CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RELEVANT

CONCEPTS

2. General

The prime objective of this study is to analyse the labour conditions of

marine fishing workers in Thoothukudi district, one of the important maritime

districts of Tamil Nadu. In this chapter, an attempt is made to review some

relevant studies in the field of fishermen. This review would facilitate the

researcher to have a comprehensive knowledge of the concepts used in earlier

studies and to adopt, modify and formulate an improved conceptual framework for

the present study.

SECTION: I

2.1. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1.1. Studies Related to Fishing Workers

CMFRI (1977)1 points out that fishermen of our country have a distinct

tradition of their own. They belong to all the major religions namely Hinduism,

Christianity, Islam and several communities which differ from State to State. In

the society, the fishing community occupies a low status. Majority of the

fishermen belong to an economically weaker section and follow traditional

1
CMFRI, Indian Fisheries 1947-1977, Issued on the Occasion of the Fifth Session of the Indian
Ocean Fishery Commission, Cochin, 1977, pp.74-77.
methods of fishing employing indigenous crafts and gears. The average size of the

fisherman family varies between 4.7 and 8.6 in different States. By and large, they

are perennially indebted to the middlemen who advance financial help to them in

times of need in return for their entire catch assessed at a low price. Several factors

such as a low social status, poor economic conditions, illiteracy, heavy inter

service of middlemen, traditional fishing equipments and methods of fishing, low

production rate and income influence the socio-economic conditions of fishermen.

Right from the beginning of the first Five Year Plan, this sector has been receiving

considerable attention from the Government. Various schemes for providing

housing facilities, dispensaries and community amenities, approach roads etc, are

given priority. Organised attempts are made to promote fishery co-operatives in

our country.

Nammalwar and Prakasam (1979)2 while studying the Status and

Problem of Fishermen in the Marine Fishing Industry point out that over-fishing

threatens the fishery resources of our country and therefore regulation of a type,

leading to a reduction in the number of units is desirable to conserve valuable

resource to forestall economic difficulties and to reduce the clashes among

different groups is desirable. Although advances have been made in fishing

technology, practically it has not reached the poor fishermen. Several factors such

as low social status, poor economic conditions, illiteracy, heavy interference of

2
Nammalwar, P., and Prakasam, V.R., Present Status and Problems of Fishermen in the Marine
Fishing Industry, Sea Food Export Journal, 11(2): 1979, pp.27-30.

25
middlemen, traditional fishing equipments and methods etc. influence the socio-

economic conditions of fishermen.

Panikkar (1980)3 has studied the coastal rural indebtedness in Vizhinjam,

south of Trivandrum, Kerala. The fishermen of the coastal villages borrow year

after year and they are heavily indebted. But they are not in a position to repay the

loan, either because the loans are larger or the income is not enough to pay off the

debts. As such, the debt of the fishermen goes on increasing. This may be termed

as coastal rural indebtedness. The fishermen of Vizhinjam borrow mainly from the

moneylenders since institutional credit is not available to them. There are two

types of moneylenders, namely, the moneylenders who combine fish trading with

money lending and professional moneylenders. These moneylenders usually

charge high rate of interests, often 30 per cent and more. They dont keep proper

accounts of repayment. They do not issue receipts for repayments. The boat

owners also lend to the fishermen. In this system, for getting a loan, the fishermen

as a wage earner has to enter into a contract with the boat owner that he should

work only in the boat of the owner from whom he has received the loan till it is

repaid. Maximum amount of loan is spent for household expenditures or for

construction or repairing of the houses. The extent of indebtedness is higher

among higher income groups and lowers among the lower income groups

Considering all these facts, the author suggests that Rural Banks and Co-operative

3
Panikkar, K.K.P., Coastal Rural Indebtedness - A Case Study, Marine Fisheries Information
Service, 18: 1980, pp.8-12.

26
Societies should be established the activities of moneylenders should be regulated

and interest rates must be limited to a reasonable level.

Panikkar et al., (1981)4 studied the impact of the introduction of

mechanised boats on the socio economic conditions of traditional fishermen

when they are supplied with mechanised boats. To study this impact, Calicut

region was selected where Agricultural Refinance Development Corporation

(ARDC) had supplied 50 mechanised boats of size 36 inches so that each boat was

allotted to seven fishermen families, thus involving 350 fishermen families in this

venture. The study indicates an improvement in the economic condition of the

fishermen families of Puthiangadi (near Calicut) which received credit facilities

from ARDC. The introduction of mechanisation induced many fishermen to shift

from traditional to mechanised fishing which resulted in increased landings and

created more employment opportunities in net making, ice-plant and workshop

operations, sorting, auctioning, transporting and fish trading. The absence of such

economic activities in the neighbouring Elathur village is a pointer to the

significance of availability of credit facilities to invest in improved fishing

techniques.

Kalawar (1981)5 examined the living conditions of fishermen in

Maharashtra. According to him, the living conditions on the whole are deplorable.

Owing to lack of economic development in this region, there is continuous exodus

4
Panikkar, K.K.P. and Alagaraja, K., Socio Economic Status of Fishermen Community of Calicut
Area, Marine Fisheries Information Service, 33: 1981, pp.2-12.
5
Kalawar, A.G., Socio- Economic Conditions of the Coastal Rural Sector, CMFRI Bulletin, 30:
1981, pp.42-44.

27
of labour from the coastal region. As a result, the females have to bear most of the

burden of economic activity. Indebtedness in the fishermen community is

widespread. Necessary infrastructure by way of communication and transport

facilities, water supply and power should have to be provided on priority basis.

This creates scope for setting up agro-based and fisheries-based industries.

Kurien (1981)6 pointed out that there are two reasons for the poverty of

fishermen, namely the inequality in the asset holdings among them and secondly

the exploitation of all of them by those who are involved in the process of buying

what they produce. As a result for the average traditional fishermen, saving from

his income for investment is a painful task. Indebtedness among the fisherfolk is

high. Credit in the form of wage advances is a very common phenomenon in

traditional fishing communities. Credit of other forms may be obtained by

pledging ration cards, gold and fishing nets with individuals in the village who are

not necessarily concerned with fishing. Rate of interest ranges from 24 to 60

per cent for the mortgage of their products. Fish merchants are a source of big

credit. They normally lend large amounts to fishermen who own fishing

equipments.

Fernando (1981)7 suggested the following for improving the socio-

economic conditions of fishermen at all fishing centres, sufficient cold storage and

6
Kurien, John., Socio-Economic Conditions of Traditional Fishermen, CMFRI Bulletin, 30:
1981, pp.35-53.
7
Fernando, Ambrose, Community Development and Infrastructure Facilities for Improving the
Socio-Economic Conditions of Fishermen, CMFRI Bulletin, 30: 1981, pp.45-55.

28
ice plants facilities must be provided to prevent fish from going waste. Internal

market facilities must be developed with suitable transport facilities. Every fishing

village should be provided with suitable road facilities with adequate feeder roads

linking every fishing center. Fishermen should be educated sufficiently to preserve

fish at the catching point itself. Modern fish processing units must be established

in all the important fishing centres along with State fisheries units. Fishermen in

the coastal area should be provided with proper sanitation and medical facilities,

drinking water, wells and electricity. All important minor ports must be given top

priority for berthing facilities and processing units with freezercumice plants for

the use of small fishermen. Alternate jobs during off-season should be provided to

the fishermen and their womenfolk.

Paul Valiakandathil (1981)8 studied the socio-economic conditions of

fishermen in Poonthura, Kerala. He points out that since fishing is a seasonal

occupation, majority of the fishermen are actively employed for a period of 6

months in a year. Their equipments are not usable beyond a certain depth. 10

per cent of them have access to boats and nets, the other 90 per cent remain idle

for a substantial part of the year. Underemployment is a major problem in the area.

The scanty income and the numerous demands upon it, keep the fishermen in a

permanent state of bondage to the moneylenders. The interest rate varies from 36

per cent to 120 per cent. In short, the rebuilding of the life of the fishermen group

8
Paul Valiakandathil, S.J., Poonthura, A Case Study of Socio-Economic Conditions of Fishermen
in Kerala, CMFRI Bulletin, 30: 1981, pp.56-59.

29
is a national challenge. Along with economic measures should go a systematic and

effective educational campaign.

Durairaj (1981)9 in his study, on Marine Fishing Industry in Thanjavur

district has discussed the distribution of income, indebtedness and the annual

average return per craft of both the mechanised and non-mechanised sectors. The

study revealed that the distribution of income in the worker groups in both the

sector was more equitable than in the owner-worker groups and also revealed that

workers in the mechanised sector could get a higher income than a owner worker

in the catamaran sector. The author stressed the need to improve the efficiency of

catamarans by suitably modifying the traditional craft. The study identified that

the annual net return per craft in catamaran sector was more than that of the

mechanised sector. The low return per craft in the mechanised sector was mainly

due to the high cost of diesel and oil.

Sathiadas et al., (1981)10 point out that the impact of mechanised fishing in

the last two decades on the living conditions of the people of Sakthikulangara and

Neendakara of Kerala has been manifold. One of the major benefits is the

increased employment opportunity. There is a reduction in the number of

indigenous boats in the area. At the same time there has been significant increase

in the infrastructure facilities also. The process of mechanisation has a great

9
Durairaj, N., A Study of Marine Fishing Industry in Thanjavur District, Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, 1981, p.230.
10
Sathiadas, R., Venkataraman, G., Impact of Mechanised Fishing on the Socio-Economic
Conditions of the Fishermen of Sakthikulangara-Neendakara, Kerala, Marine Fisheries
Information Service, 29: 1981, pp.1-19.

30
impact on the total landing of fish and prawns in that area. This has resulted in

better exploitation of resources. The export of marine products has also increased.

There has been an eight-fold increase in income since 1954. But the financial

position of the lower income groups could not permit them either to purchase

mechanised boats or to invest huge amount of money on fishery related activities.

Development of small-scale industries like coir-making and net-making which

have a good scope in this area enable these people to be gainfully employed during

off-season.

Sreenivasan (1981)11 in his study worked out on the economics of various

types of fishing crafts used in Tamilnadu. The return per unit investment of non-

powered boats was estimated to be twice that of powered boats. The traditional

fishing crafts categories, it was suggested that additional income and employment

be obtained by making all fishing requisites mainly fishing nets, fish processing,

transport, marketing and use of catch to raise the village poultry units.

Sehara et al., (1983)12 in their article on the evaluation of fishermen

economy in Maharashtra and Gujarat had studied the general socio-economic

conditions of fishermen in these two states analysed the literacy, size of family,

number of earning members, number of annual fishing days, house holds income

and expenditure and saving pattern.

11
Srinnivasan, A., The Small-scale Marine Fisheries of Tamilnadu, CMFRI Bulletin, Vol.30,
1981, pp.34-38.
12
Sehara, D.B.S., and Karbari, J.P., An Evaluation of Fishermen Economics in Maharashtra
Gujarat - A Case Study, CMFRI Publication, Maharashtra, 1983, pp.40-45.

31
 Babaji (1984)13 in a research project had analysed the production,

marketing and consumption characteristics of marine fishery sector in

Visakapatnam. He had studied the economy of fisheries sector with reference to

the socio-economic profile of traditional fishermen as well as mechanised boat

owners. He had also analysed the fish consumption pattern of people in

Vishakapatnan.

In an article the CMFRI (1985)14 analysed the living conditions of the

small fishermen in India. Artisanal fishermen landed 40 per cent of the marine fish

production in India with traditional implements. They put in an effort of 8-12

hours a day in the sea to earn an income of `10-20 or even less. A square meal a

day is a dream for many artisanal fishermen. The standard of living of these

people is generally low. The villages are remote with little transport,

communication and sanitation facilities and are exposed to the fury of nature.

Educational status is low and drop outs are found both among boys and girls. One

of the major constraints in the development of artisanal fishing industry has been

the lack of broad network of extension service with trained manpower reaching the

fishermen at large and motivates them. The most important step in helping the

fisherfolk is to educate them and make them aware of the programmes available to

them.

13
Babaji, Indian Institute of Management, Marine Fish Marketing in India, Vol.VI,
Ahamadabad, 1984, pp.176 -179.
14
CMFRI, Newsletter, Focus on Artisanal Fisherfolk, Vol.27-28: 1985, pp.8-12.

32
 Librero (1985)15 investigated the economics of small-scale fisheries

particularly, total catch, costs and returns, employment and income for the

different types of crafts and gears in the Philippine Municipal fishing.

Daniel Viswasam Samuel (1986) 16 in his study estimated costs and returns

in different fishing units. The study also included economics efficiency of fishing

in the selected fish landing centres of the erstwhile Thoothukudi district. The fitted

a linear multiple regression function to find out the determinants of net income in

fishing.

In a desk review and resource investigation report, Bhavani (1986)17 points

out that very little information is available on the health and nutritional status of

small-scale fisherfolk of Indias east coast. A few micro-level studies and base line

surveys in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal give a basic idea. In

Andhra Pradesh for instance, it is stated that the dietary habits of fishermens

families seem to be far from satisfactory. A survey undertaken for BOBP in

coastal villages of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts presents that a

considerable number of women and children suffer from partial blindness because

of vitamin A deficiency.

15
Librero, Mechanisation: Its Impact on Productivity, Cost structure of Profitability of the
Philippine Municipal Fishery, Proceedings of the Small-scale Fisheries in Asia Socio-
Economic Analysis and Policy, IDRC, Canada, 1985, pp.151-162.
16
Daniel Viswasam Samuel, An Economic Analysis of Employment, Income and Consumption
of Fishermen Households in Tirunelveli District, Unpublished M.F.Sc., Thesis, Fisheries
College and Research Institute, Thoothukudi, 1986, pp.31-32.
17
Bhavani, V., (BOBP/INF/9), Food and Nutrition Status of Small-Scale Fisherfolk in Indias
East Coast, April, 1986, pp.1-19.

33
 The CMFRI (1988)18 has studied the socio-economic conditions of

fishermen in North West coast. Maharashtra and Gujarat are the important

maritime States in northwest coast of India. About 180 fishing villages in 10

coastal districts of Gujarat and 375 villages in five coastal districts of Maharashtra

are dominated by marine fishermen with a population of about four lakhs. The

study point out that illiteracy is high in all the villages (48.75%). A significant

difference in the annual income between mechanised group to non-mechanised

group and also between the villages existed. The level of indebtedness is found to

be high in Maharashtra. Infrastructure facilities like jetty, link roads, ice and cold

storage, transport, drying, curing yards are found meagre in most of the fish

landing centres. The fishermen are not getting remunerative price for their catch

owing to the involvement of middlemen who advance money and do marketing of

catches. Fishermen are generally unemployed and are not able to meet even their

household expenditure during lean season in both the States.

Selvaraj (1988)19 in his study has identified the fishing seasons for

important species of fish groups and estimated the economics of different craft

categories in the selected coastal fishing villages of Kanyakumari District of

Tamilnadu. He formulated suitable strategies for the development of fisheries

sector for the betterment of fisher folk in the district.

18
CMFRI, Special Publication, An Evaluation of Fishermen Economy in Maharashtra and
Gujarat- A Case Study, 44: 1988, pp.1-80.
19
Selvaraj.P., Status of Marine Fisheries of Kanyakumari District, Fishing Chimes 8(1): 1988,
pp.72-79.

34
 Sathiadhass et al., (1988)20 have studied the small scale fishermen with

emphasis on casts and earnings of traditional units along Thiruvananthapuram

coast, Kerala. They have analysed the Socio-Economic conditions of fishermen in

relation to new technology and participation in development schemes. The

Catamarans with hooks and lines are found to be suitable for the small investors.

King (1989)21 points out that in a male-dominated world of fisheries, in

many parts of the world, fisheries development for women has taken positive

strides from production and post-harvest activities to management and policy

decision-making. In most societies, fishermen are involved in fish handling,

processing and marketing, as in Papua New Guinea where women exclusively

market fish caught by their own men in Ghana where they own business which

involves leasing out fishing boats to men or in a Gambia where men process fish

on a large scale for export while women transport the catch in pans loaded on their

head from canoes to smoke huts. Great potentials exist for integrating women into

fisheries development but these potentials remain untapped mainly because

womens views are not considered in planning. Women articulate their needs and

aspirations in the given opportunity.

20
Sathiadhas, R., and Panikkar, K.K.P., Socio Economic of Small Scale Fishermen with
Emphasis on Cogs and Earnings of Traditional Fishing Units along Trivandrum Coast, Kera1a-
A case study, Seafood Export Journal, 9(19 & 20): l988, pp.21-26.
21
Hanna King, Fisheries Development Programmes and Women, NAGA, ICLARM Quarterly,
1989, pp.6-7.

35
 Samuel (1989) 22 points out that the study of the socio-economic conditions

of fisherfolk especially fishermen have been neglected by sociologists and

economists. The fishermen have a very low status in the social hierarchy, which

leaves them worse off than their counterparts despite the fact, that the involvement

of the fishermen in the industry is considerable. But their role stands unrecognised.

In a survey conducted in Tirunelveli district by the author, it was found that the

extent of literacy among fishermen ranged from 65 per cent in cattamaran

motorised unit to 37.19 per cent in mechanised unit. Being illiterate and have no

other opportunity to work, the fishermen of artisanal unit help their menfolk in fish

marketing and related sundry activities. More than 90 per cent of fishermen in the

artisanal fishermen families possess skills in net making and fish processing. It is

interesting to find that there is practically no involvement of fishermen belonging

to the mechanised unit in decision-making of economic activities but fishermen of

artisanal units are involved in decision-making of economic activities to a some

degree.

Sathiadas et al., (1989)23 are of the view that the successful

implementation of any development programmes in fisheries depends upon the

socio-economic conditions of the target group. Therefore, they conducted a study

on the socio-economic status of marine fishermen along Madras coast in 1984-85,

in two fishing villages namely Thiruvottiyurkuppam where non-mechanised

22
Samuel, Daniel Viswasam, A., Economics of Marine Fishing and Role of Fisherwomen in
Tirunelveli District in Tamil Nadu, Fishing Chimes, 1989, pp.55-63.
23
Sathiadas, R., Panikkar, K.K.P., Socio - Economic Status of Marine Fishermen along Madras
Coast, Marine Fisheries Information Service, 1989, 96: pp.1- 6.

36
fishing is carried out and Pudumanikuppam where fishing is done using

mechanised craft. The study reveals that the average annual income of fishermen

household works out at `7,600 and 4,500 and the per capita income at `1,417 and

`837 respectively at Pudumanikuppam and Thiruvottiyurkuppam. Since

Pudumanikuppam is a major landing centre, fishermen are not only engaged in

active fishing but also in diversified fishery related activities. They realise better

income due to comparatively higher prices and better infrastructure facilities.

About 84 per cent of the fishermen households in Pudumanikuppam and 46 per

cent at Thiruvottiyurkuppam do not own means of production. There is a variation

in daily expenses for catamaran owners, wage earners and families engaged in

fishery related activities in these areas. The expenses incurred on health and

education purposes are found to be very low in both these villages. Credit

availability in these villages is also not sufficient. The average outstanding debt

per indebted household ranged from `200 to `1,000 for different categories of

fishermen households. The role of commercial banks and co-operative societies in

supplying credit is found to be negligible. Based on the study, it has been

suggested that village level co-operative should be formed to cater to the needs of

the fisherfolk. The fishermen should be initiated for the effective utilisation of the

harbour that is available. Since the employment pressure on the traditional sector

is on the increase, alternate employment opportunities must be created.

37
 Senthilathiban et al., (1989)24 discussed the cost of production and net

income of the fishing households in the selected fishing households in the selected

fishing village of the undivided Thoothukudi district. The increase from fishing

was found to be highly variable while fish catch was almost static due to

traditional fishing methods. Rapid motorization adequate credit and marketing

were suggested for improving economic status of fisher folk.

Sathiadas et al., (1989)25 in their article on Costs and earning of trawlers

operating at Thoothukudi fisheries harbour in Tamilnadu had studied the cost

benefit relationship of three types of trawlers of sizes 8.5, 9 Meter and 9.5 Meter.

Their initial investment, fixed cost, operating cost and returns were analysed. They

had also calculated various key economic indicators for these types of trawlers.

They concluded that the capital turn over ratio, rate of return to capital and pay

back period were better for smaller boats. But in terms of labour productivity,

wages, quantum of catch, gross revenue and net profit, the bigger size boats were

comparatively more efficient.

Chidambaram et al., (1990)26 in their article on Marine marketing in

Tiruchendur area of Tamilnadu had analysed the marine fish supplies and studied

the various marketing problems of the fishermen. They had made an empirical

study based on survey method. By adopting simple random sampling technique,

24
Senthilathiban and Selvaraj, Economics of Marine Capture Fisheries in Tirunelveli District of
Tamil Nadu, Fishing Chimes, 9(5): 1989, pp.52-55.
25
Sathiadhas, R., and Panikkar, K.K.P., Costs Earnings of Trawlers Operating at Thoothukudi
Fishing Harbour, Marine Fish Information Service, CMFRI, Kochi, 100: 1989, p.8.
26
Chidambaram, K., and Soundrarajan, A., Marine Fish Marketing in Tiruchendur Area in
Tamilnadu, Fishing Chimes, 1(12): 1990, pp.43-55.

38
the relevant data were collected from 81 fishermen. In their analysis they had

found that the fishermen played only a minor' role in the actual distribution of fish.

These fishermen were at the mercy of the middlemen. The co-operative marketing

union had remained dormant. The authors had suggested that the fishermen should

be educated about the benefits of society.

James (1990)27 in his article titled Marine fisheries not fully tapped had

analysed, the total marine potential and the average production in the mechanised

and traditional sector. He had found that the coastal areas had been more or less

fished at optimum level. However, the potential in offshore and deep sea fishing

had not been fully tapped. He had suggested for joint ventures with countries

having expertise and experience in high sea fishing for tapping the vast off-shore

and deep sea fishing resources.

Ravish Chandra et al., (1990)28 in their article on Fish Marketing

efficiency: A case study of Allahabad fish market (U.P.) have studied the

operational and pricing efficiency and made a comparison between them. They

have found that the consumer price leaves high profit margin to retailers. They

have suggested that the fishermen should be assured of some remunerative

minimum prices, at least for important commercial fishes.

27
James, P.S.R., Marine Fisheries not Fully Tapped, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture,
13 (7): 1990, pp.203-205.
28
Pradeep, K., and Ravish Chandra, Fish Marketing Efficiency: A Case Study of Allahabad Fish
Market (U.P.), Fishing Chimes, 10(5): 1990, pp.21-28.

39
 Rajan (1990)29 in his article on credit and capital structure of small scale

fishing units in Kerala had studied to what extent did fishermen depends-on credit

for investment in fishing units and also the association between magnitude of

investment and borrowings. He had analysed the capital structure, debt-equity

ratio and solvency ratio. He had also examined the correlation between investment

and debt. He had found that the investment in the small scale fisheries was

heterogeneous and the loans provided by organized sector were insufficient.

Shukla (1990)30 in his article had outlined the basic characteristics of the

Indian fishery sector and stated that the contribution of the Indian fisheries to

world fisheries was just three percent even though investment to employment ratio

was very high. According to him necessary provisions were to be made in regard

to infrastructural, technological, financial, managerial, policy strategy and other

such inputs. A correct national fishery policy was to be evolved.

Sathiadas et al., (1991)31 have collected information relating to housing

pattern, ownership of means of production, employment status, occupation, annual

income, indebtedness, marketing problems etc. The study reveals that catamaran is

the lone craft operating in that area. Chalavalai alone accounts for the major

investment on gears. The major source of income comes from active fishing. The

main source of borrowing is the moneylenders. Easy availability of credit through

29
Rajan, J.P., Credit and Capital Structure of Small Scale Fishing Units in Kerala, Fishing
Chimes, 7(45): 1990, pp.9 -11.
30
Shukla, S.M., Undertake Fishery Mahayagna, Fishing Chimes, 11(6): 1990, pp.17-19.
31
Sathiadas, R., Panikkar., K.K.P., Socio-Economics of Traditional Fishermen in Tirunelveli
Coast, Tamil Nadu, Biol. Ass. India, 33 (1 and 2): 1991, pp.175-181.

40
institutional agencies, opportunities for supplementary occupations and better

infrastructural facilities for marketing are some of the suggestions given for the

economic improvement of traditional fishermen.

Chhaya et al., (1991)32 in their article had studied the total cost and net

profit per trip of a trawler, a gill-netter and a dugout with out board motors. The

study was made to find the cost benefit relationship and the ability to repay, if loan

was extended to the respective owners. It was found that the gill-netter with

inboard motor was more profitable than the other two types.

Sathiadas et al., (1991)33 observed the income distribution and expenditure

pattern of fishermen households representing catamaran owners and crew

members of two fishing villages along Madras Coast and found that diversified

activities and better infrastructural facilities were necessary for better income of

the fishermen households and suggestions for the overall development of the

traditional fishermen were also presented.

Sehara et al., (1992)34 described the monsoon fisheries in the west coast of

India. During monsoon period (June-August) fishing operation is only at a

subsistence level. The number of mechanised units under operation is reduced to

about 10 per cent of the total units and non-mechanised units are reduced to 25 per

cent. The household income during monsoon is very low and consequently

32
Chhaya, M.D., Jani, G.M., Amrelliya, J.A., Economic Viability of Trawlers, Gillnetters
Dugouts with outboard Motors, Fishing Chimes, 38(23): 1991, pp.51-55.
33
Sathiadhas, R., and Panikkar, K.K.P., Economics of Catamaran Fishing along the Madras
Coast, Journal of Marine Bio Assn. of India , 33(192): l991, pp.241-245.
34
Sehara, D.B.S., Panikkar, K.K.P., and Karbhari, J.B., Socio- Economic Aspects of the
Monsoon Fisheries of the West Coast of India, CMFRI Bulletin, 45: 1992, pp.242-250.

41
fishermen become permanent debtors. To overcome these difficulties, it is

suggested to constitute a public agency to purchase fish at a minimum price

whenever there is a glut at the landing center, and to provide adequate finance at

reasonable terms and conditions through co-operatives.

Ayyakkannu (1992)35 makes a comparative analysis of the socio-economic

life of the fishermen in Vethalai of Mandapam block and Thiresapuram of

Thoothukudi . Fishermen in Vethalai go for fishing for atleast fifteen days in a

month. The most favourable season is the post monsoon period during which

diving activity also goes on. Most of them used lobster nets. In Thiresapuram,

shingi valai is the main gear used by the fishermen. FebruaryApril are the months

good for diving. MayJuly are good for net operation. Another interesting point is

that there is a co-operative society in Vethalai village. Apart from this unit, 300 of

the fishermen are members of the Mandapam fishermen co-operative society. But

there is no co-operative society in Thiresapuram and fishermen of this village buy

fishing equipments and spare parts from private shops.

Sathiadas et al., (1994)36 studied the impact of mechanisation on artisanal

fishermen in Thanjavur coast of Tamil Nadu. The intensive mechanisation

programme has even deprived the traditional fishermen of their legitimate claim

35
Ayyakannu, K., SocioEconomic Profile of the Mandapam and Thoothukudi Sectors, South
East Coast India (GOM) with Special Reference to the Fishing Villages of Vethalai and
Thiresapuram, In Proceedings, Second Workshop of Tropical Marine Mollusc Programme at
Annamalai University, India, 1992, 4-14 May. Mar. Biol. Cent. Spl. Pub. 10: 1992, pp.39-43.
36
Sathiadas, R., Panikkar, K.K.P., Kanakkan, A., Traditional Fishermen in Low Income Trap- A
Case Study in Thanjavur Coast of Tamil Nadu, Marine Fisheries Information Service, 135,
1994, pp.5-10.

42
for fishing in the near shore areas. There are also frequent conflicts between the

mechanised and non-mechanised fishermen over their fishing rights. It was found

that the level of employment for hired labourers as well as those not having

sufficient equipment was low and they were very much underemployed. The

seasonal nature of fishery and the risk and uncertainties associated with marine

fishing work of the fishermen which leads to low-income trap. The poor economic

conditions coupled with less availability of finance from the institutional agencies

compel them to sustain with less equipped fishing equipments which in turn

results in lesser returns. Lack of marketing and infrastructure facilities is another

factor responsible for lesser returns to the fishermen. Therefore, extensive and

comprehensive area development programme for the entire coastal belt is required

to improve the socio-economic condition of marine fishermen.

Nuruddin (1994)37 analysed the socio-economic conditions of fisherfolk in

Kuala Sepetang, a coastal village in the west coast of peninsular in Malaysia. This

village has all the public amenities like transport, sanitation, telephones, drinking

water etc. The illiteracy rate is low. Fishing is the primary income generating

activity in the village. Majority of the fishing households are vesselowners and

they are mainly involved in shrimp trawling. About 29 per cent of the total

households are involved in fisheryrelated activities excluding active fishery

which includes aquaculture, fish trading, marketing and processing. No menfolk

37
Nuruddin Adnam Bin, (BOBP/WP/98), Bio Socio-Economics of Fishing for Shrimp in Kuala
Sepetang, Malaysia, 1994, pp.1-52.

43
are actively involved in fish processing. It is interesting to see that nearly all

fishing households in the area are above the poverty line. Less than one per cent of

the households in the area are living below the poverty line and all of them are

non-fishing households with one working member.

Siddiqui (1995)38 compared the socio-economic conditions of fishermen in

Tamil Nadu and Orissa. The main livelihood of fishermen wholly depends on the

catch of fish from fishing and marketing. Fishing season starts from August and

continues upto March. Fishing is generally not undertaken for about 60 days in a

year when the sea is rough or due to cyclonic weather. On the other hand

mechanised fishing vessel owners are able to carry out their normal operations

during the off-season also. The funds raised for the purchase of traditional craft or

mechanised vessels are partly from their own sources and partly through money

lenders. They are hesitant to avail bank finances because of the conditions of

repayment of loans and lots of formalities they have to undergo. About 70 per cent

of the persons interviewed were indebted for meeting their day to-day

maintenance in time of poor catch or poor marketing, marriage expenses etc. The

fish merchants or moneylenders are the source for providing loans at a higher rate

of interest of 36 per cent. In the light of the above conditions, it is suggested that

the fishermen should be motivated for undergoing training so that bank loans are

availed by them for the purchase of fishing crafts or gears. Efforts should be made

38
Siddiqui, A Study of the Socio- Economic Problems of the Fishermen in Tamil Nadu and
Orissa, Fishing Chimes, August, 1995, pp.48-49.

44
to provide basic infrastructural facilities like pucca road, drinking water supply,

sanitation facilities, medical and school facilities.

Chidambaram et al., (1997)39 have studied marine fish supplies in

Tiruchendur area. They have described fishing operations, financial requirements,

and profitability in fishing and production problems encountered by the fishermen.

They have also given policy suggestions for the development of the fishermen.

Sheela Immanuel (1997)40 has studied the problems faced by fishermen

and women in seaweed collection in Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu.

Seaweed collection is a routine work for a section of coastal people along Tamil

Nadu coast and particularly in Ramanathapuram district. Fishermen collect the

seaweed and sell it to local companies and earn their livelihood. But they face

many problems in their work, which are as follows; physical strain in collecting

the seaweeds is a major problem. They are not allowed to stay in the islands for 2

or 3 days for collection. Hence, they have to travel back the same day and go again

the next day, which adds to their physical strain. Apart from this, the unfavourable

weather conditions make them remain unemployed for many months, less price

and poor quality of seaweeds, lack of adequate places for drying the seaweed,

taking care of children and other household activities etc. add to their plight.

39
Chidambaram, K., and Soundrarajan, A., Marine Fish Supplies in Tiruchendur- A Case
Study, Fishing Chimes, 2(9): 1997, pp.58-61.
40
Sheela Immanuel, Problems of Fishermen and Fisherwomen in Seaweed Collection. Journal of
Extension Education, 8 (3): 1997, pp.1785-1786.

45
 Roy (1997)41 in a study on the fisher people of Bangladesh highlights the

plight of the fisherfolk there. A large number of people living in the coastal zone

depend directly or indirectly on fishing for their livelihood. They are not only

trapped by problems in every direction, but the very nature of the problemstheir

complexity and their inter-relationship make finding solutions much more

difficult. Fish they catch are bought by traders at a ridiculous price because the

fishers are bonded by the credit they have received from the traders. Every year,

there are natural disasters, floods tidal, bores and cyclones depriving them of life

and property. They are thus trapped from both sides from the land by the fellow

human being and from the sea-by nature and have nowhere to go. In addition to

this a combination of over-fishing, destructive fishing, pollution and mangrove

destruction has stressed fisheries stocks and catches and the catch per unit effort is

declining with few or no alternative income opportunities available. This results in

a reduction in the quality of life and finally migration and desperation. Therefore,

the urgent need is to decide alternate income options to get out of fisheries, reduce

fishing efforts and improve their quality of life. This requires real decentralisation

and devolution of powers to local communities.

Girija et al., (1998)42 stated that in India, the development plans for marine

fisheries lay emphasis on improving the lot of marginal fishermen. A concerted

41
Roy, BOBP News, Nowhere to Coastal People of Bangladesh, June, 1997, pp.9-12.
42
Nair, M.K.R. Girija, S., Application of Low Cost Technologies in Fish Processing and Its
Prospects as a Vocation for Fisherwomen of Kerala, In Hameed, M.S., Kurup, B.M., (Eds.)
Technological Advancement in Fisheries, Publ. No.1, School of Industrial Fishing, Cochin,
1998, pp.478-484.

46
effort to coordinate fishing would improve the subsidiary activities of fishermen

household, by tapping the fishermen to process and market a substantial portion of

the fish landed and also would definitely go a long way in improving the socio-

economic conditions of this sector. The post harvest technology for handling fish

can be easily transferred to these beneficiaries. Infrastructural support by way of

cold storages, processing space, transportation network and sales outlets are to be

created. Capital input and technological support should be provided. By expanding

the co-operative set-up now existing in the marine fish harvest sector in Kerala by

involving the potential work force of fishermen, the apex body of the co-

operatives will be able to penetrate export trade by properly coordinating the

production at different work centres in addition to emerging as a major player in

the domestic fish trade.

The CMFRI (1998)43 in a study on the Socio-Economic Conditions of

Fishermen in North West coast of India points out that illiteracy was high (48-

75%) in all the fishing villages along the coast. Significant difference existed in

the annual income between the mechanised and non-mechanised groups and also

between villages. The level of indebtedness was found to be high in Maharashtra.

Infrastructural facilities like jetty, link roads, ice and cold storage, transport,

drying, curing yards were found meagre in most of the fish landing centres. The

fishermen were not getting remunerative prices for their catch owing to the

43
CMFRI, Special Bulletin, An Evaluation of Fishermen Economy in Maharashtra and Gujarat-
A Case Study, 44: 1988, pp.1-18.

47
involvement of middlemen who advance money and do marketing of catches.

Fishermen remained unemployed and were not able to meet even their household

expenditure during lean season.

Shanmugaraj et al., (1998)44 in a project to find out the Socio-Economic

Status of the Fisherfolk Communities of the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere

Reserve, point out that there are 49 villages along the coast, of which 38 are in

Ramanathapuram district and 11 are in Thoothukudi district bordering the marine

biosphere area. The fishermen from these villages depend solely on fishing for

their livelihood. The fishermen are well trained in sorting fish, cleaning, drying

and marketing them. They also act as agents for the boat owners at auction centers

and earn a good commission. The fishermans daily income depends upon his

days catch, which is not regular, and at a steady level. It ranges from `100-200 a

day in the peak season and `20-30 in normal days. The fishermen market their

catch either individually or through their association or through agents. Normally,

the fishes are auctioned at the landing centres. The community of the biosphere

area feels that with the support of the government agencies, better decisions can be

made on planning, allocation of area within the Gulf of Mannar for certain uses,

fishing gears etc. The government should provide economic and other

44
Shanmugaraj, T., Upreti., Ashok., Socio-Economic Status of Fisherfolk Communities in the
Gulf of Mannar, Marine Biosphere Reserve A Survey of Tamil Nadu Forest Department,
1998, pp.2-4.

48
infrastructure facilities through society or village level organisations to improve

their livelihood.

Verduijin (2000)45 on behalf of the BOBP had conducted a survey in

Kanyakumari district to find the basic needs of 39 coastal fishing communities,

which inhabit the 68 km stretch of the coast. Over the years, the intensity of

fishing has increased partly on account of the increase in the active fishing

population, partly due to the lack of alternative income generating opportunities

and partly due to motorisation and mechanisation of fishing crafts. The resource

has not kept up with the increase of effort, which results in a sharp reduction in

catch per unit effort. Since the usage of mechanisation in 1958, artisanal fishers

have with dismay compared the landings of the mechanised crafts with their own

meagre catches. Besides, the artisanal fishers have often seen their nets destroyed

by mechanised boats. With this background, the survey points out that the major

problem as given by respondents is the non-availability of safe drinking water

followed by sanitation and health care.

Balasubramaniyan (2001)46 in his study compared the economic status of

fishermen in two marine fishing villages of Orissa State viz., Pentakota and

Belinoliasahi. They measured the economic status and the mean scores of

respondents in the two villages, which differed significantly at one per cent level.

45
Verduijin, J.C., (BOBP/MM/1), Basic Needs of 39 Coastal Fishing Communities in
Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu, India, 2000, pp.1-24.
46
Balasubramanian, S., Socio-Economic Status of Marine Fishermen in Two Fishing Villages of
Orissa, Fishing Technology, 38(1): 2001, pp.51-55.

49
The results also revealed that the fishermen had a favorable attitude towards the

motorization of fishing crafts in both the villages.

Ragupathy Venkatachalam (2005)47 in his article the objective of the

paper was examined the threat to the substantially of the fisheries in India and in

particular in the Gulf of Mannar region. It is widely quoted that the depletion is

due to the introduction of trawler fishing techniques, which scrape the bottom of

the sea and end up catching juvenile fish. In viewing this problem of over fishing

(by the trawlers) as a negative externality to the traditional fishing community, the

best way to internalize the social cost inflicted by the people who over fish is the

question that this study attempts to seek the answer for. One of the most

commonly practiced techniques to sustain the fisheries resource is the blanket ban

on fishing during specific months of the year like the one practiced in the coastal

regions in India. The researcher has attempted to critically evaluate the

effectiveness of this method of resource conservation. The researcher has also

proposed an alternative model for sustaining the resources, which would be an

effective solution for the problem.

Ganesh Kumar et al., (2008)48 this study has been conducted in all the

major coastal states and some selected inland states to understand the domestic

47
Ragupathy Venkatachalam., Sustainable Fisheries and Community Management Systems,
Paper presented in Environment and Growth of the 2nd South Asian Economics Students
Meet 2005 at Lahore, Pakistan, Jan28-30, 2005 being organized by the Lahore University of
Management Sciences (LUMS).
48 Ganesh Kumar, B., Dattaa, K.K., Joshia, P.K., Katihab, P.K., Sureshc, R., Ravisankard, T.,
Ravindranathe, K., and Muktha Menona, Domestic Fish Marketing in India-Changing

50
marketing of fish in India. The total marketing costs of auctioneer, wholesaler,

retailer, vendor, marine fishermen cooperative society and contractor/freshwater

fishermen cooperative society have been found to be `0.98, `8.89, `6.61, `4.50,

`6.00 and `3.51, respectively. The marketing efficiencies for Indian major carps

(IMC), sardine and seer fish have been found to vary from 34 per cent to 74

per cent depending on the length of market channel. The marketing efficiency has

been found more in the case of marine species than freshwater species, since the

latter travel longer distances from the point of production to consumption centre,

passing many intermediaries as compared to the former. The fishermans share in

consumers rupee has shown variations across species, marketing channels and

markets. The infrastructure facilities at most of the surveyed landing centres,

fishing harbours and wholesale and retail markets have been found grossly

inadequate and poorly maintained. The study has highlighted the need for

formulating a uniform market policy for fishes for easy operation and regulation,

so that the countrys fish production is efficiently managed and delivered to the

consuming population, ensuring at the same time remunerative prices to the

fishers.

2.1.2. Studies Related to Fisherwomen

Structure, Conduct, Performance and Policies, Agricultural Economics Research Review,

Vol. 21 (Conference Number) 2008, pp.345-354.

51
 In a study on the Role of Women in Small Scale Fisheries of the Bay of

Bengal Region by the Bay of Bengal Programme in 1980 [BOBP/REP/4 (1980)]49

it is revealed that in Bangladesh the participation of women in the small-scale

fishery is very substantial. It is estimated that about 30 per cent of women in rural

coastal areas are directly or indirectly engaged in small-scale fishery activities. In

fishing families all female members are engaged on a part-time or a full-time

basis. Women are involved in fish capture. Marketing of fish is predominantly in

the hands of women. They also work as fish hawkers or run fish stalls in

permanent market places or weekly bazars. Drying and curing of fish is to a large

extent done by women. Net making which is the main income-generating

occupation is another important activity. In recent times, women engage

themselves to a larger extent in the farming of fresh water fish.

In Malaysia, women are involved only in shore based small-scale fishery

activities. The most important sector is the processing of fishery products in small

fish-processing establishments and industrial fish, prawn processing plants.

Women are employed as cheap labour in the processing line for sorting and

packing prawns and dressing fish for canning, while the management of the plants

and supervision and operation of machinery are very much a male preserve.

In Thailand, majority of small fishing villages, women are generally

involved in fishery activities at subsistence rather than at a commercial level. But

49
BOBP/REP/4, Role of Women in Small Scale Fisheries of the Bay of Bengal, October, 1980,
pp.4-7.

52
in the larger fishing villages and towns however women are actively engaged in

fishery activities at a commercial level. According to Mallika Wanigasundara

(1981)50 a survey conducted by the Women Bureau in fishing villages of Sri Lanka

shows that eight per cent of women from fishing families did any work connected

with fishing industry or for that matter any income generating work at all. The

bulk of the women from these communities just stay at home and are content or

compelled to be plain and simple housewives and mothers. Along the southern

coastline, women from fisher families are usually engaged in occupations, if at all,

other than those connected with fishing. The Negombo fisherwomen are quite

different. They migrate with men to other fishing grounds. Apart from their

domestic work, they are mending the nets. According to the Women Bureau

Survey, 66 per cent of the women do nothing else except cooking and looking

after the children. It is felt that the quality of their life needs drastic improvement.

Specific programmes have to be directed at them as target group, to raise the

incomes of women and to improve their living standards.

Pollnac (1988)51 points out that in many communities, women take over

the function of buying and selling fish. Sometimes, they are only involved at the

primary level- the initial buying from the fishermen. In some areas they deal with

the fish at all levels including retailing and processing. These middle women are

50
Mallika Wanigasundara, Women in Srilankan Fisheries, Bay of Bengal News, 4: 1981,
pp.22-24.
51
Pollnac, Richard, B., Evaluating the Potential of Fishermens Organizations in Developing
Countries, International Center for Marine Resource Development, The University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, 1988, p.14.

53
found throughout the world in regions as widely spread as the Caribbean, West

Africa, India, Asia, the Pacific, and Latin America. This division of labour can

function to keep more of the profit within the familythe men fish and their female

relatives sell the product. The female role of fish trader results in their being the

primary element of economic stability in some fishing societies (e.g., Ghana,

Christiansen 1982). The menfolk fish intermittently while females work year-

round. Women are frequently at disadvantage with respect to decision-making

powers in fishing communities inspite of their significant contribution.

Organization of women into associations or cooperatives facilitated their

participation in the development process. The role of women must be included in

Organizational Development Plans.

According to Nauen (1989)52 fisherwomen have a dominant role to play in

the post- harvest sector. From landing the fish to processing and selling in the

market, women are often in charge. They may clean and salt-dry bigger species

including shark. Women and youths also play an important role in production. The

Nigerian fisherwomen in the village Gabon for example go fishing. The capture

and collection of seafood in canals, mangroves, small ponds, fish holes etc. for the

family or trade is a familiar practice in most places. Still females often suffer

lower social status than males and on the average have inferior access to food,

formal education and health care.

52
Cornelia E. Nauen, Women in African Artisanal Fisheries, NAGA, ICLARM Quarterly, April,
1989, pp.14-15.

54
 Nandeesha et al., (1994)53 points out that in Cambodia, women make up

more than 65 per cent of the adult population. They play an important role in all

spheres of social and economic activities. In small-scale aquaculture, women have

been found to contribute more than men in almost all activities. Most of the

housewives play a major role in fish culture and the success rate and maintenance

of data are better wherever there is any involvement of the housewives. In almost

all cases, the wives of the fishermen manage ponds. Daily harvest of fish for

family consumption is also done by the female members with the help of children.

As fish culture is fairly less labour-intensive and more recreational, day-to-day

management can be done better by women than by men. Further, fish culture is

less risky than rice and pig cultivation, in terms of return on investment, provided

adequate care is exercised from the beginning to the end of the culture period.

Lilian Fay-Sauni (1998)54 explains the involvement of women in fisheries

in the Pacific islands. Women are extensively involved in many types of fishing

activities in the Pacific islands. These activities range from collection of reef

invertebrates to fish, to the processing and marketing of fish and fishery products.

Up until lately, their role in fisheries in their countries have been underestimated

and overlooked mainly due to the fact that fisheries are commonly known to be

mens. The fishing activities of women are mainly confined to shallower, inshore

53
Nandeesha, M.C.Ngan Heng, Kuong Yun, Role of Women in Small-Scale Aquaculture
Development in South Eastern Cambodia, NAGA, ICLARM Quarterly, 1994, pp.7-9.
54
Lilian Fay- Sauni, Womens Fisheries Involvement in the Pacific Islands; Specific Reference to
Kiribati and Fiji, Newsletter of the Marine Studies Programme and IoI South Pacific,
Vol. 5: 1998, p.10.

55
and reef areas even though some do have accessibility to fish offshore using

motorised crafts and canoes. Substantial changes over time in the role of women in

fisheries development differ from country to country in the region. Understanding

such changes, particularly in relation to other commitments provide a sound basis

to understanding the consequences of womens participation and timely

contribution in managing marine resources where it deems necessary.

Veenakumari (1998)55 explains the socio-economic status of women in

India. The status of women is intimately connected with their economic position,

which depends upon the opportunities for participation in economic activities. The

economic status of women is now accepted as an indicator of the societys stage of

development. Overwhelming majority of women are engaged in the informal

sector, which not only provides low return but also is characterised by return in

accessibilities to credit, technology, training and other facilities. Women have still

not been recognised as producers of their own right. Moreover the traditional

economic activities which provide employment to women have suffered in the

competition with the more advanced technologies. There are about 30 per cent

rural households headed by women who bear all the burden of earning and caring

for the families and suffer on account of lack of access to means of production and

ownership of land and other property. In spite of the initiatives taken during the

last four and a half decades of planning process in India, women still face some

55
Veenakumari, Socio-Economic Status of Women in India, Southern Economist, August, 1,
1998, pp.3-6.

56
limitations and apparent handicaps and constraints due to the lack of education,

health, nutrition, information, transportation and other factors. There is still

discrimination against women and they have yet to be integrated in the

development process of the country. In this regard, it can be highlighted that

separate economic planning for women within the overall planning system can be

advocated. Attention should be paid to find a way by which women can be

integrated in the development process and to see what kind of resources need to be

allocated.

Narayanakumar et al., (2000)56 have studied the Socio-Economic

Conditions of Marine Fisherwomen in India. The changes that have been brought

about by the mechanisation of fishing industry in terms of income and

employment generation and investment on fishing equipments have been

discussed. The marine fisherwomen in India, in general are socially and

economically backward. Hence, any innovation in marine fisheries including new

technologies besides increasing the yield from capture and culture sector should be

economically and technically efficient and socially acceptable. Any sort of

technological innovation, financial scheme or management practice needs to be

analysed to assess its socio-economic, environmental and ecological impact such

as family size, age structure, employment potentials, education and living

standards of fishermen and this will help identify the constraints obstructing the

56
Narayanakumar, R, Panikkar, K.K.P., Sehara, D.B.S., Sathiadas, R., Pillai V.N., and Menon,
N.G., (Eds) Socio-Economic Analysis of Marine Fisherwomen in India, Marine Fisheries
Research and Management, CMFRI, Cochin, Kerala, 2000, pp.895-906.

57
relaisation of full potential of development schemes and adoption of new

technologies.

Nirmal Chandra et al., (2009)57 in their articles remarked that the

fisherwomen of Gopalpur have a vibrant organisation called Kalinga Fish

Workers Union that fights for their rights. The women also assert their rights

through selfhelp groups (SHGs) and through participation in the Panchayat. The

girl children are now sent to school. Women in the area with the help of the local

NGOs began to protest against child marriages and child labour. They have also

fought against illegal taxes. The economic contribution of fisherwomen to their

families is quite significant. The income of the fisherwomen is mainly determined

by the amount of time allocated to collection, processing and marketing of fish.

The age, body weight, marital, maternity status and education do not significantly

influence their income. They spend bulk of their time on fishery and household

activities. There is no scope for leisure and pleasure. They are being exploited by

the middlemen and traders belonging to their own community and others. The

fisherwomen are aware of the conditions of sustainability such as diversity,

alternative sources of income, community harmony and familial equilibrium.

Their traditional ecological knowledge (tek) needs documentation, recognition and

appreciation. The natural fishery capital stock in the sea and land resources in the

57
Nirmal Chandra Sahu, Aleyamma Issac and Santosh Kumar Bali1, Economy of the
Fisherwomen in Ganjam District of Orissa: Conditions for Environmental Governance and
Sustainable Development, Fifth Biennial Conference of the Indian Society for Ecological
Economics (INSEE) on Environmental Governance, Ahmedabad, January 2009.

58
coast needs protection. The fisher people's council should be recognised as a

socio-political institution.

Jese Verebalavu1 (2009)58 in her paper even though artisanal fisherwomen

have never been educated about basic business management, they have learned a

lot about it first hand over the years by selling at the markets. They have also

gained knowledge about the importance of keeping their resources as clean and

hygienic as possible for the market. Hygiene is illustrated in the type of

preservation and packaging of their resources. Income generated from artisanal

fisherwomen, small business owners, and female employees of the two fishing

companies has a multiplier effect on their families and communities. The

contribution of women in industrial fisheries has a huge impact on the individual

fishing companies and nation as a whole. In both fishing companies, more than 50

per cent of all employees are women. A significant contribution of the income

generated by women in both artisanal and industrial fisheries goes towards their

childrens education (e.g. primary school, high school and tertiary level). This

research has noted that womens involvement in fisheries in Fiji, although under-

reported, is having a significant socioeconomic contribution towards their

households, community and nation as a whole.

2.1.3. Other Related Studies

58
Jese Verebalavu1, SPC Women in Fisheries Information Bulletin, Vol 20, November 2009,
pp.18-22.

59
 Gupta (2006)59 in this work on Challenges in sustaining and increasing

fish production to combat Hunger and poverty in Asia has concluded that while

there are amble opportunities for fish and fisheries to make a major contribution to

food and nutritional security and to contribution to the eradication of the poverty,

the number of challenges that need to be addressed, their requirements and that

political will, policy change and effective and efficient implementation. Our fight

against hunger is a long process and we need patients, endurance and great

commitment.

Namasivayam (2007)60 in his article entitled India marine Exports; An

over view, observed that the marine food export fetches several croves of foreign

exchange to our country and provides employment opportunities for people

directly and indirectly. To increase the export of marine food products to various

countries, the hurdles such as exim duties, over tax in the exports is to be taken

into consideration with immediate effect.

Ganesh Kumar et al., (2010)61, their study has been conducted with the

objective of understanding the process of innovative marketing models in the

fisheries sector and to draw lessons from the success stories to upscale and

59
Gupta, M.V., Challenges in Sustaining and Increasing Fish Production to Combat Hunger and
Poverty in Asia, Naga World Fish Center, Quarterly, INTACT Communication (Pub), Vol.29,
No.1, 2006, pp.4-17.
60
Namasivayam, N., Indian Marine Export: An Overview, Southern Economist, Bangalore,
2007, pp.41-42.
61
Ganesh Kumar, B., Ravisankarb, T., Sureshc, R., Ramachandra Bhattad , Deboral Vimalab, D.,
Kumaranb, M., Mahalakshmib, P., and Sivasakthi Devia, T., Lessons from Innovative
Institutions in the Marketing of Fish and Fishery Products in India, Agricultural Economics
Research Review, Vol. 23 (Conference Number), 2010, pp 495-504.

60
replicate in a similar socio-politico-economic scenario in other parts of the

country. It has been conducted to provide a better understanding of fish marketing

by self-help groups (SHGs), producer associations, fisheries development

corporations, fisherman cooperatives and private institutions in the southern states

of India, namely Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh with the

hypothesis that the institutional arrangements in the marketing of fish and fishery

products reduce the transaction cost and improve the market access and its

efficiency. The study has reported the primary activities of those institutions in the

efficient fish marketing, such as inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics,

marketing and sales promotion and support activities like infrastructural facilities,

technological backstopping, price information and procurement. Through these

advantages, the fishermen have been found to achieve economies of scale,

technological innovations, capacity development, linkage among activities, degree

of vertical integration, timing of market entry, product differentiation, market

access, credit access, etc. The study has suggested replication of such successful

innovative institutions in marketing the fish and fishery products through

appropriate policies and programmes. It has also suggested the promoting

institutions like SHGs, producer / fishermen associations, cooperatives, etc. and

allowing the entry of private agencies with appropriate regulatory mechanism to

improve the efficiency of fish marketing in the country.

61
 SECTION: II

2.2. RELEVANT CONCEPTS

In order to carry out the research, an understanding of the basic relevant

concepts employed is essential and thus the main concepts are discussed in this

section.

2.2.1. Fisheries

The term fishery is used in singular as well as in plural depending upon the

context. It is used synonymously with fishing industry. The term fishery also

comprises one more stocks of fish that can be traded as a unit for purposes of

conservation and management.62 Fishery is a stock or stocks of fish and the

enterprises that have the potential of exploiting them.63 Fishery is the phenomenon

of heavy catches of fish over a long or shorter period.64 Fishery resource is a

62
Younis, A.S. and Donaldson, G., Fishery Sector Policy Paper, The World Bank. Washington,
December, 1982, p.10.
63
Anderson, Lee G., The Economics of Fisheries Management, Baltimore and London: The
Johns Hopkins University Press1977, p.XV Introduction.
64
Devanesan, D.W., and Chidambaram, K., The Common Food Fishes of Madras Presidency,
Department of Industries and Commerce, Government of India, p.13.

62
renewable free source located in dynamic environment, dynamic both in the sense

of physio-chemical variations as well as in the biological senses.65

In the present study, fisheries refer to the stock, species or habitat and also

the activities relating to the exploitation of the fishery resources in Thoothukudi

district.

2.2.2. Fishing

As indicated by Lorena Aguilar fishing here means capture through the use

of fishing gear or equipment of live aquatic organisms that move with a certain

speed.

2.2.3. Fisherman

Bailey66 defines a fisherman as one using a fishing craft. John Kurien67

defines fishermen as that category of persons who earn their main source of

livelihood by actually, actively being involved in the process of catching fish

using non-mechanised means of production.

Prasad68 defines a fisherman as a person who may culture or capture fish or

process or market the same. The All India Census of Marine Fishermen Craft and

65
Banerji, S.K., 1993, Continuing Resource Survey and Development of Fishing, Proceedings of
the Symposium on Living Resource of the Seas around India, CMFRI, Cochin, 1948,
pp.137-145.
66
Bailey, C., Small-Scale Fisheries of San Miguel Bay, Philippines; Occupational Geographic
Mobility, ICLARM, Technical Report, 1982, No.10.
67
John Kurien, Socio-Economic Conditions of Traditional Fishermen, CMFRI Bulletin, 30:
1981, pp.35-53.
68
Prasad, N.S.H., Measures to Improve the Working and Living Conditions of Fishermen.
Fishing Chimes, 1985. pp.23-31.

63
Gear69 defines marine fisherman as one who is engaged in marine fishing and

associated activities.

In the present study a fisherman is refered to as a person who belongs to the

fishing community and who is engaged in fishing, fishery-related activities.70

2.2.4. Fisherwoman

Woman, to Gracy71 in a broad sense, in fisheries means woman from

fishing families or fishing communities, whose socio-economic status and well-

being are determined by the uncertanities of fishing. In a strict sense, the term

woman in fisheries is used to indicate women who are involved in fish related

activities like marketing, processing, net making, picking etc. Daniel Viswasam

Samuel72 defines fisherwoman who engages in fishing and its related activities.

Veeraputhiran73 defines a fisherwoman as an active adult female decision maker in

a fishing family. In the present study, the term fisherwoman means women who

belong to the fishing community engaged in fishing and fishing related activities

for their livelihood.

69
All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear, Marine Fisheries Information Service,
30: 1980, pp.1-30.
70
Sathiadas, R., Panikkar, K.K.P., Socio - Economic Status of Marine Fishermen along Madras
Coast, Marine Fisheries Information Service, 96: 1989, pp.1-6.
71
Gracy, M.M., Impact of Technological Advancement on Socio-Economic Conditions of
Women in Fisheries, Kerala, In Hameed, M.S., Kurup, B.M., (Eds.) Technological
Advancement in Fisheries, Publ. No.1., School of Industrial Fishing, Cochin, 1998,
pp.552-558.
72
Samuel, Daniel Viswasam, A., An Economic Analysis of Mechanised and Artisanal Fishing in
Tirunelveli District, Unpublished M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Madurai, 1986,pp.125-126.
73
Veeraputhiran, K, Training Needs of Fisherwomen, Unpublished M.Sc (Ag) Thesis. Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, 1988, p.9.

64
2.2.5. Marine Fishing Workers

A fisherman who works for wage sharing in exploiting the marine

resources like pearl, chunk, fish etc.

2.2.6. Labour

Saxena says, any work, whether manual or mental, which is taken for a

monetary consideration is called labour in economics. Fishing industry is highly

unoragnised and there is no specific prescription of working hours per labour per

day. Hence, labour is measured in terms of standard mandays of eight hours in the

present study.74

2.2.7. Productive Fishing Hours

The fishermen operating both mechanized boats and traditional crafts belive

that more fish can be caught in the dawn and in the dusk which they call

Valippupaadu, (dawn catch) and Chekkalpaadu (dusk catch). It has resulted in

the concentration of crafts in the fishing grounds during dawn and dusk.

2.2.8. Wages

The wages are paid to labour for its services. In fishing industry labour is

given a share in the value of total catch after deducting the cost of inputs like

diesel and ice.

74
Saxena, R.C., Labour Problems and Social Welfare, Jai prakash Nath & Co, Tenth Edition,
1963, p.1.

65
2.2.9. Fishing Ground

Fishing ground refers to the area in which fishing is carried on, whether the

fishes are taken at the surface or at the bottom, whether near the coast or at a

considerable distance from it.75

2.2.10. Fish Landing Centre

As per All India Census of Marine Fishermen Craft and Gear the present

study considers that the fish-landing center is a place where fishermen land their

catch.76

2.2.11. Marine Fishing Village

The All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear refer to a

marine fishing village as an assemblage of houses where marine fishermen live.77

2.2.12. Vallam Craft

Since there is no surf-beating on Thoothukudi coast, plank built boats

called vallam are used. Vallam is used for all types of fishing. It is a sailing craft

75
John George Clover and William Bouch Cornell, The Development of American Industries-
Their Economic Significance, New York; Prentice Hall, 3rd Edition, 1955, p.79.
76
All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear, Marine Fisheries Information Service,
30: 1981, pp.1-30.
77
Ibid. p.34.

66
like any other traditional craft. The general measurements of a vallam are 8 to 11

meters in length, 1.2 to 2 meters in width and 1.2 to 1.7 meters in depth.

2.2.13. Mechanized Boat

An advanced type of fishing craft of about 29-60 feet in length made of steel

usually fitted with engines for propulsion, mechanized devices for handling gear

and other operations enhancing fish catch and for fish preservation and storage,

operated normally in offshore waters. The State Government bans on fishing by

the mechanized boats with effect from April 16 to May 31 every year to encourage

breeding of fish.

2.2.14. Fibre Boat

A fishing craft of about 24 to 30 feet in length, fibre-resined plywood,

usually fitted with in-board engines or outboard motors for propulsion but without

facilities for enhancing fish catch or for preservation of fish operated in off-shore

waters.

2.2.15. Fishing Vessel

Fishing Vessel means a ship or boat fitted with mechanical means of

propulsion, which is exclusively engaged in sea fishing for profit.

2.2.16. Fishing Unit

67
 A fishing unit is one particular combination of type of craft and kind of

fishing gear, a combination which in many cases is seasonal and temporary.78

2.2.17. Small-Scale Fisheries

There is no exact operational definition of small scale fisheries. However,

they tend to have a number of features in common which include, generally a rural

location, a minimum reliance on mechanical power and heavy reliance on human

labour inputs with simple transportation, safety and production technology, a

tendency to supply marine resources for direct human consumption, a tendency to

have high post harvest from near-shore and in shore stocks with small biomasses.79

Small-scale fisheries also refer to that sector of fisheries which is labour

intensive and is conducted by artisans whose level of income, mechanical

sophistication, quantity of production, fishing range, political influences, market

outlets, employment and social security and financial dependence keep the

fishermen subservient to the economic decisions, security and financial

dependence keep the fishermen subservient to the economic decisions and

operating constraints placed upon them by those who buy their production.

2.2.18. Marine Products

78
John Kurien, Economics of Artisanal and Mechanical Fisheries in Kerala, Bay of Bengal
Program Working Paper No.34, Food and Agricultural Organisation of the U.N., 1982,
pp.4-5.
79
Poggie, John, J, Pollnac, Richard, B., Small-Scale Fishery Development, Socio-cultural
Perspectives, International Center for Marine Resource Development, The University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, 1988, pp.2-3.

68
 Marine Products include all varieties of fishery products known

commercially as shrimp, prawn, lobster, crab, fish, shell-fish, other aquatic

animals or plants or part there of and any other products which the authority may,

by notification in the Gazette of India, declare to be marine product for the

purposes of this Act.

2.2.19. Fishery Effort

Fishing effort is a measure of the number of boats, their catching power,

their spatial distribution, the time spent in fishing and the skill of crew.80

2.2.20. Coast and Coastal Area

The strip of land that lies immediately after the sea on the dry land covering

the area that is directly affected by the ocean is called coast, it includes cliffs,

lowlands (coast plains) steep marine terraces, swamps and lagoon systems.

Coastal area is that area delimited at its uppermost part by the level of high

tide and upto a depth of about 200 m.81

2.2.21. Coramental Coast

This sea coast extends from Kodiakarai of Nagapattinam district in the

south to the north of Chennai. The total length of the sea extends to 357.2 km. Surf

beaten with rocky and reefy chain is found in the coast.

80
Jagota, S.P., The Sea Around Us, Illustrated Weekly of India, Bombay, 67(51): 1976, p.13.
81
Lorena Aguilar, Itza Castaneda, About Fishermen, Fisherwomen, Oceans and Tides: A Gender
Perspective in Marine Costal Zones, 2001, p.215.

69
2.2.22. Palk Bay

This sea coast extends from Kodiakarai of Nagapattinam district in the

north to the south of Pamban in Ramanathapuram district. The total length of the

sea extends to 293.9 km. The sea is identified by sandy shallows, intermittent

muddy stretches and coral reefs.

2.2.23. Gulf of Mannar

This sea coast extends from Pamban in Ramanathapuram district in the

north to the south of Kanyakumari. The coast is characterised by sub merged

chains of coral reefs, a chain of islands and rocky patches found in depths varying

from 7 to 40 pathoms.82

2.2.24. Fishery Economics

Abderson says, Fishery economics can be defined as the study of the

optimal allocation of resources to a fishery in such a way that the value of

production is maximized.83

2.2.25. Fishery Related Activities

The CMFRI84 Points out those fisheries related, allied activities include fish

loading/unloading, transporting, trading, processing, curing, net making, repairing,

boat building, repairing or any other activity directly related with fishery.

82
Anon, Export Potential Survey of Marine Products of Tamil Nadu, Marine Products Export
Development Authority, 1984, p.19.
83
Lee G. Anderson, The Economics of Fisheries Management, Baltimore and London: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977, p.15.

70
 Sathiadas and Venkataraman85 point out that those who are engaged in

activities like fish trading, net making, repairing, curing and processing and boat

building, repairing come under this category. In the present study all shore-based

activities are considered as fishery related activities.

2.2.26. Economic Activities

According to Meherunnessa86 economic activities in the rational sense refer

to wage earning. The activities of fishermen in self-employment and wage

employment are taken as economic activities in the study.

2.2.27. Fisherman Household

Fisherman household is defined as the household in which at least one

person is engaged in active fishing or in allied occupations such as fish drying,

fish curing, fish marketing, net making or other related occupations.87

The All India census of Marine Fishermen Craft and Gear88 defines a

fisherman family as one in which at least one member is engaged in marine

84
CMFRI, Special Publication, An Evaluation of Fishermen Economy in Maharashtra and
Gujarat- A Case Study, 44: 1988, pp.1-80.
85
Sathiadas, R., Venkataraman, G., Impact of Mechanised Fishing on the Socio-Economic
Conditions of the Fishermen of Sakthikulangara - Neendakara, Kerala, Marine Fisheries
Information Service, 29: 1981, pp.1-19.
86
Maherunnessa Islam, Women Oriented Projects in Bangladesh, BOBP/REP/14, 1987.
87
Kalawar, A.G., Socio- Economic Conditions of the Coastal Rural Sector, CMFRI Bulletin, 30:
1981, pp.42 - 44.

71
fishing, related activities. A fisherman household is one wherein at least one

member of the family is engaged either in fishing or in fishing related activities.89

On the other hand, Reveendran and Varadarajan90 and Senthilathiban91 pointed out

that a fisherman household has got license for fishing in the reservoir with fishing

and allied activities as their major source of income and consists of a family with

persons living in the same house, by pooling their income and sharing the same

kitchen, for not less than one year during the reference period.

Any household wherein at least one member of the family is engaged either

in fishing or fishing related activities is considered as a fisherman household in the

present study.

2.2.28. Insurance

Insurance is defined as the most simple safeguard against risk. It provides a

substitution of a small known cost for the possibility of a larger but uncertain loss.

In the mechanized boat sector, the capital investment is high and hence insurance

has become necessary. The boats and nets in traditional sector are not insured.

The engines used in mechanized vallams are insured. Insurance does not cover the

88
All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear, Marine Fisheries Information
Service, 30: 1980, pp.1-30.
89
Sathiadas, R. Venkataraman, G., Impact of Mechanised Fishing on the Socio-Economic
Conditions of the Fishermen of Sakthikulangara - Neendakara, Kerala, Marine Fisheries
Information Service, 29: 1981, pp.1 - 19.
90
Raveendran, R., and Varadarajan, S., Marine Fisheries Information Service, T&E Series,
No.29, CMFRI, Cochin, 1981, p.42.
91
Senthilathiban, R., An Economic Analysis of Empowerment, Income and Consumption of
Fishermen Household in Tirunelveli District, Unpublished M.F.Sc Thesis, 1985, Department
of Economics, Fisheries College, Thoothukudi , p.13.

72
repair charges of the boats and nets. It gives protection only against the unforeseen

risks, like accidents.

2.2.29. Taxes and Fee

The mechanized fishing boats berthed in the fishing harbour are to pay

berthing charges every month. They also pay a licence fee every year.

2.2.30. Diesel and Oil Lubricants

The mechanized boats and motorised vallams consume diesel, oil and

lubricants in the course of the fishing operations.

2.2.31. Gross Income

It refers to the volume of output per year. Gross income is computed by

multiplying the main products and the by-products by their respective prices and

then adding the two figures. In fishing industry, gross income is derived from the

sale of different species of fish.

2.2.32. Net Income

Net income represents the remuneration for the management and is

computed by deducting all fixed and variable expenses from the gross income. In

fishing industry the net income is derived by deducting the fixed costs such as

depreciation, interest on capital and variable cost such as wages, fuel, cost of

repairs and the cost of ice from the gross income.

73
2.2.33. Exclusive Economic Zone

Under the law of the sea, an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a sea zone

over which a state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine

resources, including production of energy from water and wind[1]. It stretches from

the seaward edge of the state's territorial sea out to 200 nautical miles from its

coast. In casual usage, the term may include the territorial sea and even the

continental shelf beyond the 200-mile limit.

2.2.34. Assets and Liabilities

It refers to movable and immovable items. The movables are livestock,

radio/transistor, cycle, motor bike, car, jewels, furniture, boats, consumable

durables, and productive investment like machineries. The immovables are house,

dry land, wet land and others if any.

Liability is the excess of annual expenditure of a household include the past

debts earned by the household together with the interest charges payable by the

households.

2.2.35. Debt

Debt refers to the excess expenditure over income. It arises due to low

family income or excess of expenditure on consumption, social functions etc.

74
2.2.36. Livelihood

It refers to an occupation which enables a person to meet all the basic

necessary of life.

2.2.37. Marine Habitat

Sea is the largest habitat as it covers about 71 per cent of the surface of the

earth. The remaining 29 per cent includes fresh water and terrestrial habitats.

Unlike the fresh water and terrestrial habitat, the sea is continuous and is inhabited

by organisms everywhere.92 The sea supports a great diversity of living forms

existing in complex interactive systems; there is in fact no biotic zone.93

2.2.38. Thoothukudi North

It is commonly known as a coastal area to the North of fishing harbour of

Thoothukudi town. The villages comprises of Therespuram, Alankarathattu,

Vellapatti and Siluvaipatti.

2.2.39. Thoothukudi South

It is commonly known as a coastal area starts from fishing harbour,

Inigonagar to Barathi Nagar (Thoothukudi beach).

92
Krishnan, N.T., and Santhanakumar, G., Environmental Biology, J.J. Publications, Madurai,
1992, p.40.
93
Simmons, G, The Ecology of Natural Resources, (2nd edition), English Language Book
Society, Edward Arnold, 1981, p.206.

75
2.3 Research Gap

The researcher perused a number of research works, studies and books

already published relating to the study undertaken. The researcher gained

significant insights into the several aspects, dimensions, prospects and the labour

conditions and problems of the fishing workers at various places and stages. Still,

any one can identify a few gaps in the previous studies or past literatures with

respect to the objectives of labour conditions of fishing workers.

In the light of such research gaps, the present research study has been

designed and completed. This study tries to fill the research gaps in a modest

manner. The researcher has been optimistic that this task is well met to a very

great extent.

2.4. Summary

Thus, the past studies indicate that the fishing workers carry out a multiple

role as regards the development of the marine fisheries and the coastal economy.

However, often their economic activities are undervalued and are not adequately

and properly compensated leading to their appalling living conditions. Mostly in

certain type of jobs like fish catching and marketing the fishermen are

discriminated. This warrants a scientific analysis of the economic function of the

fishermen for the formulation of the much needed policy aiming at addressing the

plight of the fisherfolk in the coastal rural area.

76
 The above discussion of literature points out that most of the studies

pertaining to the east coast of India are carried out in and around Madras city and

therefore, the status of the fisherman in the rural region of the coast is to be

studied further. Hence, the present research studied on the labour conditions of

marine fishing workers in Thoothukudi of Tamil Nadu. The studies have also

enlightened the researcher on the concepts, data and methodology relevant to this

research.

77