Lecture 09 - Mapping Genes; Bacterial Genetics

What is the distance between two linked genes?

o Failure to observe independent assortment suggests linkage
o Frequency of recombination indicates distance
o Use the frequency of observing different types of gametes to map genes
Recombination Frequency correlates with distance
Recombination serves as the basis for mapping genes to a chromosome
o Why should distance between loci influence the amount of recombination that
happens between them?
o Recombination occurs randomly throughout the chromosome
o Genes that are farther apart have more chance that recombination event occurs

between them
Genes very far apart on chromosome appear unlinked
o Looks like independent assortment if >50 map units apart
o As though genes are on separate chromosomes
Can have multiple crossovers on same chromosome
o Determining Probabilities:
Remember the product rule of probabilities
Probability of 2 independent events is the product of their
individual probabilities
E.g. A----0.2----B----0.3----C
o Probability of double crossover between A-B and B-C:
P = 0.2 x 0.3 = 0.06 = 6% of gametes
Mapping Genes to Chromosomes
o Single crossover events (SCO) determine distance between two genes
o To determine sequence (order) of genes in chromosome is more difficult
Either do multiple pairwise crosses
Or (better) do a 3-point cross and look at enough progeny to see doublecrossover events (DCOs) on same chromosome
3-Point Mapping of Genes to Chromosomes
o 3 Criteria must be met:
1) Genotype of organism producing the crossover gametes must be

heterozygous at all loci under consideration

2) The cross must be constructed so that genotypes of all gametes can be
determined accurately by observing phenotypes of resulting progeny

recover representative sample of all crossover classes

Figuring Out Gene Order from 3-Point Mapping Experiments
o Perform cross and count the F2s
What are the most rare gene classes?
These classes represent DCOs
The one that flips is the one in the middle!!!
Figuring out map distances with results of crosses:
o Use this equation:
o (SCO + DCO) / # of progeny examined
This is fraction of recombination
o Multiply by 100 to give you map units
How to do similar genetic analysis in humans?
o Large #s of crosses, not easy or ethical
o Hard to do test crosses
o How to map genes and traits to chromosomes?
Human genetics revolutionized by DNA markers
o Use DNA changes instead of phenotypes (like wrinkled/round) to track genes
In humans, often look at linkage of disease trait (1st locus) with DNA

3) Sufficient # of offspring must be produced in mapping experiment to

markers (2nd locus)

Very useful for other organisms too

Bacteria
o Single-celled organisms that lack nucleus
o Haploid genome
o Very small (0.5 to 5 micrometers long)
o Can live in wide variety of environments
o Studying them made it possible to study eukaryotic genetics
o Facilitate use of recombinant DNA in lab
o Shape our immune system, aid our digestion, affect our wait, etc.
Advantages of Genetic Analysis in Bacteria
o Bacteria reproduce rapidly
Many progeny produced
Growth in lab easy and requires little space
o Bacteria are haploid
Allows all mutant phenotypes to be evident
o Bacteria have small genomes
Can also carry additional small pieces of DNA as plasmids
Wild-Type Bacteria need a few things to grow
o Need carbon source (e.g. lactose) and variety of ions (e.g. Na+, K+, Mg++, Ca++,
NH4+)

o Can synthesize own amino acids, vitamins, etc.

o Wild-type are prototrophs
Auxotrophs require nutritional supplements
Need certain amino acids or vitamins
Bacteria and Exogenous DNA
o Easy to get DNA from environment
o Can be like communities that share a genome
o Different species of bacteria can share info
Ways to get Exogenous DNA
o Conjugation
Receive DNA by mating w/ other bacteria
o Transformation
Take up DNA from media
o Transduction
Receive DNA from bacteriophage, which are viruses of bacteria
Nutritional Requirements
o If bacteria is for some nutritional thing, the media needs to have it added in for
the bacteria to grow
Cell Contact Required for Genetic Info Transfer
o F+ strain donates F to F- strain
o F Factor = Fertility Factor, needed for mating
o F+ cells: random stuff giving
o Hfr: faster, and not random; stuff that is given is in specific order