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High-pass RC filter
For the circuit on the left, let us calculate the voltage gain
A = vo/vi. However as the impedance of the capacitor changes
with the frequency the gain changes with the frequency.
A() is called frequency response of the filter circuit above. As the frequency response
A() is complex, it has a magnitude and phase.
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The frequency where the output power drops to half (of the maximum output power) is
called the cut-off frequency, c. Thus, at the cut-off frequency, the output voltage gain
magnitude square will drop to half. As, in this case the maximum gain is one,
So, let us calculate the cut-off frequency c for the high-pass circuit on the previous slide.
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Low-pass RC filter
For the circuit on the left, let us calculate the voltage gain
A = vo/vi. However as the impedance of the capacitor changes
with the frequency the gain changes with the frequency.
A() is called frequency response of the filter circuit above. As the frequency response
A() is complex, it has a magnitude and phase.
The frequency where the output power drops to half (of the maximum output power) is
called the cut-off frequency, c. Thus, at the cut-off frequency, the output voltage gain
magnitude square will drop to half. As, in this case the maximum gain is one,
So, let us calculate the cut-off frequency c for the low-pass circuit on the previous slide.
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dB (Decibels)
The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio of two values of a
physical quantity, often power or intensity. One of these values is often a standard
reference value, in which case the decibel is used to express the level of the other
value relative to this reference.
So, the cut-off frequency for the scaled magnitude response is 1/ 2. Thus, in dBs:
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Frequency response of an amplifier refers to the frequency range in which the amplifier
will operate with negligible effects from capacitors and capacitance in devices.
This range of frequencies can be called the mid-range.
At frequencies above and below the midrange, capacitance and any inductance will affect
the gain of the amplifier.
At low frequencies the coupling and bypass capacitors will lower the gain.
At high frequencies stray capacitances associated with the active device will lower the
gain.
Also cascading amplifiers will limit the gain at high and low frequencies.
Bode Plot
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Cutoff Frequencies
0.5 power
0.707 voltage
-3dB
At low frequencies Coupling capacitors (Cs, CC) and Bypass capacitors (CE) will have
capacitive reactances (XC) that affect the circuit impedances.
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Coupling Capacitor - Cs
using
Coupling Capacitor - CC
using
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Bypass Capacitor - CE
using
where
The Bode plot indicates that each capacitor may have a different cutoff frequency.
It is the device that has the highest lower cutoff frequency (fL) that dominates the overall
frequency response of the amplifier.
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The Bode plot not only indicates the cutoff frequencies of the various capacitors it also
indicates the amount of attenuation (loss in gain) at these frequencies.
-dB/Decade
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-dB/Octave
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Coupling Capacitor - CG
The cutoff frequency due to CG can be calculated:
using
Coupling Capacitor - CC
The cutoff frequency due to CC can be calculated:
using
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Bypass Capacitor - CS
using
The Bode plot indicates that each capacitor may have a different cutoff frequency.
The capacitor that has the highest lower cutoff frequency (fL) is closest to the actual cutoff
frequency of the amplifier.
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Any P-N junction can develop capacitance. This was mentioned in the chapter on diodes.
It is called the Miller Capacitance. It effects the input and output circuits.
It can be calculated:
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It can be calculated:
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using
and
using
and
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Note the highest Lower Cutoff Frequency (fL) and the lowest Upper Cutoff Frequency (fH)
are closest to the actual response of the amplifier.
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using
and
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using
and
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Once the cutoff frequencies have been determined for each stage (taking into account the
shared capacitances), they can be plotted.
One way to accomplish this is to apply a square wave. A square wave consists of multiple
frequencies (by Fourier Analysis: it consists of odd harmonics).
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