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    Book Accoustics

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    Accoustics

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    из 85
    ~w— 4 hh Architectural Acoustics LT COL SHAHZAD ALI RAZA EME AIAZ AHMAD, M.Sc.Architecture (London) Hlustrated by: Mohammad Shaft Ahmad, Cert. Construction (C & G London) AES PUBLICATIONS D-139, Sector V, Ahsanabad Housing Society, Karachi, Pakistan About Mr, Aijaz Ahmad graduated from D.J. Science College Karachi, Pakistan, in 1961 and obtained first class M.Sc. degree in Physics from University of Karachi in 1963, He taught Physics in various educational institutions in Pakistan, England, Nigeria and Zambia under the British Overseas Service Ald Scheme. After obtaining Post- Graduate Diploma‘ in Structural Engineering from University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, England, and M.Sc. degree in Architecture from Bartlett School of Architecture & Planning, University of London, he worked as Researcher in the Department of Architecture, Leeds Metropolitan’ University, England; Visiting Professor in the Department of Architecture, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi; and Consuitant in the National Energy Conservation Centre, Ministry of Planning & Development, Government of Pakistan, !slamabad, under the US Aid Program. He has conducted a number of workshops/seminars for architects/engineers on Architectural Acoustics, Lighting Design, Energy Efficient Building and Durability of Concrete. His name has heen included in the Intemational Who's Who in Engineering, published by the International Biographical Centre, Cambridge. England. aduated from D.J. Science College | 1961 and obtained first class M.Sc. 3m University of Karachi in 1963. He various educational institutions in ligeria and Zambia under the British Scheme. After obtaining Past- ‘In Structural Engineering from stle Upon Tyne, England, and M.Sc. cure from Bartlett School of nning, University of London, he archer in the Department of Metropolitan University, England; n the Department of Architecture, Ngineering & Technology, Karachi; the National Energy Conservation of Planning & Development, istan, Islamabad, under the US Aid as conducted a number of s for architects/engineers on cs, Lighting Design, Energy Efficient ity of Concrete. His name has been vational Who's Who in Engineering, international Biographical Centre, 4. This book is dedicated to my late parents Dr. Mohammad Raza and:Mst. Hasanatunnisa First Edition - January 1998 Printed in Pakistan This publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form except for the purposes of research or private study, criticism or review. The publisher and the author makes no representation, expressed or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. Preface During my part-time teaching at Dawood College of Engineering and Technology (DCET), Karachi, I felt a great need of a book on acoustics for students of architecture in Pakistan. This book on the architectural acoustics is written for the undergraduate and post-graduate students of architecture and practising building designers. acknowledge the support of my wife Najma and my children Roohi, Ameena, Anjum and Shafi for the patieace they have shown during my pursuit of knowledge. Aijaz Akad January, 1998 Acknowledgement This book has been written using the published materials in journals, books and the source books of various professional institutions and organisations. The author and the publishers acknowledge their contribution. References of the original source are given at the end of cach chapter. Students and professional building designers should refer the original source books for full benefit. - Way 12 Sou 13 Spee 14 Mus Noise Cont 21 Nois 2.2 Nois 2.3 Nois 24 Vibe 2.5 Sour 26 Sow Room Acous 3.1 Arch 3 Spee Reve oe Ron Contents Sound Ld Wave Motion 1.2 Sound Pressure Level L3 Speech 1.4 Music Noise Control 2.1 Noise Transfer 2.2 Noise level 2.3 Noise Pollution 24 Vibration 25 Sound Absorption 2.6 Sound Insulation Room Acoustics 3.1 32: 3.3 Architectural Acoustics Speech Communication Reverberation a Room Acoustics Design Index Page Number vii Chapter t 1.1 Wave motion Sound wave is produced by mechanical disturbance which propagates in an elastic medium. If an object vibrates, it compresses a layer of air in the direction of wave propagation during compression and rarefies a layer of air in the reverse direction. This set of molecules compresses another layer in the forward direction and rarefies a layer in the reverse direction. The second layer produces a third set of compression and rarefaction in air which produces the fourth set and so on (Fig.1.1.1). This process continues during one vibration until the energy is dissipated in air. Rod - Waves . Waves <> V Figure 1.1.1 - Vibrating body and sound propagation. Rarefaction ressi0n "Rarefaction. Sound During the second vibration the first layer of air is compressed and rarefied again which transfers its energy to the second layer and the second layer transfers energy to the third layer. This process of vibration of molecules in each layer of air continues as long as the vibrating body is in movement. If the body stops vibrating, then the layers of air will not receive any more energy and the sound propagation will stop. ‘During the propagation of sound, a series of compression and rarefaction spreads in the form of wave motion given by the equation: ais Bas at? pdxt where s is the displacement in x direction, t is the time, E is the bulk modulus of elasticity and p is the density of the elastic medium. The velocity of sound wave is given by the equation: v=(E/p)* The displacement of wave motion at an instant t may be represented by the equation: 8s, cos 2nf(t-x/v) where s, is the maximum value of s which occurs at f(t-x/v) =n; n being an integer. Sound When n = 0, t=x/v orx = vt When x =0,8 =8, cos 2 ft; and ift=0, s=s, cos 2 7 fx so that the wave is sinusoidal as shown in Fig.i.1.1 a. The periodic time of the vibration at x = 0 is given by T= 1/£ » h——-+| (+) i o Time {-) Fig.1.1.1a - Sinusoidal wave motion If 4. is the wavelength and fis the frequency of vibrations of the sound wave, then the velocity of the wave motion, v, 15 given by: voi When the frequency of vibrations is measured in Hertz (Hz) and the wavelength in metre (m), then the velocity of sound is given in metres per second (m/s). Sound The amplitude A of the wave is the maximum displacement of the vibrating particle. Sound requires a medium for its propagation and the velocity of sound varies from medium to medium. It travels in the form of wave and obeys the laws of reflection , refraction and diffraction. Table 1.1.1 shows the velocity of sound in various media. Table 1.1.1- Velocit Medium of sound in some materials Velocity of Sound, m/s {average values) Rubber (Soft) Sand . Air Rubber (Hard) Water Brick Iron Concrete Steel Glass The human ear consists of an outer ear, middle ear and the inner ear (Fig.1.1.2). The ear drum separates the outer ear from the inner ear and the atmospheric pressure is equalized on either side of the ear drum. Sound waves from the air are collected in the outer ear and are conducted to the inner ear via the middle ear. The vibrations produce movement of the hair cells and electrical pulses travel to the brain. The ear is a non-linear device and it acts as a frequency analyser of complex tones. Sound is heard simultaneously in different bandwidth but sensed separately. The acoustic environment induces an input of stimulus which is received by the Sound receptors. Due to a transducer action, the incoming signal is transformed into a series of neural impulses. This produces a psycho-physiological response which is a function of the stimulus input and a psyche function. The sense of hearing is based on the ability of human ear to Tesponse to the audible range of frequencies between 15 Hz to 20000 Hz. Sound wave must have a certain minimum value of pressure in order to be heard by an observer. Ear can differentiate two sound stimuli, if they are produced at an interval of 30 ms or more. AUDITORY CANAL EAR DRUM. Fig. 1.1.2. The ear Sound Sound may be classified according to their frequency range as shown in Table 1.1.2. The infrasonic and ultrasonic waves arc incapable of exciting the sensation of hearing but they are sensed by the tactile receptors in the skin and absorbed by the body tissues. There are three diffcrent types of sound: Speech; Music; and Noise. The waveform of a pure tone, a musical note and noise is shown in Fig.1.1.3. When two or more sound waves travel together, they are called noise. The analysis of sound is normally done in the octave, half octave or third octave bands. The preferred centre frequencies for acoustic measurements are shown in Table 1.1.3. The nature of sound waves may be seen in an oscilloscope. Fig.1.1.4 shows the photographs of sound waves taken by a special Polaroid camera. Table 1.1.2 - Classification of sound waves Classification Frequency Range | Human Sensor (Hz) Skin Tactile Receptors Infrasonic Vestibule System Body Tissues Sound 1000 Hz sine wave 1000 Hz and 1100 Hz sound waves combined Fig.1.1.3 (b) - Combination of two sound waves ~~ Fig. 1.1.4 (a) - Sound of "Alif* (J ) 0.5 voltdivision 50 millisecond/division Sound Fig.i.1.4 (0) - Sound of " Bey" (> ) 0.5 volt/division 50 millisecond/division Fig. 1.1.4 (c) - Sound of "One" (1) 6.5 volt/division 50 millisecond/division Sound Fig. 1.1.4 (d) - Sound of "two" (2) 0.5 volt/division 50 millisecond/division Fig-1.1.4 (e) - Sound of "C” 0.5 voli/division 50 millisecond/division Sound Fig.1.1.4 (f) - Sound of a guitar 0.5 volt/division 50 millisecond/division 1.2 Sound Pressure Level The loudness level of sound is expressed in 'phans' and the equal-loudness contours are obtained by adjusting the amplitude of pure tones to produce the same loudness as the 1000 Hz tone (Fig.1.2.1). The sound power level, the sound intensity level and the sound pressure level are measured in decibel (dB) units. The acoustic power, intensity and pressure at any point varies sinusoidally with time and therefore the root mean square (RMS) values of waves are always considered. The sound pressure at the threshold of hearing is about 0.00002 N/m? and the instantaneous damage to hearing can take place at a sound pressure of 200 N/m’, The sound power tevel, W in dB, due to a sound source is given by ten times the logarithmic ratio of its power W, Watt to the power of a standard sound of power W, of magnitude 107? Watt by the equation: it Sound Sound power level, - Ww Wi= 10log(—) _ SW, Ww, = 10log(—) 4B 10"? The sound intensity level, I in dB, duc to a sound source is given by ten times. the logarithmic ratio of its intensity 1, in Win’ to the intensity of a standard sound, I, of magnitude 10° W/m? by the equation: Sound intensity level, L I= 10 log (——) I, =10log(—) 4B 10" The sound pressure level, P ia dB, due to a sound source is given by ten times the logarithmic ratio of its power P, in Pascals ( or N/m?) to the pressure of a standard sound, P, of magnitude 2 x 10° Pascais (or N/m”) squared by the equation: 12 Sound Sound pressure level, P, 1 P= 10 log(~—Y Py P, = 10 log ( y B 2x10" P, = 20 log ¢ ) dB 2x10? Approximate peak power output from sound source and the sound power level are given in Table 1.2.1. The sound pressure values ard the typical sound pressure levels in an environment are given in Table 1.2.2. Sound pressure levels are measured by using the sound level meter which consists of a microphone, amplifier and a meter. Filters are connected to select the particular frequencies of sound for measurement. The linear measurements of sound pressure levels may be coriverted to A, B, or C weighting and the values are denoted by dB(A), dB(B), or dB(C) (Fig. 1.2.2). Sound pressure Jevels measured on the A scale correspond closely to the response of the ear. Equivalent continuous sound level (L.,) is the sound level of a steady sound over a given period that has the same enérgy as the fluctuating sound, The sound level meter for L,, measurement is an integrating meter with appropriate calculation facilities built in. It is normally determined in dB(A) scale. 40 130 Sound we (Re. 20p Pad a 8 g 8 & OUND PRESSURE LEVEL d8 8 cf 50 100 500 1060 Fig.1.2.1- Equal-loudness contours S000 10c00 Sound STANDARD WEIGHTING NETWORKS. etl 4 = — a Sound Prawoure Leval, dB 49 Fa FEE at tT ‘Saas Awa —100 Z0H0” aD“ re0Ce Frequency, Hz ee TY erp e | Fig. 1.2.2 - A,B, or C weighting curves Sound eee Table 1.2.1 Approximate peak sound power output Sound Source Sound Power, W | Sound Power Level, dB. (re: 107 W) Road Traffic Orchestra Table 1.2.2. Approximate sound pressure levels Sonic Environment Sound Pressure, | Sourid Pressure level, as | Pa (re: 2 x 10° Pa) a ~ | Living Room 0.002 40 - — Office 9.006 50 r 5 Market 0.063 70 | Assembly Hall 9.632 90 Factory L 2.000 100 | Traffic Noise 6.320 110 _t 16 Sound The pattern of noise can be continuous, intermittent or impulsive depending upon its nature and duration of time. Two systems of measurement of sound are described below. Ly system is a siatistical .measure which indicates that a particular noise level is exceeded for N percent of the measured time. {t is obtained from the cumulative distribution curve which is a probability distribution curve showing how often the noise levels are recorded in a particular range. ‘The value of L,. =70 dB means that 70 dB was exceéded for 40% of the measured time. The equivalent continuous equal energy level, L,, is the noise level which expends the same amount of energy as the fluctuating level over a certain time period. It is given by the: equation: t Leg log frowned o where t is the time over which L,, is determined; L(t) is the time varying noise level in dB(A). Tf n is the total number of samples taken ; L, is noise level in dB(A) of the ith sample;and 4 is the fraction of total sample time, then the equivalent continuous energy level is given by the equation: Sound wen Leg=10log)> ieee bel The sound pressure levels measured in decibel from various source of sound cannot be added or subtracted arithmetically due to their logarithmic nature, The following equation may be used to find the combined effect of sound pressure level due to two or more sources of sound. SPL=201og),” 1074/29 dei where SPL is the average sound pressure level in dB re: 20 micro Pascal (1 Pa) ; N is the number of measurements; L,is rae jth sound pressure level, dB re: 20 j1 Pa; and j is the number 1, 2, 3, ...N. Equivalent continuous sound level (L,,) is normally determined in dB(A) scale. it is the sound level of a steady sound over a given period that has the same energy as the Suctuating sound. The sound Jevel meter for L, measurement is an integrating meter with appropriate calculation facilities built in. The output of the sound level meter may be recorded on @ magnetic tape and analysed in the laboratory by means of a level recorder for each octave band (Fig, 1.2.3). A noise of known level is first recorded on the magnetic tape by means of a pistonphone calibrator. 18 ——_ ae Sound Level Recorder Fig. 1.2.3 - Sound analysis I SPL added to highest level, dB oe e+ oases 8 tf Pe ON HS Difference between two SPL, dB Fig. 1.2.4 - Addition of Sound Pressure Levels When there are more than two source of sound, a graphical solution is more appropriate. Fig.1.2.4 shows a graph between the difference in sound pressure level(SPL) of two sound and the sound pressure level to be added to the higher value of 19. Sound original SPL. This new value of the SPL should be regarded as the resultant of the two sound levels computed. Suppose there are four readings of SPL recorded by a sound level meter for four different frequencies of sound. Let us call them SPL,, SPL,, SPL, and SPI, (Table 1.2.3) 1. If SPL, > SPL, and the difference between the SPL, and SPL, is x so that the corresponding value of SPL to be added is SPL,,;, obtained from the graph, then the combined effect of SPL, and SPL; is obtained by the addition of the value of SPL, and SPL,s1- Let us call this new value as SPL,. SPL, = SPL, + SPL 33) 2. If SPL, > SPI,, and SPI, - SPI, ~ y so that a new value of SPL,,,) is obtained from the graph for the corresponding value of y, then the combined effect of SPL, and SPL, is obtained as: SPL, = SPL, + SPL 3. if SPL, > SPL, and SPL, - SPI, =z so that anew value of SPL,43; is obtained from the graph for the corresponding value of z, then the combined effect of SPL, and SPI, is the resultant value of the sound pressure level. It is obtained as: SPL, = SPL, + SPLyus 20 Sound ePTaS ha "Tas + “Ids: "14S "TdS = *1d8<'1dS "yas | *"1aS JI “Tas Ze X= "ds TES Jas - *TdS tds *JdS- "Ids + + Syds = “Ja8 = *dS<'Td8 STaS<*TdS JI “yas | das x “Jas | ‘14s "14S somaseyyid aoualepic AIT PAST RAg], Panel aanssoud punos | poppe aq amssold as | poppe sq aunssaig ] amssarg Jo anyea [eu Olds punos | pemiquio> 01 TdS puns panos S[2AQ] amMssaid PUNOS Jo JeZe paulquoS ayy Surjenyeas Jo pou - C7 f AGEL 21 Sound When sound waves travel in air; the molecules of air absorb the sound energy and the sound pressure level of sound decreases, The sound from a point source travelling in free air attenuates at the rate of 6 dB for each doubling of the distance from the sound source. A sound source producing 100 dB at a distance of Im will be reduced to 94 dB at 2m, 88 dB at 3m, 82 dB at 4m and so on until the sound energy is completely absorbed by the air molecules and surrounding surfaces (Fig. 1.2.5). Fig.1.2.5 - Attenuation of sound 22 Sound 1.3 Speech Speech is produced by human beings when the vocal chords are set into Vibration. This is modified by the vocal tract consisting of throat, nose and mouth. The amplitude and frequency of the vibration produces the subjective effect of Joudness which is a function of the ear and brain. The human aural response is in the range of 20 to 20000 Hz. A normal speech produces approximately 10 to 12 individual sound in a second so that each sound has about one-tenth of asecond to make its impression upon the auditory mechanism [1]. The sound produced for speech in a particular language is called the 'phonemes'. English language has about 38 phonemes in spoken words. The vowels have definite frequency/intensity spectra, The sound of s and sh have spectra like noise and sounds like- t and c have low intensity with short duration, When several phonemes are spoken in a speech, modifications take place in their spectra. Since the sound propagation takes place in the form of compression and rarefaction in air, the sound energy applies. a force F in Newiens (N) on a layer of area A m’, The pressure, P, exerted by the sound waves is calculated in N/m’. The power of the sound source varies from a very low value in the region of micro-watt to a very high value in millions of watt. Hach configuration of the vocal tract has its own set of characteristic resonant frequencies [2]. The shape of the lips plays an important role in the production of speech sound. The shortest speech sound has a duration of 23 Sound about 20 ms and the longest about 300 ms. The intensity of sound varies during conversation and if two sounds occur within 10 ms, they cannot be differentiated [3]. The average speech power for men js about 34 micro-watt (UW) while for women it is only 18 2W. The quietest sound of speech is produced by 4 power of 0.01 W and the loudest sound is produced using a power -of 5000 1. W. The general dynamic range is about 30 dB to 70 dB. The normal speech frequency has a range of 100 Hz to 600 Hz which includes most of the vowels. The consonants have a higher frequency in the region of about 1000 Hz. The high frequency sound is radiat-ed in a narrow beam from the speaker's mouth but the sound of low frequency is evenly distributed in all directions. Thus the listener seated behind the speaker will not understand the speech properly as most of the high frequency sound will not reach him unless these ate directed towards him by suitable reflectors. During the Far wz prayers in the mosque the Imam recites Ayats from the Quran which are listened by the Mugtadi. During the construction of Medina Mosque by al-Walid, the architect Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz introduced a concave shaped Mikrab infront of the Imam so that the sound can reflect from the concave surface and diverge in all directions to reach the Mugtadi. As the Muslim population grew and more people started coming to mosque for prayers, there was a need for the propagation of Qirat by Imam to be heard by Mugiadi at the back rows.Double arches constructed in Cordoba mosque were 2 provision for sound waves to travel longer distances (Fig. 1.3.1). Wood ceilings and domes were acaustically 24 Sound designed for good hearing. in the mosque. The interior decoretion helped in the diffusion of sound energy. The Royal mosque at Thatta in Sind is an example of excellent acoustics (Fig.1.3.2). The sound is reflected from the structural elements to reach the Mugtadi and the mosque does not require any electro-acoustical system. Fig.1.3.1 - Double arches in Cordoba Mosque 25 Sound Sound 1.4 Music Music is a combination of sound of regular frequencies or notes. The science of music to combine various notes to produce a pleasing effect has developed through age. The musical sound is not transient in nature. They are produced at the rate of approximately 15 to 20 sounds per second. Many of these sounds have durations of about 100 ms to 2000 ms. Thus a considerable overlapping of musical sounds is inherent. Khwarizmi analysed the four basic rhythmic schemes of music namely Hajaz, Ramal, first and second Thaqil. Each of these have a slow and quick movement (Fig.1.4,1). Al-Farabi and Ibn-Sina extended these basic schemes to more complex d-sivative patterns in seven, tens, and eleven in various combinations of threes and fours. yyy HAZAI Dal dr} 07] RAMAL ddr did dd FIRST THAQL bOIby DDD» dd| secono THAGL A) | Dh DOO | maton ADSI Dy RAL Hy DDD Fig.i.4.1 - Musical rhythm introduced by Khwarizmi 27 Sound AlFarabi wrote the Grand Book of Music called Ritab al- mrusigi al-kabir and introduced the traditional series of thythms into seven groups (Fig.1.4.2). City of Seville in ‘Spain was foenous for its manufacture of musical ixstruments during the medieval time. When a learncd man died in Seville, his books were sent to Cordoba to be sold and when a.mausician died in Cordoba, his instruments were sent for sale in Seville (Fig. 1.4.3) [4]. BOD | Darr B Pdr Dd | ddr dh BP drrap Pdrss| dorsal 2by Tbs Tq 3h, FARA Tbs Tea Pe A WAAA Bia we TAA is Fig. 1.4.2 - Series of rhythms by Al-Farabi 28 Sound Fig. 1.4.3 - Musical instruments played in Spain 29 Sound Western music is based on scales which consist of related frequencies with frequency ratios as simple numbers. The simplest interval is the octave, with a frequency ratio of 2:1, which is divided into 12 intervals or semi-tones. The frequency ratios of these intervals are expressed as 3:2, 4:3, 5:4, ete. [5]. Musical instruments produce sound having fundamental frequencies corresponding to the requirements of the musical scales accompanied by a series of harmonics. Harmonics are high frequency sound bearing a simple relationship to the frequency of the fundamental notes. Musical instruments are based on a resonating system, e.g. strings or pipes, and they require a means of radiating sound. The fundamental frequency of a sound gives its characteristic pitch and the harmonics produce its musical quality or timbre. Two musical instruments may have the same frequency but different pitch which depends upon the waveform produced. The string instruments have hollow body with a hole giving access to the air. The enclosed air space with its restricted connection to the surrounding air in the room act as a Helmholtz resonator. The resonant frequency of the string instruments are varied by adjusting the length of its string by pressing it against the fingerboard. These instruments have a directional radiation pattern particularly in the higher frequency range. They are used in large numbers in a symphony orchestra. Wind instruments are based on the resonance properties of an air column. They are used with a steady air supply with a constriction so that a resonant frequency is produced. They are similar to the human voice in principle. Percussion instruments are excited when a vibrating system like a har, rod, plate or bell is struck with a blow. Vibrations are set up 30 Sound in the plates, membranes or rods producing a musical sound with a definite distinguished resonant frequencies and pitch depending upon their shape. Fig.1.4.4 shows a few Thai musical instruments. Fig-1.4.4 - Thai musical instruments 31 Sound A typical symphony orchestra consists of 80 to 110 players. 30 to 50 musicians play violins, 25 to 35 are cellist and bass players and the zemaining musicians play woodwind, brass and percussion instruments. Musical sound is produced at the rate of from 15 to 20 sounds per second for a duration of from 100 ms to 2000 ms. The average sound of musical instruments of power LOO pW ranges from 30 dB to 100 dB. Each sound has its own onset time, steady-state period and decay time with an overlapping of musical sounds. The fundamental frequencies and harmonics are established during the initial onset time of transient period. A fairly regular frequency spectrum is produced during the steady-state period. Rapid fluctuation in spectrum takes place during the’ decay of music. The sound of each musical instrument should be audible to the musicians of the orchestra and the audience should be able to distinguish individual musical instruments of the orchestra in a concert hall. The radiant sound energy from the musical instruments should be reflected many times to produce its full effect. 1.5.1 Example The frequency of sound of a person is 500 Hz. If the velocity of sound is 340 mys, calculate the wavelength of his speech. Using the equation, V=fh v 340 m/s The wavelength, R= = f 500 Hz = 068m 32 Sound 1.5.2 Example A sound source of power 1.5 Watt is radiating sound uniformly in all directions. Calculate the intensity of sound at a distance of 3 m from sound source. Power i The intensity of sound, 1 4ar 15 4x 3.142%(3.0)? Ls 113.112 0.01326 Win? 1.5.3 Example ‘The sound pressure produced by a machine is 5.0 x 10? Pa and tlie ‘threshold of hearing has a pressure of 20 x 10% Pa. Calculate the sound pressure level (SPL). x Sound pressure level, P = 10 log (————-) Py 5.0.x 10? = 10 log ( FB 2x10* 33 Sound 5.0x 10? P = 20log( dB 2xl0* ) =20 log (25000) dB = $848 Example 1.5.4 Calculate the combined effect of sound pressure levels of 90 dB, 81 dB and 89.5 4B. Using Fig.144 and Table 1.23, the combined effect is computed below. SPL added to highest lovel, dB Difference between two SPL, dB 34 Sound “BP £6 St IP S'68 PUL EP 18 ‘AP 06 Jo s[A9] aunssord punos vanp Jo ajye Pauiquios oy) sMYL, €P 5°06 = 50 +06= ‘orrldS +'TdS = *TdS aPol= S68 - S06 = *JdS- "1dS ap sz="""aS “JaS<" dS aP 6= 18-06 = *JdS- ‘Tas *qaS<'1ds ap s0='"" Jas ‘Td$ powquio> Poppe aq OX TS | Jeae’] aunsselg punos soustagid “EP $68 = "TdS ap [9 ="1dS ap 06 = "Ids [eae] amssaig punog 35 Sound Reference 1] Plomp, R. Rate of decay of auditory sensation. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 36, 1964, pp.277-82 3] Denes, P.B. and Pinson, E.N. The Speech Chain. Bell Telephone Laboratories. Williams and Wilkins. Baltimore, USA, 1963. 3] Fletcher, H. Speech and nearing in communication. Van Nostrand, New York, 1953. {4] Livermore, Ann. 4 Short History of Spanish Music. Gerald Duckworth & Company Limited, London, 1972. {s] Olson, H-F. Musical Engineering. McGraw Hill. New York, 1952. 36 Chapter 2 NOISE CONTROL 2.1 Noise Transfer Architectural acoustics has primarily two objectives: S The exclusion or reduction of noise and vibration for human comfort, health, well-being and productivity. 2. The contro! of acoustics for the production, transmission and perception of wanted sounds within rooms. Fig.2.1.1 (a) - Airborne sound transmission 37 Noise Control The noise control and room acoustics are inter-related and cannot be separated from one another. The transfer of noise takes place as airbome sound, impact sound or by flanking transmission (Fig.2.1.1). The airborne sound travels through the air and transfers sound energy to an element of the building. Impact sound is produced at the surface of a building element and transfers to other parts of the building. The flanking transmission of sound are the indirect sound paths. Impact Fig.2.1.1 (b) - Impact Sound Transmission 38 Noise Control FLANKING (MpACT SOUND TRANSMISSION SOUND Fig.2.1.1 (c) - Flanking Sound 39 Noise Control 2.2 Noise Level The human body can detect amplitudes as small as 0.05 micron. Mechanical stress due to vibrations may destroy some cells in the body tissuc or it may set up a metabolic fatigue. The strain imposed on nerve receptors may affect the nervous system. Noise is unwanted sound which produces annoyance, physiological hearing damage and psychological effects on human beings [1]. Physiological hearing damage is thought to be at a sound pressure level higher than 85 dB(A). An equivalent sound pressure level exposure, Leq (8-hour), should not exceed the limit of 90 dB(A). The psychological effects of noise are more prominent at lower sound pressure level exposure, The criteria for optimum noise in a building are based on three main considerations: hearing damage, speech interference and annoyance. The criteria must ensure that majority of the occupants are salisfied and it is economical and feasible.Table 2.2.1 indicates the maximum background noise level in typical situations [2]. Table 2.2.2 indicates the maximum sound pressure level in Leg dB(A) permissible for safe exposure to noise. The maximum level of occupational noise for 40 hours/week is given in Table 2.2.3, The sound pressure level should not exceed 140 dB to avoid the risk of deafness. The most commonly used noise rating spectra are the Noise Criteria (NC Curves) (Fig.2.2.1-a), the Noise Rating (NR Curves) (Fig.2.2.1-b) and the Preferred Noise Criteria curves (NC Curves) (Fig.2.2.1-c), The PNC Curves represent the 40 Noise Control background noise levels that the room occupant would like to hear in open plan offices, hospital wards, interview rooms, etc. In such rooms the acoustic privacy is maintained together with optimum acceptability of background noise from a subjective standpoint. The PNC curves are interchangeable with NC and NR éurves, having the same index number. Table 2.2.1- Background Noise level Environment Approximate Sound Pressute Level Concert Hall 26 dB(A) Bedrooms 31 dRKAY Living Room 36 dB(A) Lecture Room 46 dB(A) Office 41 dB(A) Reception Room SAAB) Table 2.2.2 - Maximum safe permissible noise exposure Sound Time Sound Time Pressure Pressure Exposure Exposure level, Leq level, Leq 90 dBA 8 hours 102 dBA 30 minutes 92 dBA § hours 104 dBA 19 minutes 94 dBA 3 hours 12 min | 106 dBA 12 minutes 96 dBA 2 hours 108 dBA 8 minutes 98 dBA 1 hour 12 min 110 dBA 5 minutes 100 dBA | 48 minutes 41 Noise Control ee Sound Pressure Level dB re 2 x10 N/m? 42 20. ti +H if +— 632s ee ee ee 250 500 1k 2k ak t Frequency, Hz Fig.2.2.1(a) - Noise Criteria Curves Sound Pressure Level dB re2x10° Nin? Noise Control oo 15 259. S00 Frequency, Hz Fig.2.2.1 (b} - Noise Rating Curves 43 Noise Control Sound Pressure Level dB re 2 x10° Néx? | B16 63 125 250 500 19000 2000, 4000 8000 . Frequency, Hz Fig.2.2.1 (c) - Preferred Noise Criteria Curves Noise Control Table 2.2.3 - Maximum occupational noise level 150. 300 | 600 1200 | 2400 to to | to to to 300 600 | 1200 | 2400 | 4800 Recorded Peak Value Empress Market Lasbella Chowrangi Lea Market Nursery Nazimabad Chowrangi Hasan Square Mereweather Tower NIPA Chowrangi [oi ee a Fig.2.2,2 - Sound level meter 45 Noise Control Fig. 2.2.3 - Noise Survey at Karachi 46 Noise Control 2.3 Noise Pollution Noise pollution is mainly due to vehicles, plants and machineries operating at various places. Noise level is measured by noise level meters (Fig.2.2.2). Traffic noise level surveyed at nine places at Karachi is shown in Fig.2.2.3 [3]. The recorded peak values of the noise level at the chosen sites are given in Table 2.2.4. It is found that auto-rickshaws are the major source of noise pollution in Karachi [4]. The auditory-automatic systems work together to form a reflexive waming system to fight against the noisy environment. Studies have shown that people in the intense noise areas suffer a great degree of both mental and physiological distress and illhealth than people from quieter surroundings. Sufficjently long exposures of noise causes temporary or permanent damage to the receptors in the inner ear with a reduction in the ability to hear and correctly perceive sound [5]. Noise related ill-health effects are due to psychological annoyance from the noise which lead to frustration and cause physiological stress. Noise has arousing effects from the states of sleep or semi-sleep producing a physiological stress which could cause a pathological condition in the human body [6]. The noise pollution in Karachi was assessed by the author by measuring the continuous equivalent Sound Pressure Level ( Leq ) at the following places using CEL 183 integrated sound level meter. Average values of the SPL (Leq) are given. below. 47 Noise Control a) 2) @) 48 People exposed to noise level near the road due to traffic: Guru Mandir - 91 dB(A) Empress Market - 90 dB(A) Lasbella - 84 dB(A) Lea Market - 90 dB(A) Nursery - 83 dB(A) Nazimabad Chowrangi - 83 dB (A) “W-Square - 82 dB(A) Mereweather Tower - 85 dB(A) NIPA Chowrangi - 81 dB(A) Passengers exposed to noise level in vehicles while travelling on busy roads: Hi-Ace Toyota Microbus - 83 dB(A} Datsun Taxi - 85 dB(A) Minibus - 90 dB(A) Motor Rickshaw - 95 dB(A) at slow speed & 100 dB(A) at fast speed Residents of a flat near a noisy environment in Saddar First Floor: Balcony - 82 dB(A) Bedroom - 74 dB(A) Second Floor: Balcony - 80 dB(A) Bedroom - 76 dB(A) Third Floor: Balcony - 80 dB(A) Bedroom - 75 dB(A) Fourth Floor: Balcony - 79 dB(A) Bedroom - 74 dB¢A) Noise Control 4) People exposed to noise level inside a house near a main toad in Federal B Area: Sound Pressure level Time 63 dB(A) 02.00 a.m. 61 dB(A) 03,00 am. 65 dB(A) 05.00 a.m. 72 dB(A) 07.00 a.m. 75 dB(A) 09.00 am. 71 ABA) 11.00 a.m. 68 dB(A) 01.00 p.m. 72 dB(A) 03.00 p.m. 78 dB(A) 05.00 p.m. 83 dB(A) 07.00 pm. 79 dB(A) 09.00 p.m. 75 dB(A) 11.00 p.m. Note: The noise level increases to 94 dB(A) duc to a bus or motor rickshaw The roadside shopkeepers and occupants of buildings in Karachi are at constant risk of physiological damage to hearing and psychological problems. Intense explosive noise may cause an instant eardrum supture. Noise-induced hearing loss is either temporary or permanent due to the neural damage involving the hair cells. The intense noise stimulates the hair cells into a high metabolic activity which may lead to the death of hair cells. The temporary threshold shift (TTS) gradually returns to the original condition after some time but the permanent threshold shift (PTS) makes a person deaf. 49 Noise Control Audiometry is performed to determine the extent of hearing loss of a person by using pure tones of variable sound pressure levels and a pair of earphones. The sound pressure level is adjusted until the pure tones are just audible. The audiometer prepares an audiogram indicating the hearing threshold level (HTL) on a graph of SPL in dB and frequency in Hz. Zero dB is the "just audible" level. The threshold of hearing for 2 person varies by +10 dB from the "0" dB for normal hearing. Fig.2.3.1 shows the audiogram of a person exposed to traffic noise in a house for two years and Fig.2.3.2 shows the recovery after four months when the person was shifted io a quieter environment. | escectaatecy Fig.2.3.1 - Audiogram due to noise exposure 50 Naise Control wAT ADAM Cero PANY TOW TT aa Fig.2.3.2 - Audiogram after recovery in four months 2.4 Vibration Vibration of building structures has increased due to the growth in rail and air traffic and the use of mechanical services in buildings. The human body can detect amplitudes as small as 0.05 micron. Mechanical stress due to vibrations may destroy some cells in the body tissue or it may set up a metabolic fatigue, The strain imposed on nerve receptors may affect the nervous system. Table 2.4.1 shows the principal effects of low frequency vibration on human body. St Noise Control The frequencies of vibrations in buildings lie within the range of 5 to 50 Hz. The partitions, ducts, pipe work and ceilings may rattle with high amplitudes at low frequencies due io resonance. The selection ofa suitable form of isolation system involves many factors, ¢.g. cost, environmental conditions, ageing, corrosion, maintenance, and durability. The isolation efficiencies in Jess critical areas should be 75% but it should exceed 90-95% in noise critical areas Table 2.4.1 - Effects of low frequency vibration Respiratory system Abdominal system Vision deterioration, Blood pressure; Heart rate; Chest pains; Lumbosacral pain Head sensations Decrease in visual acuity 2.5 Sound Absorption Sound absorption is the process in which sound energy changes to another form when it meets a surface. When absorption ovcurs, some sound is absorbed or dissipated at the incident surface and the rest of sound energy is dispersed in the surrounding area. 52 Noise Control The absorption coefficient, a, is defined as the ratio of sound energy absorbed by a material to the total sound energy incident upon it. It is given as: a=E,/E, where E, is the acoustic energy absorbed and E. is the incident acoustic energy. Absorption materials may be divided into three categories namely porous materials; membrane absorbers; and Helmholtz resonators. The absorption of sound is due to the dissipation of energy by viscous forces in the centre of the pores in materials. The three kinds of sound absorbers are shown in Figs. 2.5.1 (a) , (b) and (c) respectively. Porous absorbers have a network of interlocking pores and have absorption properties at nearly all frequencies. Fibreboard, mineral wools, insulation blankets, etc. are the common examples of porous absorbers. Membrane or panel absorbers have good absorption characteristics in the frequency range of 50 to 560 Hz. Helmholtz resonators have a small open neck and absorption of sound is due to the resonance of air in the cavity over a very narrow frequency band. Several resonators may be tuned to different frequencies for efficient absorption of sound. Membrane absorbers and Helmholtz resonators have a critica) narrow band absorption characteristics. The sound absorbing materials do not affect the sound insulation value of the surface. Fig.2.5.2 shows the absorption coefficients of some materials at various frequencies, 53 Noise Controt Fig. 2.5.1 (a) - Porous absorber Y Fig. 2.5.1 (b) Fig. 2.5.1 () Membrane absorber Helmholtz resonator 54 Noise Control e Tin acon ao SE eet ze = Sa ie 3 “s, e o don} ° mm Frequency, Hz Fig, 2.5.2 (b)-Absorption cocfficient of suspended sound absorbers 55 Noise Control Fig. 2.5.2 (¢) - Absorption coefficient of linoleum, thin yara carpet and thick woolen carpet Fig, 2.5.2 (d) - Absorption coefficient of perforated brick with insulating material and hardboard/imer perforated panels with foam backing 56 Noise Control Abworptioncoafteant i & Fig. 2.5.2 () - Absorption coefficient of seats and people 2.6 Sound Insulation Noise can be controlled by reducing the noise at source and preventing it to spread outwards. Motor rickshaw and motor cycle arc the major contributors to traffic noise. The average noise level produced by motor rickshaw, buses and mini- buses in Karachi is 99 dB, 92 dB and 83 dB respectively [7]. Exhaust system, engine, cooling fan and accessories are the main component of noise source in light vehicles. Exhaust systems degrade rapidly due to condensation of water vapour from combustion gases and condition of the roads. When the exhaust system is regularly repaired, the noise level is reduced considerably. A reduction of 6.7 dB in noise level is found after repairing the exhaust system of 4-cylinder vehicles and 7.3 dB reduction is observed in 6-cylinder vehicles (8}. 57 Noise Control Aircraft, machineries, airconditioning plants, boilers and other mechanical devices are also a source of noise pollution in the ‘ environment. Machineries may be housed in sound proof enclosures and mounted on floors in such a way that they are. isolated from the nearby buildings. Fig.2.6.1 shows a method of reducing noise from machines. Fig.2.6.1 (a) Fig.2.6.1 (b) Machine mounted rigidly Machine mounted on springs Sound absorbing material Fig.2.6.1 (c}- Noise reduction due to enclosure 58 ! Noise Control When the airborne sound is incident on a wall, it excites the surface into vibration which re-radiates the sound into the other room. Sound insulation is the process of reducing sound energy during its transmission through a material. Sound insulation depends upon its mass, stiffness and damping characteristics. Low stiffness, high mass and high damping of a material provides a good sound insulation. The sound insulation is given by the equation: Sound Insulation =(L, - L, } dB where L, is the incident sound pressure level on the material and L, is the transmitted sound pressure level through the material. The property of the material to resist the transmission of sound is defined by its Sound Reduction Index (SRI). Table 2.6.1 and Fig.2.6.2 show the relationship between the insulation and absorption characteristics of a material when sound energy passes through a material. Table 2.6.1 Sound Insulation vag 59 Noise Control Absorption Transmitted sound Incident sound 90% 10% 100 % Absorption Transmitted sound Incident sound 99% 1% 100% SRI= 20 dB Absorption ‘Transmitted sound 1 Incident sound 99.9% 0.1% 100 % “SRI=30 4B Absorption Transmitted sound 99.99 % 0.01 % A cide and 100 % Fig.2.6.2 - Insulation and absorption of a material 60 Noise Control For good noise control, the concrete blockwork should weigh 415 kg/m? and the brickwork should be 375 kg/m’. The surface weight of aerated concrete blocks should be 160 kg/m? and the partition walls should weigh 300 kg/m’. The joints should be completely filled and sealed with suitable mastic, tape or coving. Fig.2.6.3 - Coincidence 61 Noise Control When a sound wave is incident on a single-leaf wall , they are transmitted at a certain velocity along the wall. This velocity depends upon excitation frequency, thickness, density and the modulus of elasticity of the wall. If the propagation velocity and the frequency of wall is the same as the incident sound wave, a 'spatial resonance’ is produced. This effect is called ‘coincidence’ which depends upon the angle of incidence of the incident sound wave (Fig.2.6.3). The lowest frequency at which coincidence takes place is called the critical frequency. The building element in which the coincidence is produced at a critical frequency of 2000 Hz is flexurally pliable; and the building element is flexurally Tigid if the coincidence is produced at a critical frequency of 200 Hz. Sound reduction index of the building element may be determined from the value of the sound frequency and mass of the building element. Fig.2.6.4 shows a method to determine the sound reduction index (SRI) of a building element, Sound is produced in the source room which passes through the material under test and sound level is recorded in the receiving room.The weighted sound reduction index (R,) and the average sound reduction index (R,,) are measured over the frequency range of 100 Hz to 3150 Hz under controlled laboratory conditions. The sound reduction index of heavy structures is more than the lightweight building elements. The sound insulation of a single leaf building element is dependent upon its mass per unit area and frequency. The mass law predicts that an insulation increase of 6 dB takes place for each doubling of mass and the insulation is increased by 5 dB for each doubling of frequency. 62 Noise Control Xopa] Uononpey punog atp aurULaIap 0} POTA - p'9°7'FLA wood FoUNos WOO8 ONIAMIONA ‘TIVM ALFYONOD YOHLL 63 Noise Controt The transmission coefficients of a composite element of two or more materials may be calculated by using the following equation. (T, x A,)+ (C2, XA.) + (Ty x Ay) T= eee Ay tA, + Ay where, T is the overall transmission coefficient; {, T.,7, are the transmission coefficients; and A,, A,, A, are the area of components, Fig.2.6.5 gives approximate values of sound reduction index (SRY of the following building elements when sound of frequency range 100 Hz to 3150 Hz is incident on it. Fig.2.6.6 shows the sound reduction at various frequencies and Fig.2.6.7 shows the details of some building elements. A= 12 mm plasterboard; B = 50 mm dense concrete wall; C = 300 mm lightweight concrete wall; D = 102.5 mm plastered brickwork wall ; E = 100 mm dense concrete wall; and F =215 mm plastered brickwork wall Noise Control SRI VALUES (100 Hz - 3150 Hz) 5 Be ei > [4 xe & ~ 3 4 2 ; cw A 2 lo & : Ba we 2 k. $w-+ a 8 o 2 sm oS Mass, kg/mZ Fig.2.6.5 - Sound Reduction Index Bound reduation, 4B Fig. 2.6.6 (a) - Sound reduction in brick and concrete 65 Noise Control Ipoh wound edecon, a Frequency. HE Fig. 2.6.6 (b) - Normalised impact sound level reduction 66 % _ Sx 3 2 or == Za 3 = 2 ° Uraend 10 . ey TT eee waco fees Dante gases wnsow ° I eee SSmmgiet beck we 200 00 wo 1800 Frequency, Hz Fig. 2.6.6 (c) - Normalised impact sound level Noise Control 4Ooy aXauDU0D go yozaq 88076 34q14 08 BYSOY PUD GOT SXPSEPEE STAPLE STL puvoquas sud >PPq ies ET aes Pugoos uo sua330q OFX BE HO SaUL B60q auaurAicd uy} ss018 24414 0S 68 Noise Control AS Yooi4 gO Wed

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