers
high impedance to negative-sequence currents and low
impedance to positive-sequence currents. The shunt machine therefore takes the negative-sequence component of
load current. The positive-sequence component of load.
current is taken by the system if the shunt is an induction
type unit. Tf a synchronous typP unit is used for the shunt
machine, it can also take the wattless component of load
current with suitable control of excitation. As with the
series phase converter, the series machine does not immediately respond to load changes, and temporarily (for about
0.1 second) some unbalanced current is drawn from the
Ronr~P. The .s~heme, like the series phase balancer, is inherent in its action, no regulators being required unless
power factor correction is used. This method has one
important advantage over the previous two schemes in
that the size of the shunt machine need only be enough
to take care of the maximum unbalance of load. For example, if there are a number of individual single-phase
loads as illustrated in Fig. 29, they may be distributed
DISTRIBUTION BUS
SUPPLY BU$
HCl--t.IGHTING
.-[}-.. LOADS
t-[}----------[}-f
SYNCHRONOUS
CONDENSER
FLUCTUATING
I.OAD
BALANCED
LOAD
INDUCTION TYPE
AUXILIARY UNIT
t+-----UNBALANCED
LOAD
MAIN
UNIT
5. Synchronous Condensers
The voltage dip on a power system resulting from a
suddenly applied load is equal to the vector prorluct of
the current and the system impedance giving proper consideration to vector positions. Consequently, one way of
reducing flicker is to reduce the system impedance. Lsu-
Chapter 22
4.2
.
.
r educed to onIy _ ~ 84 percent of Jts value w1thout the
50
condenser.
The effectiveness of a synchronous condenser can be
much improved by the use of reactorR hetween the power
system and the load and operating the condenser from
the load bus, as shown by Fig. 29. This scheme permits
greater voltage fluctuations on the condenser and, therefore, causes it to bear a greater proportion of the fluctuating component of current. The customer's bus voltage, of course, undergoes the same voltage fluctuation, and
this fact plus the fact that only a limited amount of series
reactance can be used without unstable condenser operation, limits the extent of improvement. In most instances,
it is likely that a reduction of flicker to one-half its uncompensated value is the economic limit of correetion hy
this means. '\\'here only this amount of correction is sufficient, the synchronous condenser and series reactor scheme
may be Lhe best economic solution, considering the power
factor correction and control of voltage level afforded by
the machine.
The suggestion has been made of using a driving motor
for the synchronous condenser to permit higher values of
series reactance without instability. This arrangement is
the equivalent of a motor-generator set wiLh a reactor
paralleling the motor and generator ends. This scheme
has never been used in practice, but calculations of performance and cost estimates indicate that there is little
advantage compared with the straight m-g set or condenser-reactor schemes.
The benefits from the use of synchronous condensers
735
6. Series Capacitors
A general treatment of the use of capacitors in power
systems is given in Chapter 8. The followin~>: discussion
is concerned primarily with those aspects of capacitor
application that are related to the problem of lamp flicker.
There are two main uses of serie:s capacilors, depending
whether they correet for the inductance of the supply or
for that of the load. Their most familiar use is for line drop
compensation; the application to equipment correction is
more recent and shows much promise, as it improves con~
ditions in the entire system, whereas the line capacitors
benefit only those customers beyond the point of capacitor
installation.
Being in series with the entire power circuit, series capacitors are instantaneous in their corrective effect. This
is perhaps their most valuil.ble advantage because any
change in line current causes an immediate change in
compensating voltage. Another advantage is that they
generate lagging reactive kva proportional to the square
of the current, thereby improving the power factor.
Series Capacitors Connected in Line-Fig. 30 shows
in (a) a layout ordinarily favorable to the application of
series capacitors. The transmission substation is assumed
to have bus voltage regulation so that the voltage is fairly
constant. The step-down transformer bank and the lowvoltage line feed a distribution substation serving the
fluctuating load and lighting loans; no loads are served
at intermediate points between the substations. The series
capacitor may be installed near the transmission substation, as shown in (b), or near the distribution substation.
Another alternative is to install the capacitors between
the transmission substation bus and the step-down transformer (depending upun which voltage is more suitable
736
Chapter 22
I~
(a)
SERIES
r~APACITOR
H"J--.. LIGHTING
LOAD
Ll E IX
1--'D-*-- FLUCTUATING
(b)
LOAD
~,..
-+J 1ft
'
~-?-0v"
.'
\,.
~u_t
-
lJ
+
~
'::
v
.,o
<-'
';'~I++-
+-
II!
0
.'f
~~~---~
IR
Ll
'LJ.J:"c,.\'(0
I'
c.."'?"'
. . .'tl,~
i-
.:;,~\1-l.
,~v
-~
s~"o '~
,
+.
"'
,.,,i+:-~
<
u
<
.,
,l~~~
'..J
'
'
(b)
no intermediate line loads, the voltage gradient along the
line is unimportant, and, 15ubject to limitations outlined
later, complete voltage-drop compensation at the distribu-
SENDING lZ.
WITHOUT CAPACITOR
.(
'
-1
"
<
'3
pacitor gives its full voltage boost at the point of iLs installation, and therefore loads immediately ahead and
SENDING
WLTH
l~
'
'
'
procedure can cause undesirable voltage-regulation characteristics and therefore each case of over-compensation
Fig. 31-The vector dia&rams show the voltatle drop across the
series capacitor required if a capacitor is added so that the
'
...
IZ
CAPACITOR
=:::r
'
d_,
f
--i+ +1
1 ~t16''.k
-1 ' K:):
. . . . . . -1
(c)
.~
,-
Chapter 22
737
GEN. STA.
LIGHTING
LOAD
HJ--::!,t-1 ~
SERIES
CAPACITOR
WELDING
TRANSFORMER
SERIES CAPACITOR
MO~OR
"'
li
!:J
$'
....
z
Ed
3'1 r--
STARTING'---
~d
-- 11\Et
'Ed
<.>
"'w
0.
DISTANCE
GEN. STA.
SUBSTATION
A
SUBSTATION
B
LIGHTING
SER~ES
LOAD
CAPACITOR
t-D---D-HJ---1
Capacitors in Series with the Equipment-This application is limited to utilization equipment with a constant
inductive reactance, for which it is possible to compensate
with a series capacitor, so that the load drawn from the
supply circuit is practically at unity power factor at all
times. Thus, although the power drawn from the line is
still fluctuating, the resultant flicker voltage is greatly
reduced. Figure 34 shows such compensation applied to a
welding transformer. Inasmuch as the load itself is corrected, the benefits are felt all over the supply system.
Several such applications have been successfully made to
spot and seam welders (see reference 3).
7. Shunt Capacitors
Contrary to frequent misconceptions, permanently connected shunt capacitors are of no benefit whatever in
minimizing Hicker; in fact, they may make it slightly
wor::;e. An example shows the reason readily. A ::;ystem
with 10 percent inductive reactance in the supply leads,
serving an intermittent load having an inductive reactance
of 100 percent is shown in Fig. 35 (a). Resistance in both
line and load will be neglected to simplify the example,
but the same general effect will be observed if resistance
+jiO~
+jiO%
..
0
:;
(b)
fliCKER
PRODUCING LOAD
Fi~.
00 Es=91
738
8. Voltage Regulators
Voltage regulators are also totally unsuited to correcting
flicker. This statement applies both to generator voltage
regulators, or to step- or induction-type feeder regulators.
These devices operate only when the voltage changes;
furthermore there is a time lag before voltage is restored
to normal. As shown in Fig. 3, abrupt changes in voltage,
the ones that voltage regulators cannot eliminate, arc the
very ones to whit:h the human eye is must sensitive. Consequently, the flicker is perceived before the regulator can
even start. It is ,:;;ometimes thought that an electronie
regulator and exciter can eliminate this difficulty and prevent voltage dips. However, the field time constant of the
generator which in large units is as high as 10 seconds and
even in very small machines may be one second, makes
correction by this means impossible.
9. Compensating Transformers
As illustrated in Fig. 36, a compensating transformer is
similar in effect to a line drop compensator used in voltage
regulator control except that the size of the elements is
that of a power device rather than that of an instrument.
The current drawn by the flicker-producing load passes
through a resistance and reactance branch, and the voltage
LIGHTING
LOAD
REACTOR
RESISTOR
SERIES
TRANSFORMER
FLUCTUATING LOAD
spe-
Chapter 22
739
Chapter 22
GEN. STA.
(a)
H:J--~GENERAL
LOADS
(b)
(a) Fluctuating load on substation bus affected all loads fed from
bus.
(b) Fluctuating load feeders separated from rest of the load.
13. Flywheels
TABLE 2
Remedial Measures
Source of Flicker
3
~
y~
~"'
~~
()
.. . """ .
0
:1
g&
0 =
"
.a ""'
"
.~ -~
"
,)lJ;r
00
"
.....
~.s
_7_)_s_
"
oo;J()
00
~1
>~
~~
......
":l s
i'l-"' ~j
00
"0
E ~
8E'<
~"'
.
d
.,o-2
~
"5
&lu
10
II
.,
1l
.s u
.$
..
B
B
B
Utilization Equipment
Motor Starting.
Motor Driven Reciprocating Loads ..
Motor Driven Intermittent Loads.
Eledric Furnaces.
...
Electric Welders ..
A Teehmcally Su1ted
.8-Technically Unsuited
X -Frequently Economical
.... . ..
. ..
AZ
AZ
AZ
AY
AX
B
B
B
B
B
AZ
AZ
AZ
AX
AY
AX
AY
AY
AZ
AX
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
"'
.?;>
B
B
AZ
AZ
B
B
B
B
B
B
Y-PoSSibly EconomimU
Z-Rarely Economical
AZ
AZ
AZ
AZ
AY
tf.>
B
B
B
B
B
AX
AX
AX
B
B
AZ
AY
AY
AY
AX
AY
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - B
q,
u.
,.,.
_..,
:u
-" -
Generating Equipment
Prime Movers ..
. ...........
Excitation Systems ... .. . , .
. ..
Short Circuits and Switching Surges.
12
-3
--- --
AZ
AX
AX
AY
AY
B
B
740
can be made.
A common form of substation supply with two or more
feeders from the generating station paralleled to a single
Uus is shown in Fig. 37(a). "\Vith this arrangement, all loads
fed from thesubstationaresubjected to any flicker produced
on the outgoing feeders. Figure 37 (b) shows a low voltage
bus divided into two sections, one for residential and commercial loads, the other for industrial loads. This luyout
is based on the fact that voltage fluctuations objectionable
to residential customers are acceptable to industrial users.
There is probably a greater flicker tolerance in shop work
than in residence lighting, and industrial plants are usually willing to accept flicker when it is caused by their
own operation.
Other methods of stiffening the power system involve
changing the voltage of the supply line, tapping nearby
high-voltage, high-capacity lines, adding more transformer
capacity, or running a separate line to the flicker-producing
load. Local conditions determine what remedial measures
are most suitable in a particular case. Occasionally system
increases are justified if the additional capacity may be
needed later anyway.
Chapter 22
REFERENCES
1. The Visual Perception and Tolerance of Flicker, prepared by
Utilities Coordinated Research, Inc.--New York, 1937.
2. Lamp Flicker Awaits Ideal Motor Starter, by L. W. Clark,
Electrical World, April9, 1938.
3. Power-Factor Correction of Resistance-Welding Machines by
Series Capacitors, by L. G. Levoy, Jr., A.l.E.E. TranBactions,
1940.
4. Analysis of Series Capacitor Application Problems, by Concordia and Butler, A.l.E.E. Transactions, 1937. Vol. 56.
5. Self-Exciiatiou of Iuduction Motors with Series Capacitors, by
C. F. Wagner, A.I.E.E. Paper No. 41-139. Presented at Summer Convention, Yellowstone Park.
6. A Lamp Flicker Slide-Rule, by C. P. Xenis and W. Perine,
Presented at E.E.L Transmission and Distribution Committee
MeRting, Chicago, May 5, 1937.
VoL 60.
11. Arc Furnace Loads on Long Transmkssiun Lines, by T. G.
LeClair, A .!.E. E. Transu.rtions, 1940. Vol. fifl.
CHAPTER 23
Original Author:
R. L. Witzke
R. D. Evans
by telephone circuits required to give electrical communication for the same places. The coordination problem hecomes cumulatively more severe as the power systems
supply increasing amounts of load and the communication
systems become increasingly sensitive. There is also the
complica.tion caused by the introduction of newer uses for
elcctrieal energy and for electrical communication.
The effcds of extraneous voltages and currents on
communication systrms are varied in character, and include hazard to persons, damage to apparatus, and in~
terference with service. The damage to the physical plant
includes the effects resulting from overheating, from breakdown of insulation in lines and apparatus, and from electrolysis. The interference with service includes such effcets
as noise and acoustic shock in the telephone circuits,
false signalling in telephone, telegraph, and supervisorycontrol circuits, as well as diBruption of service. Communication circuits arc usually equipped with devices that,
when subjected to excessive voltages, provide protection,
but in so doing may render the circuit inoperative for
communication purposes not only for the duration of the
abnormal voltage condition but also until maintenance
work can be done.
The coordination problem is extremely widespread;
practically every type of electrical circuit has interfered
with some other type of electrical circuit. For example,
power-supply circuits have interfered with audio- and
carrier-frequency telephone and telegraph circuits, machine--switching and supervisory-control circuits. Similarly, d-e and a-c railway circuits have interfered with
practically every type of communication circuit. It is an
interesting and significant fact that communication circuits interfere \Vith one another, not only in the form of
"cross fire" bet,veen telegraph circuits but also in the form
of '~crosstalk" between telephone circuits on the same pole
line. Power circuits can interfere with each other. For
example, a ground fault on a transmission circuit can impress high induced voltages on a neighboring low-voltage
distribution circuit and produce apparatus failure or circuit
outage,
I. BASIC PRINCIPLES
'When a power and a communication circuit are operated
in proximity, the power circuit may produce certain conduetive or inductive effects, 'vhich ma.y interfere with the
normal operation of the communication circuit. These
electrieal interference effects, which appear as a result of
extraneous voltages and eurrents in the communication
circuit, muy be minimized by measures that are applicable
to either circuit alone, or to both. Such measures provide
the basis for the coordinat-ion of power and communieation
circuits to avoid interference, as discussed in this chapter.
acter and magnitude as would prevent the communication system from rendering service satisfactorily and economically if
methods of coordination \vere not applied.
Coordination is the location, design, construction, operation,
and maintenance of power and communication systems in conformity with harmoniously adjusted methods \Yhich will prevent
interference.
741
Conduction
(a) Metallic cross
(b) Ground potential
Induction
(a) :Magnetic induction, a current effect
(b) Electric induction, a voltage effect.
742
STATION
GROUNO
(a)
POWER STATION
r-----
1
I
I
I
1TE
ACCIDENTAL
GROUND
I
I
L------ -'
SG
G
(b)
Fig. 1-Schematic diagrams illustrating the production of extraneous voltages in a communication circuit by conduction
fron1 a power circuit.
(a) By metallic cross.
(b) Dy rise in gJound vvLeutial through wse of grouud connect..iona
common to hoth types of circuits.
TE Telephone terminal equipment.
St.at.ion-ground
re~;;istanco.
Chapter 23
On a power system a fault to ground causes a rise of potential of the po\ver-station neutral or ground bus as shown
in Fig. 1 (b). This potential rise can be estimated from the
magnitude of the ground current and of the station-ground
resistance SG which is of finite but low value. This rise of
ground potential may be impressed on a communication
circuit in the follov.ring manner. If a telephone circuit
conn~cts the power station and a remote central office,
telephone protectors are connected to the power-station
ground bus to avoid hazard to the user of the telephone
circuit at the power station. Similarly, telephone protector~ are used at the central office for protection against
lightning and other extraneous voltages. Consequently,
upon the occurrence of a ground fault, the rise in potential
at the power station produces a voltage that is impressed
upon the telephone eireuit and the two sets of protectors
as shown in Fig. 1 (b). This type of problem occurs frequently in connection with power-company communication systems, and in supervisory-control and pilot-wire
relaying systems.
A fault causing ground currents in a power circuit also
impre.sses upon a paralleling telephone circuit a component of voltage in phase with the ground current of the
power circuit. These conductive or ground-potential effef'J,~ n.m closely rPlated to inductive effects and in many
cases are difficult to separate. As a matter of convenience,
both effects are considered under inductive effects in the
subsequent discussions.
Magnetic induction, or electromagnetic induction,
as used. in this chapter, applies to the voltages induced in a
communir,ation circuit as a result of currents flowing in a
power circuit. Consider a single-phase metallic* power
circuit carrying a current of I amperes, and a metallic
communication circuit located in proximity, as shown in
Fig. 2. Magnetic fields around the power conductors are as
shown for an elementary section in Fig. 2 (b). The communication conductors C1 and C21ie in positions of different
field strengths so that unequal voltages are induced in
these conduetors.
When ground forms a part of the return eireuit for the
flow of power current, as when a line-to-ground fault
occurs, the problem is quite similar and cll.n be calculated
on the basis of a concentrated return current in the earth
located at some relatively great distance directly below
the line conductor. The determination of the coefficient
of induction or the coupling-factor under these condition~
constitutes one of the more important problems in the
analysis of fundamental-frequency effects.
Electric Induction-An important source of extraneous voltage on communication circuits, under normal
operating conditions, may be electric induction from a
neighboring power circuit. 13y this is meant the voltage
impressed on a communication circuit because of its position in the electric field, or electrostatic field, produced by
the circuit voltages of the power system. A section of line
with power conductor P energized from a single-phase
grounded source and with communication conductors C1
and C2 is shown in Fig. 3. It is to be recognized that there
*By metallic cireuit is meant one in which wires constitute the
two sides of the circuit; that is, earth docs not constitute one side of
the circuit.
Chapter 23
743
IP
'
'''
':c.
'
L---------~~!~c~--------l<>TE
rE L----I::::::;:l.:.!.--___J
(a)'
160
160
140
120
100
80
c,
;!;
"z
20
5,
~'X,.
I..INES OF
CONSTANT POTENTIAL
~ M~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N
(b)
Fig. 2-Schematic diagram illustrating magnetic induction
from a metallic power circuit on a metallic communication
~ 20
~
circuit.
(a) Elementary section.
(b) Equi-potential fields.
are capacitances between conductors, and between conductors and ground. In Fig. 3 ('J) is shown a cros,;-sectional view of the line together with equi-potertiallines in the
electric field produced by the conductor having a potential
with respect to ground. Tf the commnnieation circuit con..
sists of two wires separated even a short .distance, different
potentials are induced on them for most locations. A
typical power circuit involves three phase-wires, and the
electric induction produced by the three phases determine
the resulting potentials impressed on adjacent communication conductors.
Power-system voltages or currents which produce in..
ductive effects in communication circuits can be classified
as (!) positive- and negative-sequence components that
are normally confined to the line conductors 1 and (2) the
ze.ro-sequence component for which the line conductors
constitute one side of the circuit and the neutral ur ground
wires, or earth the return. Obviously the coefficients of
induction from power-system currents are different for
these two cases. Telephone engineers are accustomed to
use the term "balanced components" for the positive- and
negative-sequence components and the term "residual
component" for the quantity equal to the sum of the zerosequence components in the three phases. Under normalcircuit conditions the negative-sequence component of
fundamental frequency is usually negligible w it.,h the result
that the balanced components are normally related to the
positive-sequence component only. "Gnder ground-fault
eo
100
120
140
160
180
(b)
Fig. 3-Schematic diagram illustrating electric induction
744
Chapter 23
z'
~a) TE
TE
z'
z'
z
TE
(b) TE
z'
z'
z'
T
(G) TE
z'
z
z
z'
Et
z'
EL
z'
(o)
TE
{b) TE
Z'
z'
z
Ew=E 1-E 2
EriEt
EL
z.
1/2 E
z'
z'
z'
EL-2-
{) T
z'
1/2
Z'
M
EEt-Et
E 1+E 1
EL-2-
and
metallic~circuit
components.
Chapter 23
ceptiveness
745
Duty of Coordination
{a) ln order to meet the reasonable service needs of the pub-lic, all supply and signal circuits with their associated apparatus
should be located, constructed, operated and maintained in conformity with general coordinated methods which maintain due
regard to the prevention of interference with the rendering of
The power-system influence factors include the fundamental-frequency voltages and currents during normal
operation i their values under fault conditions including
duration and frequency of occurrence and divisions among
earth-return paths. They include also the magnitude and
phase relation of harmonic voltages that may be produced
by rotating machines, transformers, and rectifiers and
other apparatus and the frequency-impedance characteristic of the system, particularly in respect to resonance for
certain harmonics. The symmetry of the system or the
balance of phases with respect to ground represents another type of influence factor. Coupling factors include the
coefficients of magnetic and electric induction at varying
separations and the conductive or mutual-resistance factors as \Veil. They comprise those factors which are quantitatively determined by geographical and geometrical
relationships, relative conductor positions and earth resistivity. Shield \Vires, which are not lm~ated as a part of
either system, and transpositions are also-considered under
this heading. The susceptiveness factors of communication
systems include (1) for normal operation the characteristics
of sensitivity, power level, frequency re~punse, awl balance
of the circuit with respect to ground; and (2) for abnormal
conditions those characteristics that can be adversely affected by the presence of high extraneous voltages, including the features that may result in ha,zard, damage to plant,
and interference \Vith service. These characteristics are
ductive influence of the supply circuits or the inductive susceptiveness of the signal circuits or the inductive coupling between
circuits or a combination of these, in the most convenient and
important not only during the presence of abnormal voltage but also because of their reaction on the ability of the
circuit to return to the normal condition after the ex-
traneous voltage has been removed. Damage to the physical plant includes overheating of conductors, the breakdown of insulation in lines and apparatus~ and the operation of protective equipment. Interference with service
includes telephone noise, acou~tic shock, false signalling,
as well as actual disruption of service. By acoustic shock
is meant the adverse reaction on a listener to a telephone
economical manner.
746
The cooperative work initiated by the N a tiona! Electric Light Association and the Bell Telephone System, subsequently followed by other utility groups, has provided
a practical solution of the coordination problems that have
been encountered. In addition, these organizations have
carried out an extensive research and development program which has developed basic theoretical and statistical
information bearing on the coordination problem. Theresults of this work carried on by the Joint Subcommittee on
Development and Research have provided the most authoritative information available on many phases of the coordination prohlP.m. ThP.ir Reports 4 contain in arldition
much information of value in the po,wer and communication field outside of coordination work, a circumstance
that unfortunately has not been recognized as widely as
the suLject matter deserves.
Electrolysis
Structural
Low frequency
Noise frequency
Electrolysis Coordination is concerned with the layout and operation of power circuits, power and communication cables, and underground structures, located close
together, from the standpoint of accelerated corrosion resulting from leakage currents. This problem is of considerable importance with d-e circuits but not with a-c. Corrosion occurs in areas where the d-e leakage current leaves
the underground structures through the earth. Discussion
*Coordination between power-line and other carrier-frequency
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
747
locations are more likely to occur with an ungrounded system or a ground-fault neutralizer system than with a
grounded system. The method of determining ground
fault-current and division of current between line conduc-
v.~ +;0.2794
(!)
D.,
ilo I.log'"lJ
..
(1)
748
Chapter 23
~
.
v,
a
o,
'
c'
'
o,.
(al
(b)
I. is
the current in rms amperes flowing in conductor a and
returning in conductor a', D:u. and Da-,.. are the distances
from the conductors a and a' to x; the distances must be
expres~d in the same nnitR, preferably in feet. Similar
of parallel,
affect the induced voltage for those components of zerosequence current that return in the earth. Calculations
can be made by considering separately the induced volt~
ages, for each conductor for each section of the transposi~
tion system, and then combining them.
Earth-return circuits are the most common sources of
magnetic induction in low-frequency coordination prob-
location of the adjacent grounded conductors. The coupling factors can be estimated by assuming the return current to be concentrated in the earth at a considerable distance below the outgoing current. The voltage induced in
conductor x caused by current I a. flowing in a single-phase
earth-return circuit, illustrated in Fig. 6 (b). can be determined from the following approximate formulat:
(2)
10
(4)
D,=2160~ in feet
(5)
v'3
D=
v'~J
Du
for 60 cycles
(3)
where the notation is the same as for Eq. (2). The first
term in the bracketed expression is positive for phase ro-tation a, b, c; negative, if a, c, b.
Usually communication-circuit conductors and sometimes the power-circuit conductors or both are transposed
V,=0.286({0)I,+j0.2794([0)[I.Iogu, ~=
D~
D.,]
(6)
one~
Chapter 23
where the notation is the same as for Eqs. (2) and (4) and
] 0
or! (I,+h+I,).
Frequently only the induction from zero-sequence currents need be considered. For this case, Eq. (6) reduces to
749
0.286(~)+j0.8382(~) log10V"D~;b,DJ
V,=lo [
(7}
values given in Fig. 7 for the coefficients of mutual-resistance, reactance and impedance for various uniform separations1 which are taken from the work 4 of the Joint
Subcommittee on Development and Re::5earch of the Edi-
Coupling Factors for Rlectric lnduction-ThP relation between potentials and charges on each conductor
of a system of n parallel conductors using absolute or cgs
electrostatic units is ~iven in the familiar form7 :
V. =A Q.+Ab.Qb--A Q.~
Vb = A.bQ.+ AbbQ, ____ A.bQ.
-----------------
V. = A=Q + A Qb .. -.A Q,
10
0
~
0. I
"
.07
Q.,
.05
...
"',.
"'0I
.04
.o.
...
"z
.02
.o I
...
~
'
"\
'
.007
))0
~ :6~:
\IJ
0
.003
:!
.00 2f-
....
Q
a::
f= f::
MUTUAL IMPEDANCE
MUTUAL RESISTA NCE
r-
c- I.00 I f =
f=
7c- I-
MUTUAL REACTAN CE
1-1,~
\-'-0
~ .000
....~ .000 ~.~-!!! .000
~-- t,-'o
ON CURVES-IN METER-OHMS
:3.ooo 3
a:
...J.OOO 2
.i:!
::>
2 .000 I0
..
0
"'
10
t-
..g
"'
g g g
It)
....
"' "'
Fig. 7-Couplintt coefficient& at 60 cycles-variation with separation and earth resistivity-Carson's formula.
(8)
Chapter 23
751
System~~
Ce
Cb=Kbb-Kob-Kbc
CeKcc-Kae-Kbc
(a)
(b)
FiQ. 9-Electric couplin~ between three parallel conductors.
(a) Equivalent eA.ps.citance diagram.
(b) Equivalent circuit for determining zero-sequence voltage of
ungrounded three-phase system.
Y.=0.1786w(K.,-K,b-KM)
Yb=0.1786w(Kbb-Kb,-Kb..)
Y,=0.1786w(K~-K .. - K,b)
(14)
lb=(E,+a'E,)Yb
I,~ (Eo+aE1 ) Y,
(15)
E,=- Y.+Yb+Y,
The ratio of the residual voltage to tho line-to-neutral or
positive-sequence voltage is three timP-s that given by Eq.
(16).
Vh K "h log"-d
a.b
------;=
V.. Kbb
ha.a.
1ogw-
(17)
r.
Chapter 23
752
~rr
;~
r '"I
/?77~////?)7777777
Co=Kao-Kob-Kac -Kox
Cib=Kbb-Kob-Kbc -Kbx
Cc =Kcc-Koc-Kbc -Kcx
The effects of low-frequency induction on a communication circuit depend upon its magnitude and duration, and
upon the frequency of occurrence of the abnormal condition. Some of these effects can occur at voltages below
Cx=Ku-Kolt-Kbx -Kcx
(a)
100
"'z
!;;
..
ffiBO
"'"'0
,_ 60
..."
....."'
l>
...
0
"'
".."'~
~-
--
'"
../
400
450
500
550
60Q
PEAK VOLTS
(b)
Chapter 23
753
754
con~
TE ~sc
BCEI
9TE
(a)
R'
R'
II
TE
R'
R'
(b)
TE
TE
TE
(d)
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
755
lightning voltages that may come from the aerial communication circuit or as a result of heavy discharge through the
power-station ground. The insulation of neutralizing transformers is, of course, not high enough to avoid the possi-
HORN GAPS
DISCONNECTING SWITCH
HIGH-CURRENT FUSES
negligible, it is necessary merely to connect the neutralizing-wire winding of the neutralizing transformer between
the station ground and a remote ground, i.e., a ground out-
LOW-VOLTAGE PROTECTOR
RELAY PROTECTOR
(OR GAS-FILLED TUBE)
.,.
I
INSULATING TRANSFORMER
LOW- CURRENT FUSE
TELEPHONE SET
756
vide the best protection. To avoid a burnout of the insulating transformer in case gaps operate on one side of the
line only, a low-voltage protector is connected diredly
across the metallic circuit. To minimize the possibility of
bridging this protector a rehty-type protector is connected
in parallel with it as shown in Fig. 15, or a low-pressure
gas-filled protect.or tube can be used. On some circuits it
is necessary to minimize the effect of electric induction
under normal operating conditions 1 by draining the line so
that the necessary charging ClliTPnts can flow. It is possible to use the midpoint of some of these insulating transformers for a drainage connection. For protection against
magnetic induction, it is sometimes feasible to insert. several insulating transformers distributed along the circuit
to be protected.
Pilot-wire relaying channels can be protected against
the effect of ground potential as shown in Fig. 16, which
Chapter 23
design, since it is not required to meet the balance requirements for use on telephone circuits, hut merely provides
the turn ratio and requisite insulation strength between
primary and secondary windings. When a superposed d-e
signaling channel is to be used over a circuit equipped \Vith
insulating transformers, the line winding is arranged in two
sections, the mid-points of which are connected to ground
through suitable capacitors as shown in Fig. 16. These
mid-points can be used as line connection for the d-e signaling circuit 1 the source for which can conveniently he provided by copper-oxide rectifiers and suitable insulating
transformC"rs. To provide protection against higher induction or ground potential, special longitudinal choke eoils
LC are added to the circuit as shown in Fig. 16. These
coils arc arranged to be non-inductive in the metallic circuit but to have high inductance for the longitudinal
circuit, and to have considerable dielectric strength for
that path. This general arrangement provides E'upervision
features for checking the integrity of a pilot-wire channel
against open circuits, short circuits, or grounds. If supervision features are not required, the mirl.-point ~onnP-ctionA
of the insulating transformer are omitted and the line-side
winding arranged in n. single section. This results in simple
connections for the pilot-wire relaying circuit.
LA
'I
I'
I
1
1
L_____
L __ ..J
D. C. SUPERVISON
EQUIPMENT
Insulating transformers.
LC
C
LA
Specht~ coils.
\ See Fig. 12 (d)
Capacitors for grounding. J
Lightning arrcsters-dtstnbution type.
SG Station ground.
,. +
16000+
~
+- '
T1eooo
0
t" 10000
<!'J
eooo
6000
":r::
4000
2000
~}-t-
t;:l4000
757
Chapter 23
'
+--
.I
''
00
Telephone Interference Factor, Telephone Influence Factor, and T.I.F. Curves-The original or 1919
1935
'
I"
'
1919
I
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
ing <:urve.
B-Tt~lephonP. influP.ncP. fador-hased on l 935
for methods of estimating or measuring the total telephone-circuit noise 1 discussed in Sec. 14. Thus, starting
with the harmonlr:s ln the voltages and currents of a power
system and using coupling factors and the frequencyweighting curve applicable to the telephone circuit, it is
possible to estimate the overall effect from the coordination standpoint. However, for many purposes it is more
convnient to obtain a single factor applicable to the harmonics on a power system. To do this it is necessary to
modify the frequency-weighting curves applicable to the
telephone circuit by factors which take into account the
coupling behveen power and telephone circuits. Experience shmvs that a factor directly proportional to frequency
gives satisfactory resultR for both current and voltage harmonies. This leads to frequency-weighting curves applicable to harmonics on power systems. These are called T.
I. F. curves where T. I. F. means telephone interference
factor or telephone influence factor. Improvements in the
telephone receivers over a period of years require different
frequency-weighting curves as discussed in the following
paragraph.
frequency~weighting
curve.
TABLE 1-T.l.F. WEIGHTING$ OF VARIOUS SINGLE FREQUENCIES
Frequency
GO
100
300
360
420
540
660
720
780
900
I 020
I 080
1 140
1 260
I 300
I 440
I 500
I 620
I 740
I 800
I 860
I 9SO
2 IOO
2 500
3000
5000
1919 T.l.F.
8.8
112
440
770
1100
I 770
2 540
3 100
3 870
6 260
11700
16 000
16 100
9 350
6 IOO
5 250
4 530
3600
3020
2 750
2 600
2 280
2000
1935 T.l.F.
I
15
205
370
590
I 250
2250
2 990
4080
7 270
11600
11980
11100
7 920
5 470
4 740
4400
3900
3660
3580
3 570
3500
3500
3680
3 940
480
758
was intended that the 1935 T.I.F. curve and the term
Telephone Influence Factor should replace the earlier
forms. However, the transition requires time and has not
been made throughout Lhe industry aud it appears that
this change will not be made until after new curves are
Chapter 23
telephone interference factor except that the frequency weightings are obtained from Curve B of Fig. 17 and Table 1.
tive-sequence voltages and currents, including both fundamental and harmonics, while the residual component t
T.I.F. is obtained from the zero-sequence voltages and
currents, including fundamental and harmonics, which,
from a practical standpoint, are limited to those of Ute
triple-harmonic series. Balanced and residual T.I.F. terms
are also used in connection with systems under load
conditions.
Meters are available for measuring the telephone interference factor and the telephone influence factor of
both voltage and current waves. In the case of voltage
T.I.F. measurements, the reading is the ratio of the current in the metering element in micro-amperes to the rms
value of voltage being measured. In the case of current
resulting from the triple harmonics produced by the transexcept where very low values of residual-component T.I.F.
are being measured. Residual-current T.I.F. of a system
may be obtained by using the sum of the three phase
currents to energize the one millihenry coil across which
and give the total weighted factors for .,oltages and currents respectively, both balanced and residual. In these
terms T represents voltage or current T.I.F., KV the rms
line-to-line, or residual voltage in kilovolts, and I the rms
line current (wtth zero-sequence component removed), or
the residual current in amperes.
whose paths are limited to the line conductors and (2) the
circuits whose paths involve ground. Telephone engineers
are accustomed to use the terms balanced voltages or currents for those which are confined to the line conductors
and the term residual voltages or current.'{ to those which
Chapter 23
TABLE 2
Harmonie
Sequence
Harmonic
Sequence
Positive
Zero
19
21
Positive
Zero
3
6
7
9
11
13
Negative
23
Negative
Positive
25
rositive
Zero
Negative
Positive
27
Zero
Negative
Positive
15
Zero
17
Negative
29
31
etc.
system the line-to-neutral voltages contain all the harmonics present in the line-to-line voltage and in addition
contain the zero-sequence harmonics.
Balance of a Power System-If, under normal operating conditions, a power system is symmetrical and if
voltages of positive-sequence only are generated, then only
currents of positive-sequence can flow. However, if the
circuit is unbalanced, the flow of positive-sequence current,
for example, through unbalanced series impedances, produces unbalanced voltages that include a zero-sequence
component and produce zero-sequence currents, the importance of which from the induction standpoint may be
4.
5.
6.
7.
759
F,=S(rps) J
(18)
(19)
=(2N l)f
where F,-slot frequencies
S--tatal number of armature slots
rps-machine speed in revolutions per second
!-fundamental frequency
N -number of sJots per pole
760
Chapter 23
difficult to estimate the magnitude and equivalent frequency of these harmonics. Consequently, these effects are
estimated principally from tests on similar machines.
The foregoing discussion applies to positive- and negative-sequence harmonics and to zero-sequence harmonics
as well. However, the zero-sequence or triple harmonics
require special attention because, as pointed out previous-ly, they are the only ones acting on the zero-sequence path
in a symmetrical system. Triple harmonics in a synchronous machine can be controlled by altering the field form
and particularly by using a two-thirds pitch winding.
Theoretically, these measures should be sufficient to
eliminate the triple harmoni~s anrl ln practice this is substantially accomplished if a two-thirds pitch winding is
used. The windings of two-pole machines are generally designed with a throw less than two-thirds pitch because of
the difficulty of getting coils with longer throw through
the small bores. 1\fachincs with four or more poles are
generaUy designeO with coil throws as near full pitch as
Machine K va Range
60 Cycles
Balanced T.I.F.
Line-to-Line TerminaJB
62.5- 299
300 - 699
700 - 999
1000 -2 499
2 500 -9 999
lO 000 up
300
200
5000 kva up
*There is uo eu..ndG.rd for machines of
150
125
60
50
Residual-Component T.I.F.
30
lei~!o~
Chapter 23
In addition, synchronous
(S,)(rps)+f
(20)
F,~
(S,)(rps) J
(21)
25
(23)
761
15U(Vd)' m1.111.hennes
.
Lint= kw
where
600
kw-rating of machine in kilowatts
V do-machine d-e voltage
(24)
WLp
I
Fig. 18-Equivalent circuit for analyzing harmonic voltages
and currents due to saturation in a transformer.
Eg~Sinusoidal
in itfldf).
Zg~Impedauce
762
Chapter 23
90
---
:-.....
fUNDAMENTAL'
r--
80
.. 70
i.
~"
--
"
z
iii
,_ 60
._,
z
:>50
3rd. HARMONIC
/
r--~
f.-'
/
~-
20
to
--
!--
v
:;'ll ...--
f.-' v
~~" s
..."!!!
95
100
105
110
VOLTAGE-PERCENT NORMAL
Fig. 19-Fundamental and harmonic components of exciting
current for different applied voltages-based on silicon iron
used in transformers. For variat:ion of exciting current with
Chapter 23
763
5. Exciting currents vary importantly with voltage, increasing somewhat more than two to one for each ten per-
PRIMARY
16
SECONDARY
~~
~d
~~
:1 6
~:1 6
~6
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
FOR TRIPLE HARMONICS
{SEE FIG, 18)
CONNECTIONS
CA
~~-:1--
~
(
_,..
---
NONE
NONE
NONE
NON
SMALL
NONE
NONE
NONE
NONE
---
NONE
a}SMAll
(b) NEGLIGIBI.,
NONE
SMALl.
I--
....
---
l
(
(a) LARGE
{b) SMALL
Ia) SMALL
(b) LARGE
'
1--
{o) SUALL
(b) LARGE
rn
l,.ARGE
lo) LARGE
ib)SUALL
NONE
NONE
(o)SUALL
{b) LARGE
(o)SUALL
(b) LARGE
"""E
NONE
LARGE
LARGE
(o} FOR LOW IMPEDANCE TO TRIPLES OF THE SECONDARY OF CASE l. PRIMARY OR SECONDARY OR BOTH OF CASE 4, & PRIMARY OF CASES.
(b) FOR HIGH IMPEDANCE TO TRIPLES OF THE SECONDARY Of' CASE 3, BOTH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OF CASE 4, AND PRIMARY OF CASE 5,
764
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
765
50
40
"':J:
"'
I 30
"'<>z
'
i\..I
I \
1\ p;45 KVA
\
\
I
10
I
\
\I 1\
~20
90
1l
w
- - RESIDUAL IMPEDANCE
---LINE-TO-NEUTRAL
1
IMPEDANCE
45 KVA
180
/
/
\
\
1\\
xv v
/
400
600
/
I
::...-.: l:?
./
v L0
- ,--
180
I
""'
'/
800
!000
1200
the frequency range for both the balanced or positivesequence currents and for the residual currents (three
times zero~scqucncc currents) are plotted in this figure.
These curves show how resonanee to particular harmonics
can be avoided by suitable choice of capacitor size.
\Vhen the generated harmonic in the souree is of or near
the resonant frequency of the circuit with the capacitor
connected, there will be an increase in the harmonic voltage drop across the capacitor. "''hen the generated harmonic voltages are well above the resonant frequency of
the circuit, there will be some increase in harmonic current
resulting from the addition of the capacitor, but the harmonic voltage at the location of the capacitor will be
materially reduced. In certain t:iituations, this reduction
in harmonic voltage may result in substantial decrease of
'*'This section is abridged from reference 12.
766
Fi~.
Chapter 23
rating.
p
L
'
Eo
t"
,.,, '\I
I "\
I'
''
f'
\
t\!t\/\
I
\II I
"4 ....
I
I
i.
''
} / ' ' ) / X/
/\
/ d
'r x ~
i,
i.
'
i,
XX
~
Eo
EX
i.
X~ X
,r...
L
(o}
(b)
(c)
Fig. 23-Instantaneous voltage and current diaarams of diametrical six-phase rectifier for operation as:~
(a)-Rectifier without grid control.,
u-Angle of overlap----electrical degrees.
(b)-Grid-controlled rectifier.
a-Angle of grid delay----electrical degrees.
(c)-Inverter.
(u+a')-Angle of advanr_e (firing)~leetrical degrees.
Load circuit assumed to be of infinite inductance.
For other quantities see text.
Chapter 23
360
--;---:-c---;--c-.:
;---;---;c----;--:
(conducting period)- (angle of overlap)
(26)
."' .
...
~40
0:
iS
"0
"'20
5z
"
v/
v
r
r
/
/
/
~
,......
---
,.........
...-...-
--
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.24
IX/ Eo
Fig.
24~Antlle
usin~~t
IX
. ( I )
(27)
Slll7rp
Harmonics
6
5
12 18 24
~~~ 42
X
X
13
17
19
23
25
29
31
35
37
41
43
47
49
61
73
etc.
X
X
X
X
X
X
xi
X
X
_:_!_:_
D-C Harmonics
6
71
53
55
59
65
67
48 54! 60 66 72
II
12
18
24
30
/;_
767
J_
-iX
X
X
36
42
48
54
60
66
72
etc.
X
X
X
X
768
FT
"",;
ii!
e
ALE
AL
I
...
0
~
0.20
I
I
:\
'
I
I
:
I
0.1 6
t;,
I~\
0.1 2
1X/Eo0.04
Ul7,5
\[''\
'' ~
\ ' 'I
'' ~ ~~0.85
\I
~ :0.98
1\
1.01
~'
'
0.901::':::-t-
','
0.2 4
I
I
0.1 6
~~
0.1 2
0 .01
'
f''o
l\
~~~
IX/E00.08
\\
0.90
'' ~ ~~
'
'
\\
1.0
1.0
- -- 0.05
I
I
0.9~
!"--
',~98
.... ..
I
-r-
I
~ '
" -0.06
\\
.1 -
i\\
{0.70 '
0.85
0.90
0.08
1.0 I
:
:
:
0.04
\' ,\
0.04
''
1\' ,...\ ,-0.85
'
'
'
IS'-
' -'
0.98
13
0.05
1X/E 0 0.12
U31*
' \'\.
''
o.96-.,
~ o.ob \'
\
\~
1\
~\
r--. 0.01
',
- I - --
0.1 6
'
0.
'\
'
'\
--0.04
0.85
1\ >("
u2s
''
0.06
~.
0.85
0.0 4
\\ 0.98: \ '
0.0 8
,~98
1.0 '
0.2 0
0.1 2
0.02
!"--
0.2Of-
o.03
'~~CRO:TO
""" ['..
0.04
"t~
''
-----
0.0 4
0.
""
f.70
0.85
0.90
0.0 8
- -
17
003
'
~
MCR0.70
'
'
,- -b-.
'::'
""'
21
002
0.01
-- 25
29
HARMONIC
~Vid
Systerrn~
Chapter 23
0 .0
to
1X/E 0 fOR P S
01 2
016
008
Ro.Bo'
16
12
-- "'
Ia.
e
~---
1........-
--
~-
,....,_
1.00
"' t\,
--
--
t--
12th.
HARMONIC
-- f--
--
f-.. ~0.80
-- -- "'
6th.
HARMONIC
-- ---- ,.._ -
0,:!.
024
0.20
""-..
- -- ~'!' - -
1--
769
Chapter 23
-- k>o
'
--
--
'\
/~ ~~
1'-,
., /
f-- ~-
~-
':~9 v
-~
r/
v
v I.X ,'/
I
. f 'J
rt
v,; !1
j
m1 1 enr1es
(95)(60)(Edo)'
-;
Lint= kw
'jj'h
600
(29)
The distortion of the current wave shape in the a-c circuit is greater (1) with low-reactance supply systems than
II
-- !"-=
h
18th.
HARMONIC
;_o.ao
-- ~--
!'.._
-, Je.90
!"--.. hs1'-,
~ ', J....-_;
~ !'<-
0
~CRO.BO
4
""
~ ',
~:!0
""
""
-'
k'
V'
0.04
rP ~-- 1'.
/;
1'/ '
' '!'-.,
I><
--
I/ i
24th.
HARMONIC
17
[\
~"-,;: !<::(
1.#
~ L.0.08
v-
'-
:;:::
~
1.!:29 [;;'I
~
OJ2
'
'-
0.16
-"'
,_
-k
~-
"
0.20
0.24
sum of those for the total balanced load and the negative
of those for the six-phase unit taken out of service. Thus,
lX/Eo FOR P3
770
the disconnection of one six-phase unit will produce harmonics which correspond approximately to one-fifth uf Lhe
total load supplied by a six-phase rectifier and in addition
those that correspond to the total load supplied by a 30phase rectifier. The resultant harmonic conditions are
approximately the same as those produced by somewhat
more than one-fifth of the total load supplied by a sixphase rectifier.
When a rectifier or inverter is installed anrl connected
to a-c or d-e circuits, which now or in the future may be
involved in an inductive exposure, the coordination aspects of the problem should receive consideration. The
influence characteristics of a rectifier or inverter are definite for a particular power-supply system if the rectifier
load, number of rectifier phases, and amount of voltage
control are specified. The foregoing indicates the benefits
obtainable from a larger number of rectifier phases or by
limiting the amount of grid control. A combination of
voltage control with tap changers will produce lower influence factors than one that uses voltage reduction by
grid control. Substantial reduction in the harmonics
caused by rectifiers of a definite number of phases can be
accomplished only with auxiliary equipment, which entails additional cost. Other methods of coordination applicable to the power or communication system may afford
a more economical solution. The procedure to be followed
when an inductive exposure is possible is outlined in the
following excerpt from the recommendations of the Electrical Equipment Committee of the Edison Electric Institute15.
"In any particular situation consideration should be given
by the prospective purchaser to the coordinative measures that
may be applied in both power and telephone systems, in accordance with the 1Principles and Practices for the Inductive Coordination of Supply and Signal Systems' l(~), taking into account
possible future, as well aR initial, conditions.
"It will generally be found advisable to install a rectifier
without specific coordinative measures and then observe con..
ditions, particularly where it il3 impracticable to make sufficienUy
accurate estimates of the effect of the rectifier in advance of
installation. Experience to date indicates that specific coordina..
tive measures will not be necessary in the majority of cases,
particularly if care is given to advance planning of the method
of feeding the rectifier. In special cases where there are indications that paralleling communication circuits may be seriously
affected, some provisions should be made beforehand for tern~
porary arrangements to take care of the period during which final
coordinative measures are being determined and installed.
11
.\Vhen preliminary review indicates that consideration of
selective devices in the power system may be necessary after
the rectifier has been installed, preliminary cost estimates of
these devices* should be obtained from the manufacturer before
the purchase of the rectifier equipment so that they may be avail~
able in studies relating to the cost of the complete installation.
"It is to be understood that these suggested values may not
eliminate the possibility of interference in every case but on the
basis of past experience they are believed to be adequate for
roost of the cases likely to occur.
11
If the rectifier gives rise to a noise-interference problem after
installation, a joint cooperative study should be made in the
*Characteristics of selective devices that may be assumed for the
purpose of this preliminary estimate when the supply frequency is
60 cycles are given in the paragraphs on filtering equipment.
Chapter 23
transformer.
On series circuits, lamps of the arc-discharge type, including the a-c arc and the sodium-vapor forms, are sources
of voltage distortion. Ordinarily these circuits are supplied through constant-current regulators which, because
of their high reactance, greatly minimize the distortion of
Chapter 23
WIA-TO-GROUNO
LAMP
+'75~
KVT
"~'-J' 'l....-----"~
ct
WJ~!-_2
;-20'l. WIRE 2
RESIOVAL
KVT
\:+50~
----: r--: :
-z~:
'
-------.''
''
-50'l
771
(a)
(b)
alon~~t
series lighting
and equal leakages from the t\vo wires of the circuit, and
the lamps being uniformly distributed throughout the
length of the circuit. If adjacent lamps are alternately
connected in the two sides of the eircuit, the residual
KV T factor is zero. If the lighting circuit is accidentally
grounded, the maximum residual KV T factor will occur
when the lamps are located in one side only.
The influence of a series-lighting circuit (assumed ungrounded) is a minimum when the two wires of the circuit
are kept close together and when adjacent lamps are connected in opposite sides of the circuit. These conditions
insure that transpositions in telephone circuits can be
made relatively effective. For reasonably uniform exposures at highway separation betReen open-wire telephone toll circuits and a series lighting circuit on the
highway, the noise-induction conditions will not be important" if (a) the telephone lead is transposed according
to the exposed-line transposition system, or other systems
having equal or greater frequency of transposition, and
(b) the lighting circuit is not grounded (or is grounded at a
balanced point only), the two wires of the circuit occupy
adjacent pin positions, and adjacent lamps are connected
in opposite sides of the circuit. Noise-induction problems
are negligible in situations where only a small number of
sodium-vapor lamps are used, for example, at highway intersections.
Fluorescent lamps have wave-shape characterh:itics tsimilar to those of sodium-vapor or other arc-discharge lamps.
However, fluorescent lamps are used on constant-potential
circuits and are, therefore, less likely than lamps on series
circuits to be involved in coordination problems. In large
installations, fluorescent lamps are distributed among the
different phases. The phase position at the lamps will
vary, with the result that important reductions in harmonics are obtained. Another favorable factor in the
application of fluorescent lamps is that they are rarely
used in large numbers, except where power-supply or telephone circuits are located in cables, which can provide
considerable shielding action against magnetic induction.
The current T.I.F.'s of typical fluorescent lamps vary
from 30 to 60. Fluorescent lamps arc freqnently installed
with individual shunt capacitors for power-factor correction. Frequently also fluorescent lamps are installed in
pairs with reactor-capacitor phase-splitting arrangements
to avoid a zero illumination point. When shunt capacitors
z,
z;
Fig. 28-Equivalent n- network for ton~ line with distributed
constants. See Eqs. (30) and (31).
z' =
f
. x,e
h
-J - - - oms
hl tan
(31)
8=hz.ix.
radians
'I X,
(32)
lT
I Voltage
Circuit
IT Product
2.3
,.
5
6
(Amperes X
KV T Product
(Kilovolts line-to-
Circuit
Voltage
Range
(Kilovolts)
Current TIE')
1-Iagnetic
lincXVoltage TIF)
Electric
Induction
Induction
300 420 660 780 1020 1140 1380 1500 1740 1860 Test
--
Ave,
1.33 .33 13
5.90 1.7 12
.07 .04
.97 .33
0.3
19 .67
Ave.
.00 .05
.30 .50
04
81
.29 .12
.71 .69
.on
0;)
04 .06
"
.14
""
.95
Ave. 1.2
,09
);Jax. 4.1 1.10 42
19-44
Ave. 1.1
Mar. 3.2
60-60
08
M~.
.35 .13
97 65
*Harrooni~s
No.
Power
of
Kv
-1
3
.60 .26
.05
.00
'
231
.03
383
.07 .05
7 .28
.07
.25
56
47
.04
. 29
03
.20
06
.22
.06
.17 04
03
. 03
.03 .
<8
15
'0210
23
.43 .
27
---Balanced
Components
67
..
35
of phase-to-neutral voltap:e.
2.3- 4
II - 14
19 - 44
60 - 69
88 -132
2.3-
28
....
KVT PRODUCTS
AND
Item
Chapter 23
772
ReRidual
Componcnts
'
1,500
2,100
1,600
23,000
1,400
6,000
2,300
60
300
700
1,200
1,700
1,100*
No Data
12,000
16,000
I 1,400
I 0-500
400
1,400
2,000
3,500
2,300
19 - 44 !
GO - 69 160-800
15-30
10Q-1000
88 -132
100
50-400
++
Nu DaLa
Circuit
Item
Voltage
Kv
2.3
No.
of
--
MIOs 04~~~~ru
Ave. 1. 05 47 .11
Max. 32 4 7 1.3 2.:-1
96 l 6
14
13
3.9 5.3
157
19---44.
4.1 1.2
35
Max. 16 5.8 ,2.4
17
6D--69
81
88-132
Ave. 3.5
.20
Max. 15 16.1 9.0 I .5
A~
lui''
. 03
.<3
.03
.05
.lO
42
.04 . . . .
.24
22
Circuit
Kv
180
300
No.
of
2'
4.0
Ave.
Max.
11-13.8 Ave.
Max.
11-13.8 Ava.
Max.
19-4.4
60-<;9
R0-132
540
900
1260
1620
.06
.10
1.3
.01
.61
.005
.89
.008
.89
.05
26
.04
.17
.03
.39
.06
48
.02
.02
.09
.10
15
.15
22
1.17
.03
.0<11
.008
13
.24
.08
.83
.07
.01
.66
.06
.65
.03
.22
.04
. 12
.004
.0<
.001
.014
.003
43
.89
3.0
.I!
.08
.51
.04
.006
.032
.00<
.006
003
.016
18
4.78
20
.54
.60
.05
. 71
.02
6.96
25
.08
.45
.06
.48
.06
2.1
Ave.
Max.
2.2
Max.
2.0
4.7
Ave.
Max.
Ave.
Tests
420
- - - - - - - - - I~ - - - - - - - 1
OF MACHINES
243
Balanced TIF
Residual Component
(L-L)
TIF*
Item
.41
.09
.IS
.07
.47
.85
.fYT
.05
-266
Max. No. of
Tests
Tests
- - - - - - --- - - - ---
Synchronous
Generators
Steam.-Kva
1 00!} 2 500
2 501-15 000
15 001-Up
Hydro.-Kva
0-
39
18
15
105
98
110
169
158
163
72
58
57
17
100
323
590
59
116
110
120
25
109
480
26
25
103
33
9D9
1 000- 2 500
2 501-15 000
15 001-Up
----
D~C
..
..
..
15
15
99
66
21
36
..
..
..
..
7
17
13
20
..
6
4
Generators
M.G. Sets
Synchronous
Converters
Ave.
I \
I I
I I
I I
I I
\
\
\
\
I I
I I
I I
I I
\ I I
\ I I
\ \1
CAPACITIVE\\\
\ II
\ II
MINIMUM
TUNED-CIRCUIT
IMPEDANCE
700
\II
\1
900
1000
1100
FREQUENCY
(a)
"'z
0
TUNED-CIRCUIT
c.
IMPEDANCE
"'
MAXIMUM
773
Chapter 23
900
FREQUENCY
!000
1100
(b)
TO DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
Resonant shunt.
(b)
Wave trap.
f1
gram.
774
Chapter 23
RECTIFIER
SUPPLY
AND
TRANSFORMER~--4---4---~--~~mfC---~-,
SERIES
REACTORS
SHUNT
CAPACITORS
Fig. 31-Non-tuned a-c filter for use with small rectifiersschematic diagram.
!O SUPPLY
RECTIFIER
AND
TRANSFORMER
RESONANT SHUNTS
Chapter 23
775
'VOt..TACE
(\(\(\('
euRRENT
V\TV
A A ~r
rv
v v
/>.C. RESONANT
VOCTACC
SHUNTS
DISCONNECTED
vvv \.,
CURRENT \
(\
[\
(\
[\
[\
[\
VVV\
CONNECTED
a~c
shunt filter.
Rectifier filters can accomplish a very marked improvement in the voltage and current wave shapes of the supply
circuit as illustrated in Fig. 33 by the redrawn oscillogram
of the actual test results obtained on the first tuned-shunt
filter ever built13 The general appearance of a shunt filLer
is illustrated in Fig. 34 for a six-freqll(Omcy 1000-volt unit.
Shunt filters are inherently relatively expensive and should
not be considered as a normal part of a rectifier. In any
particular case, consideration should also be given to
alternative methods, such as:
776
Chapter 23
TO D.C.
LOAD
RESONANT SHUNTS
Fig. 35-Schem.aticdlagram of a typical d-e filter fora rectifier.
remedial measure.
Transpositionsf-Probably the most important method for reducing noise-frequency inductive effects is obtained by transpositions, particularly transpositions in
telephone circuits. A telephone circuit is said to be transtransformer*, and in the series reactor. The reactor in the
d-e circuit usually is of the iron-core type with air gap,
posed when the two sides of the circuit reverse their re-
crosstalk and they are also effective in reducing noisefrequency induction from power circuits. The different
functions of transpositions within an exposure section are
shown in Table I I. This table shows that there are eight
TABLE ll~FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPOSITIONS WITHIN EXPOSURES
Source of Induction
In Power Circuit
Balanced Voltagos
Balaneed Currents
Residual Voltages
Residual Currents
Direct
Indirect
Metallic Induction
Metallic Induction
T
T
T
T
Eq. (5). In telephone-noise calculations the coupling factors are based on a 400-foot equivalent depth of earth-
Circuits.
group consisting of two metallic-side circuits and a phantom circuit superposed on the other two. The middle
conductors constitute a metallic circuit consisting of the
pole pair. In Fig. 36 (a) the transpositions are of two
types, first, those that involve the change in position of
the two wires in the metallic circuit, and second. the phantom transpositions that involve change in all the positions
for the four wires as illustrated in Fig. 36 (c). Newer
transposition systems have been developed by the Bell
System to solve special problems created by carrier-frequency telephone systems. These tram;position systems
are, of course, also effective for audio-frequency circuits.
Transpositions have been highly developed in the communication industry because of crosstalk as well as noise-
PAIR
1-2
(a)
777
Chapt.er 23
3-4
5~6
7-8
4
9-10
LETTERING
46 8 iO
..
12
14
iSii
20 22
24
26 28 30 32
34
36 38 40 42 44 46
~NON-PHANTOMEO
CIRCUIT
PHANTOM
LETTERING
CIRCUIT
4850
52 54
4
E
56
58 60 62
(b)
TYPE I
TYPE 2
TYPE 3
TYPE 4
~~:l~t.lllllt ;~ ;~
E
i6
i6
20
2i
24
~~ ~~
(c)
Fig. 36-Typical Bell System transposition dial!lram. From Engineering Report No. 36 of Reference 4.
(a) Wire positions for ~<Exposed Line" system forE section-upper cross-arm only.
(b) Schematic diagram for "Whole-Line" transpositions,
(c) Types of phantom-circuit transpositions.
frequency characteristics. A general discussion of transpositions is, of course, beyond the scope of treatment here
possible. Mention should, however, be made of a few
coordination problems which involve transpositions. To
secure full effectiveness of a transposition system in reducing induction from a particular exposure, it is necessary
to coordinate the transposition locations with the exposure
section. This frequently requires rearrangement of the
transpositions on the communication circuit by installing
a transposition system that constitutes a balanced section
for the entire exposure. The normal balanced lengths are
eight miles for an E section, six and four~tenths miles for
an N section, and one-half mile for an R section. Neutral
points of the Exposed-Line System illustrated in Fig. 36
oceur at S poles, one-quarter and one-eighth points. Because of the frequent necessity for coordinating existing
778
Side
Transpositions
Coordinated.
U ncoordinatcd.
None.
.... 1
.....I
Hclativc Noise In
Circuits of Phantom Group
Min.
Ave.
Max.
1.2
8.8
6.
25 .
12.
50.
50.0
100.
190.
Bell System*. \Vhere a small number of circuits are involved, as for example in the casP. of a single powercompany telephone line, it is possible to obtain a higher
degree of effectiveness of transposition than indicated in
the table. However, for transpositions applied to many
circuits under the usual condit.ions of installation with
some variation in separation, it is necessary to assume
much lower effectiveness. Certain recommendations in
this connection are given in Sec. 14, Calculation of Noise
in TeJephone Circuits.
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
779
such circuits are noisy when operated close to power circuits. The metallicizing of such ground-return circuits
provides the most important measure for minimizing noisefrequency problems in such cases. Sometimes it is practical to metallicize only the exposure section by installing
repeat coils between the exposure section and the remainder of the circuit. Separation of the two wires of a metallic
circuit is, of course, an important factor in the problem.
Conductors on open-wire telephone circuits are usually
located 12 inches apart. The reduced spacing of eight
inches has been found advantageous for carrier-frequency
circuits. Table 13 shows the relative noise in subscriber
TABLE 13-RELATIVE NOISE IN SUBSCRIBER CIRCUIT
EXPOSED TO SINGLE-PHASE COMMON-NEUTRAL POWER CIRCUIT
Relative Noise*
Item
Type of Service
Party Line
BARinger ...
Single-Condenser,
1-10
40--00
Party Line
SA Ringer, ,
Single-Condenser,
45-55
12-25
Party Line
8J Ringer. ...
Split-Condenser,
12-25
4-12
Part.y Line
SA Ringer. '. ,.
Split-Condenser,
12-25
1-10
1-10
One Set
on Line
8J Ringer.
*&sed on Engineering
Report No.
6 of
...
Reference
Two Sets
on Line
4.
780
Chapter 23
Syst<m~s
Db
Voltage or Current
Gain Ratio*
2
3. 16
5.62
10
20
then resolved into metallic- and longitudinal-circuit components. For a balanced but untransposed circuit, the
noisefrequency currents in the telepho~e receiver resulting
from the metallic-circuit components of induced voltages
are readily calculated. Longitudinal voltages impressed on
a perfectly balanced circuit cause no current in connected
telephone receivers. However, when either series or shunt
unbalances are present, longitudinal induced voltages acting upon them produce additional noise-frequency currents
in the telephone receivers.
The noise-frequency currents in the telephone receiver,
15
25
10.00
17.80
30
35
31.6
56.2
40
45
50
100.
178.
60
316.
1,000.
80
100
10 000.
100 000.
Approximate
Noise Units
(Based on Line Noise)
7
14
22
40
70
125
220
400
700
1250
2200
7000
are unbalances outside of the exposure section, this circumstance must also be taken into account.
Th~ preceding diRcm:;sion shows that accurate noise calculations are complex. Fortunately, an important simpli-
Ratio in
db~ 20
log" Ratio
(33)
db~20
log,
Noise Units
(34)
Chapter 23
781
NME n=KE-nK,(KVTn)
}
NM,_a=K._aK,(KV Ta)
(35)
NMr-n=Kr-nK,(l Tn)
NMr-a=Kr-nK,(I Tn)
where NM E-B, N M E--a~metallic-circuit noise caused by
electric induction from balanced
or residual voltages-noise units.
'NMr-n, NMx-R-metallic-circuit l10ise caused by
magnetic induction from balanced or residual curreutsnoise units.
KE-B, KE-R-factors* giving ratio of metalliccircuit noise on telephone circuit
to balanced or residual voltage
on power-circuit in kv. See Fig.
37.
Kr-B, Kx-a~factorst giving ratio of metalliccircuit noise on telephone circuit
caused by balanced or residual
current to power-circuit amperes. See Fig. 37.
K r-length of exposure in kilo-feet.
KV -power-circuit voltage in kilovolts-fundamental frequency.
*KE-B and
Subscriber Circuit
-----
Coordination
Joint Use
0.1
to
0.2
0.2
to
0.4
Optimum
Nominal
IRo~way
0 05
to
0.1
0.10
to
0.2
0.05
to
0.1
0.2
0.06
0.3
0.025
0.25
0.25
....
Refere~
4.
Out::;ide
Conductor
Distancesinches
Components
Kt-B
and
Kt-R
Non-Pole
Pair
Pole
Pair
Non-Pole
Pair
Pole
Pair
0.077
0.10
0.22
0 20
0.15
0.62
1.40
0.75
0.16
0 22
0 32
0.42
0.36
0.83
---~
Balanced
15
30
Residual
60-100
Any
180
1.4
782
Chapter 23
0
o
o0
0
H2S:
.,oOs
M '0
/~
RESI[HIAL-VOL TAGE
CURRENT FACTORS
0
oo 0 H50''j
0.05
0.03
...'"'
.
.O.I'<Y CONFIGURATION
-~~5'
~ 0.02 0
~SIOU
0.0
0.00
'
'
"'o.oo
'
,; 0.00
'
"' 0.00
~ 0.00
MO
0.000
O.QOO
0.000
0..000
'
4/2 0 d/2
0
)1-
,. "'""
ro
0.030
0.020
..
, o
300 400
ftrwe
~LANC(OwCURRENT
(1.040
~ol/ll 0~){
25''
d/2
Cx
35'~
'
Q
T
HSO'
'
'
t'l--
'
FACTOR
GORREOTION f'AOTOR$
,,
"'
L,
() VERTICAl.
04130 2dt3
'
0.100
0.070
0.050
~'
~T~'-
VOLTAG
'
0.000
RESIDUAL
'0
0.000
SEPARATION,)(, IN FEET
""'
CURR
'0
:.
N'
osr
4.0'
0>0
0.38
0.55
u:.o'
'"0
1,3!!
16.0'
1.60
2.00
e.o'
0
Afl0..4d
2d-eo' eo'wsoo'
2.5'
J.OO
1,55
'L,
(IJ LOW-TRIANGULAR
o.OOIO~~~~~~!I!IIIIIIII
(),OOosC
0.0004~
o.ooo3
0.0002
()
(f)
M!.,S'
30'
tTT
1r/
:s'
---VERT
CONF'!GURATIO
HOR. t;l. TRIAUGULAR
..
I II
'
M0012'~0.-J.,,&ol.J~o~oo!ni-,,.Jnl-LJ~~o~~o4tkoo,-L,,..
!l;l.,.,~off.~oo
IUGM-TRIA!olGULAR
SEPARATION, X, IN FEET
I%
(b) Honzontal
(c) Honzontal
5'
5'
8'
2.5'
5'
8'
12'
16'
12'
16'
o.74
0.68
0.74
.. .
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.65
0.69
0.72
LOS
!.53
0.95
!.01
1.44
1.96
o.94
1.10
1.81
2.57
0.92
1.15
2.23
3.02
o.3o
0.55
2.33
4.28
8'
(d) Equi-triangular
(e) Verhca.l
5'
8'
(f) Low-tnangula.r
2.5 1
5'
I 8'
12' i 16 1
KE--a-CONFIGURATION C.F.M.
)\
20'
60'
100'
300'
600'
(Cont'd)
(g) High-triangular
2 ..5'
5'
8'
12' . 16 1
1.40
0.84
0.\10
1.66
2.21
1.34
0.99
1.18
...
... .
. ..
1.00
1.11
1.25
2.85
4.06
!.36
1.24
---------------
2.18
3.D7
1.23
2.60
3.85
....
...
0.85 11.09
0.68 ' 0.92
0.38 II 0.66
... 0.49
I 0.96
!.04
.1
0.93
0.82
~ -----20'
60'
100'
300'
600'
(e) Vertical
0.99
0.97
1.23
1.32
1.20
1.14
1.75
2.09
Configuration Sketch.
(f) Lowtriangular
50'
25'
(g) Hightriangular
I--25'
50'
25'
50'
--- ------ -----0.80
1.25
!.50
1.00
1.00
0.75
1.25
0.72
0.95
1.05
1.48
0.92
0.88
0.95
1.00
60'
100'
300'
600'
0.21
1.00
1.20
1.10
1.03
1.20
1.14
1.15
1.00
1.00
0.67
0.87
Jl.93
1.00
1.02
%
20'
60'
100'
300'
600'
Fig. 37-Charts for the determination of KE -B, K 1 -<B KE--n and KI--n factors for U8e with noi8e formulas, Equations (35).
In all cases telephone wires are assumed to be 1 foot apart and 25 feet above &round.
Chapter 23
783
REFERENCES
1. Reports of Joint General Committee of National Electric Light
As.sociation and Bell Telephone System on Physical Relations
1926.
2. Report of the American Committee on Electrolysis, B. J. Arnold,
Chairman (Publi~;hed in book form in 1921).
Pi~
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
2!l.
20.
CHAPTER24
I. ELECTRICAL LOADS
I. Consumers Purchase Electricity for End Use Application
Agricultural
Lighting
Water heating
Space heating
Air conditioning
Computer
Air circulation
Cooking
Water well pump
lirain dryers
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Lighting
Water heating
Space heating
Air conditioning
Computer
Air circulation
Cooking
Water well
Clothes dryers
Lighting
Water heating
Space heating
Air conditioning
Computer
Air circulation
Cooking
Elevators
Inventory System
Lighting
Water heating
Space heating
Air conditioning
Computer
Air circulation
Filtration
Fluid pumps
Finishing dryers
Water heating
Cooking
Refrlg ./Freezer
Washer/Dryer
Some end-uses are satisfied only by electric power peak, per capita usage at peak conditions falls into the end-use
categories as shown.
(televisions, computers). In others, electricity dominates in
usage over other alternatives (there are gasoline-powered
End-use analysis of electric load - the study of the basic
refrigerators, and natural gas can be used for lighting). But for
many end-uses, such as water heating, home heating, cooking, causes and behavior of electric demand by customer type and
and clothes drying in the residential sector, and pulp heating end-use category - is generally regarded as the most effective
and tank pressurization in the industrial sector, electricity is but way to study consumer requirements from the standpoints of
quantity, quality. and schedule.
In any one household.
one of several possible, competing energy sources.
784
Chapter 24
785
s:
"-g4
j
.12
6
12
6
Hour of the Day
12
......
2 .............../
12
Hour of the Day
12
Fig. 2-Typical summer (solid line) and winter (shaded line) peak
day load curves for a metropolitan power system in the southern
786
Chapter 24
consumers in an area.
Differences between the electric "non-productive work" required for their function, such as
demand patterns of otherwise similar types of customer (as in produce the magnetic field inside a transformer or motor,
Fig. 2) occur because of differences in climate, demographics, without which they can not function.
appliance preferences, and local economy.
V AR flow on a power system consumes capacity in
conductors, transformers, and other equipment, but provides no
5. Demand
useful "real" work. It is mitigated by the use of capacitors and
other devices, or by changes in the end-use device so that it
Demand is the average value of load over a period of time
consumes fewer V ARS (see Chapter 8).
known as the demand interval. Often, demand is measured on
250
an hourly or quarter-hour basis, but it can be measured on any
interval - seven seconds, one minute, 30 minutes, daily,
r\
.....
monthly, annually. The average value of power, p(t) during
200
:;;
"'!'-..
the demand interval is found by dividing the kilowatt-hours
accumulated during the interval by the number of hours in the
rl',.,
intervaL
Demand is the average of the load during the interval. The
peak and minimum usage rates during the interval may have
been quite different from this average (Fig. 3). Demand
0
intervals vary among applications, but commonly used interval
12
12
12
6
6
Hour of the Day
lengths are 5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes.
Peak demand, the value often called "peak load," in design Fig. 3-Demand on an hourly basis (blocks) over a 24 hour period.
studies, is the maximum demand measured over a billing or Continuous line indicates demand measured on a one-minute
measurement period. For example. a period of 365 days interval basis. Maximum one~minute demand (at 5:52 PM) is
contains 35,040 fifteen-minute demand intervals. The about 4% higher than maximum one-hour demand (5-6 PM).
maximum among these 35,040 readings is the peak fifteenminute demand. This value is often used as the basis for an
9. Voltage Sensitivity of Loads
annual demand charge if the readings measure a single
1
customer s usage, and as a capacity target in engineering
The various electrical appliances connected to the power
studies: the maximum amount the system must deliver.
system exhihit a range of different load vs. voltage
sensitivities. Important characteristics include their response
6. Demand Factor
to transient voltage changes and their steady state load vs.
voltage behavior.
The demand factor of a system is expressed as the ratio of
Transient voltage response is difficult to characterize and if
maximum demand to the connected load. Normally the
important, should be modeled with detailed, and specific, study
demand factor is considerably less than 1.0.
of the transient response of the particular loads involved.
Classification of transient load response into categories is
7. Load Factor
useful in some cases, but no simple generalization works in all
Load factor is the ratio of the average demand to the peak cases.
demand during a particular period. Load factor is usually
For "steady state" representation, individual electric loads
determined by dividing the total energy (kilowatt hours) are generally designated as falling into one of three categories
accumulated during the period by the peak demand and the depending on how they vary as a function of voltage
number of demand intervals in the period, as
Constant impedance loads, for example an incandescent
(I)
LF "" Total usage during period
light or the heating element in an electric water heater,
arc a constant impedance, whose resulting load varies
(Peak Demand) x m
as the square of the voltage.
where m =number of demand intervals in period
Constant current loads, including some types of power
Average Demand
(2)
LF
supplies, many electroplating systems, and other
Peak Demand
industrial processes, are basically constant current
loads. Energy drawn from the system is proportional to
Load factor gives an indication of the degree to which peak
voltage.
demand levels were maintained during the period under study.
Load factor is typically calculated on a daily, monthly.
Constant power loads, such as some types of electronic
seasonal, or an annual basis.
power supplies. and to an approximate degree,
induction motors, vary their load only slightly in
8. Power Factor
response to changes in voltage.
:=
,...-
I\
ml
All loads require real power - kilowatts - to perform useful In each category, reference to a load as "1 kW" refers to its
work such as mechanical rotation or illumination. Reactive value at 1.0 PU voltage. Table 2 shows the value of a I kW
loads also require reactive volt-amperes (V AR) to do a type of load in each category. as a function of voltage.
TABLE 2- ACTUAL
LOAD OF A "l
KW LOAD" OF VARIOUS
CATEGORIES
PU Line
Voltage
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
787
Chapter 24
Power
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Constant
Current
Imped.
Ratio
880
900
920
940
960
980
1000
1020
1040
1060
1080
1100
1120
774
810
846
884
922
960
1000
1040
1082
1124
1166
1210
1254
886
904
923
941
961
980
1000
1020
1041
1062
1084
1106
1128
Error
0.73~/l)
0.48%
0.29%
0.15%
0.05%
0.01%
0.00%
0.03%
0.11%
0.21%
0.35%
0.52%
0.72%
Class
Fann - residential
Rural residential
Suburban residential
I lrhan residentiill
Small retail commercial
Small non-retail comm.
Medium retail commercial
Medium non-retail comm.
School
Large commercial
Small industrial
Medium general service
Peak kW
kWh
Time of Peak
6.2
26,200
15,600
12,000
11,800
23,000
19,600
110,000
177,000
1,500.000
109,000
513,000
1,350,000
9 PM Summer
4.4
3.2
33
7.0
5.6
33
51
610
28
88
220
8 AM Winter
6 PM Summer
6 PM Summer
4 PM Summer
9 AM Winter
4 PM Summer
9 AM Winter
8 AM Winter
2 PM Summer
2 PM Summer
3 PM Summer
788
Offlco
if
"
"'
.!;
012
12
012
12
12
12
Retail
.."
ir
.,;
12
12
'12
12
12
1'~2--,::---:1:::,---=.--'"'12
Hour of the Day
Total System
11;;,---:.--:1;;;2c---;.:---,;12
Hour of the Day
Customer
Class
Agricultural
Class
Peak- GW
.81
.22
155
Peak
Contr. - GW
Responsibility
Factor
Other
.83
.23
.06
.16
.10
.45
.22
1.32
.39
.21
.79
.57
.25
.80
.18
.06
.16
.6
.96
.85
1.00
100
.6
Total
6.07
5.66
.93
Rural residential
Residential, houses
Residential, apartments
Small retai1/office
Retail commercial
Offices comm.
Small & medium indus.
Large industrial
Municipal
Military/Fed. Govern.
Schools
.44
.25
.88
.66
.27
fluorescent tubes, to sodium vapor and high-pressure monochromatic gas-discharge tubes and lasers. Each uses electric
power to produce visible light. Each has advantages with
respect to the other illuminating devices that gives it an appeal
in some situations. But regardless of type or advantages, all of
these devices require electric power to function, and create an
012
Chapter 24
.56
1.00
.85
.89
.84
.89
.78
.93
Chapter 24
~ 2 LrorALSYSTEM
a,
~,
Tnneotoay
:::::::::"'' . I
--.:::::.._=:::..................
(x 98,20V
"'--(x111,50V
~17,103
~ ~SiogloFomHyHomo
~ 'bDSmoiiRolmiComm.
8'
i
0
~,
~.
Tlrm1 of Day
::::::.::==:rt.:~::~~:::;::::
i'l
TlmeofO.y
.............."'l:
.. ..;::-''(:::-:::~'::,
uo""" ~
nmeotDay
--X5%
~.~
;
789
] ......... .:::::! . . ..
( x27%)
x~~
..........
'
13. Appliance Output Is Controlled by Varying Duty Cycle
Only a minority of electrical devices vary their load as a
function of the end-use demand placed upon them. For
example, the motor drive in a variable speed heat pump will
control its RPM (and hence electric load) to correspond to the
pumping requirements of the system, on a moment to moment
Mid.
Noon
Mid.
Time of Day
period.
790
Chapter 24
Cusi R1-37747QW
Cust R1 675448BU
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Feb 7, 1994
Feb 6. 1994
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791
Chapter 24
A
Non-Coim;ident Load Behavior
One Household
B
Col!lciden\ Load Behavior
111000th of 1000 Households
Time of Day
2 Households
5 Households
Time of Day
20 Households
100 Households
power systems.
16. Coincident Curve: Expectation of Non-Coincident Load
The interpretation of coincident load behavior as the
expectation of non~coincident load behavior, as explained in
sub-section 14 (water heater example) is generally applicable.
T1meotDay
Time of Day
Chapter 24
792
(3)
'
22
1u
.:
C)
J!!
1l
Chapter 24
793
Customer
Class
Summer
Winter
Agricultural
Residential
.56
.39
.38
.46
.47
.48
.90
.91
.50
.98
52
Smail Industrial
Large Industrial
Other
.97
.87
.82
10
"'
ig
~"
.....
0
8
0
1
100
5 10
1000
Number of Customers in the Group
0
10000
Fig. 15-Coincidence curve for winter peak conditions, and for offpeak conditions (late fall).
OL--------------------------0
8760
Number of Hours Per Year
794
~22
A: Appliance Interlocking
~22 .
B: AC Load Control
...
......
..
1 ~----~--~=---~=-~~.
10
100
1000
10000
Number of Cu$tomers
~
~
: ~----~--~=---~=-~~.
10
100
1000
10000
Number of Culltomers
I
~
Number of Customers
~22
~ ~--~~--~--~~~~
1
10
100
1000
10000
~
i oL-----~--~~--~~~~
1
HI
100
1000
10000
Number of Cu$tomers
Chapter 24
~
z
i 0'~--~~--~~--~~~~
1
10
100
1000
10000
Number of Customers
~ ~--~~--~~--~~~~
1
10
100
1000
10000
Number of Customers
Fig. 18-Examples of coincidence curve modification due to various types of demand~side management (OSM) programs.
Thin solid
line indicates base coincidence behavlor. Heavier lines indicate the coincidence behavior of the load after DSM modification.
switches off, the water heater will activate. Over any lengthy
period of time (an hour or more) both appliances usually
receive all the energy they need. Thus, over any large group of
customers, coincidence of energy usage within any demand
period will not be affected. The asymptote is unchanged.
An opposite type of effect is shown by the broad line in Fig.
188. Appliance load control is basically a method to limit
duty cycle, and thus coincidence of load. Typically, load
controllers are set to limit the operation of any appliance to no
mort! than a certain number of minutes per demand period. For
example, a controller might be set to limit its air conditioner to
no more than 12 minutes operation out of any 15 minute
period. a duty cycle of 80%. During peak conditions, the
average thennostat may want to operate its air conditioner 90%
of the time. Thus, this load control effects an II% reduction in
air conditioner energy usage. As a result, the asymptotic value
of the coincidence curve. for large groups of customers with
load control, is reduced.
Such a load control measure makes no impact on the
maximum height of the needle peaks produced by any
household. The AC unit is still the same connected load, and
still likely to overlap with other appliances to create high
needle peaks. As a result, load control has no impact on the
value of the coincidence curve for individual customers. In
cases where control is poorly coordinated, or the load control is
aggressively used to maximize the reduction of coincident
peak load, it can produce a "'rebound effect," increasing peak
loads on some levels of the system, as shown by the dotted line
in Fig. 18R. Fig. 18C through Fig. 18F represent the actions of
other often-used DSM approaches.
Fig. 18 illustrates two vety important points about DSM
programs. First, DSM programs do not necessarily produce
Chapter 24
795
22kW
The load curve in fig. l2A was obtained using period integration
(demand sampling) on a five-minute interval basis.
796
2HW
5 Minutes
Time of Day
22kW
30 Minutes
25
15
30
60
90
o1
...
5 minute periods
15 minute periods
60mlnute periods
60 Minutes
I
1l
22kW
120
c
~
.!!
"-'m
1~
8
0
0
1
5 10
100
1000
Number of Customers in the Group
10000
22kW
120 Minutes
Aliasing.
I.s.
0
Fig. 20-Single household load (Fig. 12A) sampled by period
integration (demand recorder) on a 5, 30, 60, 120-minute basis.
Chapter 24
Fig. 23-Single household load curve (top of Fig. 20) sampled with
hourly discrete sampling. Left: load curve sampled discretely
797
849
Index
PAOS
PJ.Glll
Voltage
Base .. ,, ...................... 295
Choice of... . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Drop Due to Self and Mutual
Impedances.
. .......... 16
Drop, Examples.
. .313, 316, 319
Drop in
Distribution Feeders.
. .. 681
Distribution Transformers ..... 683
MaximumDuringFaultConditions 626
Recovery Theory.
. . 504, 505
Regulation.
. ........ 696
Surge. .
. ............. 523
Theory of Recovery. . .... , 504, 505
Trend.................
..,. 6
Unbalanced Three Phase.
. .14, 15
Voltage-Regulator
Approximate Impedance Data ... 395
Automatic Control Unit.
. .226
B-J ..................... 220 to 222
Cross-Current Compensation. 220, 222
Current-Limiting Device. . . 224, 231
Damping.
. ..... 221, 222
Damping Transformer_ ......... 220
Direct-Acting Rheostatic.
217,220
Electronic.
. .. 232
Field Forcing.
. .... 221, 222
Flicker. . . . . . . . .
738
For Machines .. .455, 479, 487 tu 489
Hunting. . . . . . . . . . . ..... 221, 222
Impedance Type,
.. 224, 225
Indirect Acting Exciter
Rheostatic.
. . 220 to 222
Line-Drop Compensation.
. .. 223
Manual Control Unit._.... . .. 228
Minimum Excitation Unit.
. .227
Sensitivity. .
217
Silverstat.
. , . 218 to 220
Static Potential Unit.
225
Synchronous Condenser.
. 223, 224
Types.
. .. 217
Voltage Adjusting Unit ........ 226
Voltage Regulation
Tap Changing Under Load .. 121,122
Water-Cooled Transformers.
. .106, 133
Water Power.
4
Wave Front-Effect on Attenuation .. 540
Wave Propagation on Transmission
Lines-Chap. 15..
. .523
Wave Shape
Capacitors.
. .. 252 to 254, 761
D-C Machines
.. 761, 772
Deviation Factor.
. .. 760
Filters, Effect of.
775
Guarantees. .
. .... 760
Induction Motors.
. .. 761
Inverters.
. . 766
LT. Factors. .... . . ... , .... 758, 772
KV.T Factors..
.758, 770,772
Lighting Circuits.
. ..... 770
Lightning Discharge Currents 570, 571
Power-System Survey.
. . 771, 772
Rectifiers ......... _............ 766
Synchronous Machines .. 759, 761, 772
System ................... 771, 772
T.I.F. Factors. . .757, 760,771,772
Transformers.
. .......... 761
Wave Traps.
. 766, 772 to 776
Welders- Various Types. .
. . 727
Wood~Flashover Kv.
. ..... 598
Wood Pole Structures.
. .596, 598
Zero Sequence
Capacitive Coupling in
Transformers. . . . . . . . . . .
. . 662
Current in a Delta Winding.
19
Isolating Device.
. . 653
Vectors ....................... 14
Voltage.; of Ungrounded Systems. 751
Zero-Sequence Impedance
Aerial Lines ........ 28, 41 to 47,396
Cable ............. 74 to 77, 79 to 94
Synchronous Machines .......... 520
Transformers .... 138, 139, 799 to 808