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Skipping the Industrial Revolution: Moving Developing Countries Directly to Renewable Energy

via the Paris Agreement

Josephine R. K. Strauss

Prof. Gannett, Prof. Brown

LAW E 598

19 May 2016
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Global climate change is an issue that effects populations all over the world, and has the

ability to cause potentially disastrous consequences. Global warming can be attributed to

greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases, and

their increased presence in the atmosphere.1 Over the past few decades, there have been multiple

attempts made by international bodies to initiate effective policy changes to confront the issue of

climate change, and prevent irreparable harm to global ecosystems as well as human health and

well-being.

In 1989, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was put into effect in

order to reduce the production and consumption of ozone depleting substances which damage

the Earths ozone layer.2 This policy was aimed at controlling one branch of greenhouse gases in

particular; fluorinated gases, which includes hydrolfluorocarbons and have high global warming

potential.3 The flaw in this policy is that it only addressed the issue of ozone depleting

substances, and did not address the problem of increased emissions of carbon into the

atmosphere. While this policy aimed in the right direction, its limited scope on reductions in

atmospheric greenhouse gases left room for improvements.

In 1994, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was

entered into force, and currently has near-universal membership, with 197 countries that have

ratified the convention.4 The UNFCCC was an important step in confronting the issue of climate

change, as it brought together major world powers and united nearly all countries and unions in

1 Overview of Greenhouse Gases, United States Environmental Protection Agency,

https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases.html (accessed May 15, 2016).
2The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, United Nations Environmental
Program: Ozone Secretariat, http://ozone.unep.org/en/treaties-and-decisions/montreal-protocol-substances-
deplete-ozone-layer (accessed May 15, 2015).
3 Overview of Greenhouse Gases.
4 First steps to a safer future: Introducing The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/6036.php (accessed May 15, 2016).
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one discussion on climate change, and what actions needed to be taken in order to solve the

issue. As a result of its ratification two major international agreements have taken place, the first

being the Kyoto Protocol, which was adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005.5 This

agreement focused on reducing emissions, and recognized that the majority of greenhouse gases

in the atmosphere are attributable to developed nations.6 There were several issues with the

success of this agreement, one of which being that the United States and China two of the

worlds largest polluters did not participate in the goals provided in Kyoto.

The most recent global policy action under the UNFCCC, the Paris Agreement, was designed at

the COP 21 and brought all nations party to the Convention together under one agreement for the

first time.7 The Paris Agreement, unlike the Kyoto Protocol, aims to involve both developing and

developed nations in decreasing emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The Paris

Agreement assigns a tangible goal to these changes, announcing that the goal of emissions

reductions is to keep global temperature rise below 2 degrees Celsius, and eventually limit that

rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius.8 In order to accomplish this goal, Parties, under Article IV Section 1

of the Paris Agreement, must aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon

as possible, and they also must undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with best

available science.9 However, there are different requirements in terms of timelines when it

comes to peak emissions for developing and developed countries. If the requirements for

5 Kyoto Protocol, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,

http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php (accessed May 15, 2016).
6 Ibid.
7 Summary of the Paris Agreement, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
http://bigpicture.unfccc.int/#content-the-paris-agreemen (accessed May 15, 2016).
8 Ibid.
9 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Paris, France, 30 November -12 December
2015. The Paris Agreement (2015) pp. 2.
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developing nations were changed, there could be quicker movement to renewables globally

while simultaneously boosting struggling developing economies.

Article IV Section 4 of the Paris Agreement talks about different responsibilities in terms

of a countrys commitment to emissions reductions and under what timeline, stating:

Developed country Parties should continue taking the lead by undertaking economy-

wide absolute emission reduction targets. Developing country Parties should continue

enhancing mitigation efforts, and are encouraged to move over time towards economy-

wide emissions reductions or limitation targets in the light of different national

circumstances.10

The Paris Agreement, in Section 4, implies that developing nations, rather than focus on

introduction of cleaner technology, should continue on current development paths and work on

developing mitigation tactics for emissions caused by greenhouse gases. This clause should be

changed to encourage more rapid change in developing nations where infrastructure is largely

malleable in development and could be easily reallocated to apply to other forms of energy, as it

would allow them to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, create more profitable jobs for

economic expansion and provide a foundation to accelerate research into renewable energy.

As the Paris Agreement stands now, it encourages developing nations to create an energy

infrastructure that still relies on fossil fuels such as natural gas. While this seems to have been a

successful path for current developed nations, implementing such an infrastructure in

economically disadvantaged nations could be an unsuccessful endeavor and set back goals made

in the Paris Agreement. Unlike many developing nations, developed countries implement natural

gas energy policies as an alternative for coal that releases less carbon after burning. Per the

United States Clean Power Plan, natural gas is currently being implemented as a substitution

10 Ibid. 3.
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energy source to reduce usage of coal-fired plants.11 The usage of a transitional form of energy

illustrates the difficulty that larger developed nations have with moving to renewables. It would

be unrealistic to suggest to countries, like the United States, a more rapid adoption of

renewables. Due to the immense amount of infrastructure already present, and the sheer bulk of

energy produced and used, such a rapid change would be economically unfeasible. However, in

the case of developing countries, where not as much infrastructure exits and where emissions are

significantly lower, rapid advancement towards renewables could be a viable option. According

to an International Energy Agency (IEA) report, more than two-thirds of [Africas] population

does not have access to modern energy, despite the resources being available.12 This deficiency

would not necessarily be fixed through mitigation measures or further implementation of an

expansion, resource-intensive infrastructure. Moreover, there are developing nations that have

shown success in shifting from fossil fuels to nearly 100% renewables. In 2015, Costa Rica ran

on 100% renewable power for 94 consecutive days, and on a daily basis gleans 98% of its energy

from renewable sources such as hydroelectric and wind.13 There are several other countries that

are also, on the same path: Afghanistan, with its fragmented government and decentralized

control on energy utilizes renewables such as solar an abundant resource in this region in

order to provide power to the area.14 Implementation of renewable energy has many benefits, and

may even be a better option for countries that are socially or politically unstable, and unable to

maintain a large centralized energy infrastructure.

11 Clean Power Plan: Fact Sheet: Overview of the Clean Power Plan, US Environmental Protection
Agency, https://www.epa.gov/cleanpowerplan/fact-sheet-overview-clean-power-plan (accessed May 16, 2015).
12 International Energy Agency, Africa Energy Outlook: A Focus on Energy Prospects in Sub-Saharan
Africa, (Paris, France: OECD, IEA, 2014), 20.
13 Race to Renewables: Five Developing Countries Ditching Fossil Fuels, The Guardian,
http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/sep/15/five-developing-
countries-ditching-fossil-fuels-china-india-costa-rica-afghanistan-albania (accessed May 17, 2016).
14 Ibid.
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According to Americas Natural Gas Alliance, there are several key components for

implementation for natural gas infrastructure, including gathering pipelines and systems,

processing facilities, and storage sites.15 For many developing nations, this would require

extensive construction and access to funds in order to supply numerous rural communities with

proper amounts of natural gas for power and heating. This strategy would hold developing

nations back from obtaining renewable energy independence as the creation of a natural gas

infrastructure would be extremely resource depleting and be set up in a way that encourages

long-term use rather than transitional use. Sub-Saharan African countries currently suffer from

limited transmission and distribution infrastructure, and continually have issues with grid-based

supply, which often leads to high operating costs for businesses.16 In the 2014 IEA report on the

status of energy production in Africa, it is stated that on average, 4.9% of annual sales are

estimated to be lost due to electrical outages and that fuel back-up generators cost businesses

and household owners approximately $5 billion.17 This current method of energy production and

distribution does not adequately serve the Sub-Saharan population. Fossil fuel energys reliance

on a centralized system makes it difficult to manage in widespread communities that suffer from

political instability. What would better serve these nations is a more rapid approach to peak

emissions during which time renewables, such as solar and wind, can be installed, and thus rapid

reduction of emissions can take immediate effect.

Countries still in the developing phase would be ideal candidates for rapid

implementation of renewables. For instance, in Uganda, only 8% of individuals living in rural

areas have access to electricity, the majority of which comes from hydropower and could use

15 Natural Gas Infrastructure, Americans Natural Gas Alliance, http://anga.us/issues-and-policy/natural-

gas-infrastructure#.VzjlzoTyCJp (accessed May 15, 2016).
16 International Energy Agency, 25.
17 Ibid.
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significant further investment.18 This is a common problem for rural communities in developing

countries. Power grid expansion is expensive and often hard to implement in countries with

limited regulation and funding. A focus on renewables would allow nations to focus on creating

small, independent energy grids in rural areas that are powered by solar, wind, or hydroelectric

and are only dependent on the resources that are already locally available. This method would

also allow developing nations to skip the fossil fuel industrial revolution that led to such

immense amounts of pollution entering the atmosphere from developed nations. It would also

require a less invasive installation process, and miles of pipeline would not have to be

constructed, nor would storage facilities and hazardous waste disposal have to be factored in.

Additionally, by preventing the transportation of natural gas, there is less room for environmental

catastrophes to take place as a result of spills or failures in systems to operate correctly. The

benefit of avoiding these costly installations is that more funds and resources would be available

for renewable energy implementation.

Another argument for immediate implementation of renewables in developing countries is the

economic opportunity of job creation that renewable energy would bring. Unlike the fossil fuel

industry, renewable energy is significantly more labor-intensive, meaning, on average, more

jobs are created for each unit of electricity generated from renewable sources than from fossil

fuels.19 Implementation of renewable energy would allow for sustained growth rather than an

initial surge in employment, which would decrease when mechanization was implemented with

fossil fuel distribution and monitoring. In the United States in 2011, there were 75,000 full-time

18 Elizabeth Ingram, How to Choose the Right Renewable in Developing Countries. Renewable Energy
World, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2015/12/how-to-choose-the-right-renewable-in-
developing-countries.html
19 Benefits of Renewable Energy Use: Jobs and Other Economic Benefits, Union of Concerned Scientists
Science for a healthy planet and safer world, http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-
choices/renewable-energy/public-benefits-of-renewable.html#bf-toc-3 (accessed May 15, 2016).
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employees directly employed by the wind industry.20 In one analysis, it is estimated that a 25

percent renewable energy standard by 2025 would result in 202,000 new jobs in 2025.21 In

developing nations, this would open up industry options in manufacturing, project management,

and many other fields. Renewable energy requires the long-term use of large amounts of land;

however, the land could have dual purpose. For example, in the case of wind farms, the turbines

could occupy the same space as a herd of cattle or an agricultural field. This would also give

farmers an opportunity to lease the air space above their field to energy companies, or the

organizations responsible for the turbines. Furthermore, this would allow the governments of

countries to levy a property tax specifically designed for land used in energy production. This

money could then go to fund projects that benefit local communities or other government

programs that support necessary functions such as education and health care.

In addition to the Paris Agreements attention to energy development, it also addresses the

economic inequality between developed and undeveloped nations, and how that gap should be

addressed in foreign aid allocations to confront climate change. The current language states that

support shall be provided for developing country Parties for the implementation of this Article,

in accordance with Articles 9, 10, and 11, recognizing that enhanced support for developing

country Parties will allow for higher ambition their actions.22 While this addresses the need for

foreign monetary assistance in development, it suggests that assistance should be given to

mitigation and adaptation. The statement does not make any reference to renewable energy

implementation, or the implementation of a system that would direct developing nations in that

path. This is one major issue with the Paris Agreement: while the Agreement as a whole directs

nations to make significant changes in regards to emissions reductions, it does not necessarily lay

20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 The Paris Agreement, 3.
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proper groundwork for future infrastructure implementation. The Paris Agreement is a more

retroactively applicable document than a proactive one, in the sense that it focuses on

encouraging mitigation and emissions reductions rather than tangible implementation of

renewables. While for developed countries, a retroactively applicable agreement will be

extremely useful in changing their energy usage and production methods, for developing

countries it has less use. Developing nations are typically not high carbon emitters. Thus, when

referencing developing nations, the Agreement should not focus so much on mitigation

measures. Rather it should look at long-term beneficial infrastructure that will not further

exacerbate the issues created by fossil-fuel usage and greenhouse gas emissions and would lay

the ground work for a stable energy future. Through proper language regarding foreign funding

in the Paris Agreement, an influx of resources dedicated to renewable research and

implementation would allow developing nations to meet these goals.

Foreign funding to developing nations is not a novel concept. In the mid 1940s, the United

Nations adopted the Official Development Assistance (ODA), which is aimed at promoting

social progress and better standards of living in less developed countries.23 This was enhanced

further in 1961 into the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), which led to an influx flow

of nearly $3.1 trillion by 2007 into developing countries.24 The United Nations is capable of

organizing the disbursement of funds from developed nations to developing ones; the issue in the

case of renewable energy implementation would be the distribution of those funds to institutions

and organizations, which could effectively implement renewable energy projects.

23 Institute of Developing Economies, Assessing The Developmental Role of Foreign Aid in Developing
Countries: A Special Reference to The Role of Japans Aid in Far East Asia. (Japan External Trade
Organization, 2010), 1.
24 Ibid.
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Major world powers, such as the United States, currently have policies and programs in place

that deal with aid to developing nations and how those funds are disbursed. Over the past decade,

U.S. Foreign Aid has dedicated about $15 million in technical assistance for the improvement of

energy sectors in developing countries.25 In terms of categorical allocation, energy

improvements, especially renewable investments, could fall under multiple categories. For the

implementation of renewable infrastructure, it could potentially receive funding from countries

that have allocated funds for sustainability and the environment; however, renewable energy

implementation could also qualify as falling under an economic growth and financial

independence category. In one U.S. Aid project in Macedonia, $4.8 million was allocated to

improve domestic investment and the business sector.26 This is just one instance where funds can

be allocated to renewable energy installation, based on the concept that renewable energy has

multiple benefits beyond just providing clean energy. As discussed earlier, this practice can result

in numerous economic effects, and thus funding that mainly deals with businesses and

investments could be applied to the installation of renewable infrastructure. Another option for

funding is the pursuit of research grants: just as new methods of extracting natural gas like

fracking are continually appearing, new research can help increase the reliability and efficiency

of renewables such as solar and wind energy.

Advances in renewable energy have developed rapidly over the past few years, and immediate

implementation in developing countries would only increase the speed at which these

technologies are developed and improved. Creating grants for the purpose of improving

renewable technology is one major way to encourage research and help increase installation of

25 U.S. Foreign Aid, The Borgen Project, http://borgenproject.org/foreign-aid/ (accessed May 17, 2016).
26 USAID Investment Development and Export Advancement Support (IDEAS) Project, US Aid,
https://www.usaid.gov/macedonia/fact-sheets/usaid-investment-development-and-export-advancement-
support-ideas (accessed May 17, 2016).
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renewable energy infrastructure. Unlike foreign aid, this source of funding would go beyond

installation, and would work towards improving the technology being used. The Global

Environmental Facility is one such institution that provides funding for these kind of projects.

Partnering with 183 countries, multiple civil organizations, and private sector institutions to

address global environmental issues, the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) has provided

$14.5 billion in grants and an additional $75.4 billion in financing for over 4,000 projects world-

wide.27 Allocating additional grants to renewable energy research would be an invaluable

opportunity for global sustainable development and a huge step towards carbon reductions. The

purpose of the Paris Agreement is to unite the countries of the world in an effort to reduce carbon

emissions and slow down or halt warming that could have disastrous consequences, especially

for developing countries that bear an unequal burden when it comes to the consequences of

warming. Funding renewable energy research projects in these regions would benefit them in the

short run and the long run.

Immediate implementation of renewable energy in developing nations will have significant

benefits for local communities, entire nations, and the long-term health of the Earth. As

illustrated, the current lack of stable energy infrastructure in these countries allows for an easier

transition to renewable fuels while simultaneously boosting economies through job creation and

providing a foundation for massive expansion in renewable energy research. However, for this

strategy to be successful and widespread it would mean a serious revision of the Paris

Agreement. The current issue with the Paris Agreement in regards to energy in developing

nations is the lack of structure when it comes to goals with carbon peaking and rapid reduction.

27 What is the GEF, Global Environmental Facility: Investing in our Planet,

https://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef (accessed May 17, 2016).
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The Paris Agreement recognizes that aid from developed nations will be necessary in

order to assist developing nations with the process of implementing this new technology and

improving as time goes on. However, it is the goal of this aid that needs to be altered in order to

provide a foundation for effective establishment of renewable energy. As stated in Article IX

Section 4:

The provision of scaled-up financial resources should aim to achieve a balance between

adaptation and mitigation, taking into account country-driven strategies, and the priorities

and needs of developing country Parties, especially those that are particularly vulnerable

to the adverse effects of climate change and have significant capacity constraints, such as

the least developed countries and small island developing States, considering the need for

public and grant-based resources for adaptation.28

As this section illustrates, financial assistance with the ultimate goal of lowering emissions in

developing nations is built into the Paris Agreement. The manner of implementation is the factor

that needs to change. In the language as it stands, the Agreement ask for adaptation and

mitigation, and while adaptation does imply a shift to alternative fuels such as natural gas and

renewables, it would be much more beneficial to strike this verbiage and instead insert a

statement such as adaptation and implementation of renewables such as solar, hydroelectric,

geothermal, and wind. This change would urge developed nations to invest in renewable

development rather than promote the use of fossil fuels. By providing an outline for how

developed countries should direct their financial support it will make renewable development

and implementation in developing countries much more efficient and easy in the sense of

reducing arguments over allocation of resources. Another area of the Paris Agreement that needs

revision when it comes to specifying changes for renewable implementation is Article IV Section

28 The Paris Agreement, 8.

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4, which discusses specific internal actions that developed countries versus developing countries

must take in order to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement.

As earlier stated, Article IV Section 4 of the Agreement addresses responsibilities of nations in

their emissions reductions. The wording addressing the developed nations should remain as it

currently stands. Due to the sheer amount of energy consumed by large, developed countries, and

the massive infrastructure already implemented, the rapid change that is being suggested for

developing nations would be improbably and most likely unfeasible. However, the Agreement

should be altered to reflect the practicality of rapid implementation of renewable energy sources

in developing nations. The proposed change would be to replace continue enhancing

[developing Parties] mitigation efforts, and are encouraged to move over time towards economy-

wide emission reduction or limitation targets, with more specific language that would better

direct efforts at energy improvements. 29 Such language would appear in similar terms that would

satisfy the idea of allocating resources received from foreign aid to install renewable energy

primarily in areas that lack adequate energy infrastructure and then in areas that have more stable

access. This strategy would grow the economy in more poverty-stricken areas first, and increase

the quality of life of the residents occupying those areas. This strategy would also allow for the

energy infrastructure to be established and monitored at an experimental level prior to being

installed in larger, more high-risk populations where glitches would have a more profound effect.

The Paris Agreement is a landmark document for international cooperation in confronting

climate change and the effects it has on global civilization. By setting a concrete goal of not

allowing warming to exceed 2 degrees Celsius and with future aims to get below 1.5 degrees

Celsius, national powers have recognized that change needs to occur in order for drastic impacts

to be avoided. While many of the provisions stated in the Paris Agreement benefit this cause, the

29 The Paris Agreement, 3.

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case with emissions reductions in developing countries is a point to counter. While these nations

are not responsible for the majority of the emissions that are causing global changes, they are in a

unique situation where they can accelerate investment, research, and implementation of energy

sources that are non-carbon emitting. Their inherent lack of energy infrastructure and fractured

society should not be seen as a disadvantaged but rather an opportunity to improve quality of life

and economic well-being through the establishment of clean and long-lasting energy. By altering

the language in the Paris Agreement, specifically that in Article IV Section 4, which addresses

emissions reductions responsibilities of developed and developing nations, rapid implementation

can occur in these areas. By proposing aggressive installation of solar, wind, and other renewable

sources in these areas, it opens the door to large investments in research that could improve the

efficiency of these methods and make them more realistic for countries that currently support

large electric grids and millions of power users.