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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING
1
COURSE OUTLINE
compressibility
fluid
6. illustrations
2
FLUID PROPERTIES AND DEFINITIONS
INTRODUCTION
motion. Fluid statics is the study of the forces which keep fluid in static
equilibrium while fluid dynamics deals with the motion of fluid. In fluid
flow, density and viscosity are predominant properties. Fluid dynamic can
the study of fluid flows where there are no density changes. A sub
DEFINITION OF A FLUID
however small the shear stress may be. Fluids may be divided into liquids
and gases. A liquid is only slightly compressible and possess a free surface
shape of the containing vessels. On the other hand, a gas always expands
to full its container. A vapour is a gas which is near the liquid state.
3
A shear force is the component tangent to a surface and this force
divided by the area of the surface is the average shear stress over the area.
F
=
A
Fig. 1
large that conditions at their edges may be neglected. The lower plate is
fixed and a force F is applied to the upper plate, which exerts shear stress
F/A on any substances between the plates. A is the area of the upper plate.
When the force F causes the upper plate to move with a steady velocity, no
matter how small the magnitude of F, one may conclude that the
4
with a solid boundary has the same velocity, as the boundary i.e. there is
plate and the velocity is varying uniformly from zero at the station any
plate at U at the upper plate. Experiments show that other quantities being
F = AU
t
In which is the proportionality factor and includes the effect of the
particular fluid.
The ratio is the angular deformation of the fluid i.e. the rate of
express the velocity change divided by the distance over which the change
occurs.
5
However, is more general as it holds for situations in which the
angular velocity and shear stress change with y. The velocity gradient
may also be visualized as the rate at which one layer moves relative to an
is the relation between shear stress and the rate of angular deformation for
t=
a definite rate. A complete vacuum between the plates would not result in
a constant final rate but in an ever increasing rate. If sand were placed
between the two plates, dry friction would require a definite force to cause
a continuous motion. Thus sand will not satisfy the definition of a fluid.
6
plates would not result in a constant final rate but an ever-increasing rate.
If sand were placed between the two plates, dry friction would require a
finite force to cause a continuous motion. Thus sand will not satisfy the
definition of a fluid.
PROPERTIES OF FLUID
defined in two ways-in terms of mass and weight. The mass density is
weight per unit volume. Using the symbol and for density and
= 1
= 2
= g 3
The S.I. unit of kg/m3 (ML-3) and of water is 1000kg/m3 at 40C. There is
7
2. Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a fluid is the ration of its density to that of pure
3. Bulk modulus
However, there are certain cases such as unsteady flow in pipes, where
= 5
4. Viscosity
8
whereas the shear stress in a fluid is proportional to the rate of shearing
rest. Newton has shown that the force F is directly proportional to the
product of the area of the moving plate A and the velocity gradient as
i.e. or = 6
= = 7
9
small and the velocity profile can be assumed linear. If d is large and the
= 8
= 9
5. Surface Tension
suspension at a tap, a vessel to be filled with liquid slightly above the brim
and yet not spill or a needle to float on the surface of a liquid. All these are
6. Capillarity
The rise and fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension
and depends on the relative magnitude of the cohesion of the liquid and
When small glass tube is dipped into water, it will be found out that the
water rises inside the tube. The water surface in the tube or meniscus as it
the tangential contact between the water and the glass indicates that the
10
internal cohesion of the water is less than the adhesion between the water
and glass. Mercury behaves rather differently since the force of cohesion
are greater than the force of adhesion, the angle of contact is longer and
11
applied shear, stress and the rate of angular deformation. An ideal plastic
substance and has a tendency to take a set when at rest. Gases and thin
offers resistance to shear. Newtons law of viscosity states that for a given
viscous liquids, water and air have very small viscosities. The viscosity of
a gas increases with temperature, but the viscosity of liquid decreases with
depends upon its cohesion and upon its rate of transfer of molecular to
momentum. A liquid with molecules much more closely spaced than gas.
Discuss the shear characteristics of the fluids for which the curve have
12
been drawn in figure below.
(a) The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law T=p(dudy) or the
strain. Thus for these fluids the plotting of the shear stress against velocity
gradient is a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line
(b) For the "ideal" fluid, the resistance to the shearing deformation is zero,
and hence the plotting coincides with the x-axis. While in ideal fluid exist,
(c) For the Ideal fluid or elastic solid, no deformation will occur under any
loading condition, and the plotting coincides with y-axis. Real solids have
some deformation and, within the proportionality limit (Hookes law), the
(d) Non-Newtonian fluids deforms in such a way that shear stress is not
be classified as plastic.
(e). The Ideal plastic material could sustain a certain amount of shearing
DIMENSION OF VISCOSITY
From
14
viscosity to mass density
v= / =
: . = ve
The dimensions of v are L 2T-1
number. R = pV
or
R is a dimensionless quantity.
= g =kgmm2
15
Vs =
4C.
Surface tension: is the tensile force per unit length at the free surface of a
the ratio of the change of pressure in the volumetric strain caused by the
pressure change.
K =
K is expressed in N/m2.
Pressure: The normal force pushing against a plane area divided by the
16
at a series of different depths below the upper surface of the fluid, it will
Consider a column of fluid at rest, then the action and reaction forces
arises only for fluids in motion. It follows that the only force which is
supporting the column of fluid is the force acting upwards due to the
the upward force must exactly equal the weight force acting upward. The
weight of the column is pgy. Where V is the volume of the column. The
17
pgAy
The force acting upward is the product of pressure and horizontal cross-
PA. Therefore,
PA = pgAy
P = pgy
INTRODUCTION
structures are now designed and built only after extensive models studies
18
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
length, L, and time T (or mass M, length L and Time T). Applications
HYDRAULIC MODELS
model tests.
19
GEOMETRIC SIMILITUDE
/
Velocity: = = / =
/
Acceleration:
Discharge:
DYNAMIC SIMILITUDE
similar systems if the ratios of all homologous forces in the models and
prototype are the same. The following conditions required for the
20
THE INERTIAL FORCE RATIO is developed into the following form
= = =
= =
from = =
21
INERTIAL-SURFACE TENSION RA T/O (Weber number) is obtained from
= =
book will cover case where one predominant force influence the flow
forces jointly affect the flow conditions, the problem involves and is
TIME RATIOS
T =
T =
T = L
T =
22
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Express each of the following quantities (a) in terms of force, length L and
pressure of the fluid and must provide the reaction necessary for
action and reaction forces must be perpendicular to the surface of the body
body that is required rather than the pressure at any given location. To
The force F
23
on that area, due to the pressure of the liquid is
PA = F
Obviously the total force acting on the whole plane surface must be the
PA
P = gy
F = gyA
F = pgA
But y = 1Sin
Therefore
F = g1A
= gsin1A
24
The quantity
1A
of area. This integral can be evaluated for any shape and equals the
product.
Where A is the area of the plane surface and is the distance from the
F = g( sin )A
Moment = Fl = gyAl
= g (sin) Al
= g (sin) l2A
25
Quantity l2A
Fl = g(sin) l2A
g(sin) l
this is the moment about the origin. Therefore, the distance from the origin
l1 = =
I is usually evaluated by use of the parallel Axes theorem.
Buoyant Force
26
In the figure shown above, the upward force on the bottom is equal to the
ABC, indicated by the weight of the liquid within ABCEFA. The different
between the two forces is a force, vertically upward, due to the weight of
FB = V = Vg
= g
is the specific weight of fluid. The same formula holds for floating bodies
is
FB = (P2-P1) A = hA = V
FB = v V = V
27
Center of Buoyancy
To find the line of action of the buoyancy force, moments are taken about a
convenient axis of 0 and are equated to the moment of the resultant, thus
XV = x = vx
or
x = xv
in which is the distance from the line of action. This equation yields
the distance to the centroid of the volume: hence the buoyancy force acts
through the centroid of the displaced volume of the fluid. This holds for
both submerged and floating bodies. The centroid of the displaced volume
1 2
are the specific weight of the fluids Wand V1 the weight and volume of the
F1 + V1 = W
28
F2 + V2 = W
and solved
V = (F1 - F2)
(2 - 1)
W = F22 - F31
2 - 1
It has a stem of prismatic cross section (a) considering the liquid on the
when
V0 = W .................................. (i)
marked 1.00 on the stem to indicate unit specific gravity S. When the
becomes
in which V = a h
h = Vo S -1
a S
for which the stem may be marked off to read specific gravities
Buoyancy Laws
(2) A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which fluids.
(3) The buoyant force is always vertical and acts through the centroid of
29
PRINCIPLE OF FLUID FLOW
Classification of Flows
time and distance. The first major sub division is based on consideration of
time scale. A flow is steady if the parameters describing that flow do not
vary with time. This categorizes all flow as either steady or unsteady.
An unsteady flow is one that varies with time. The second flow division
varies from one point along the path. The existence of a uniform necessary
implies that the area of the cross section perpendicular to the direction of
However, the majority of flows will fall into one of the following
classifications.
(1) Steady Uniform Flow: for such a flow the discharge is constant with
time and the cross-section through which the flow passes is of constant
(2) Steady Non-Uniform Flow: the discharge is constant with time, but
tapering pipe and flow with constant discharge in a river (the cross-
(3) Unsteady Uniform Flow: the cross section through the flow is
constant, but the discharge varies with time. This is a complex flow
30
pattern. An example is that of pressure surge in a long straight pipe of
uniform diameter.
section and discharge varies with both time and distance. This is typified
other parameters may vary three directions (x.y.z). There may also be
line of the pipe. The velocity and pressure variations across the pipe are
31
ignored.
are subject to certain fundamental laws of physics. The pertinent laws are:
b) Conservation of energy
c) Conservation of momentum.
conservation of mass.
another (e.g. P.E can be transformed into K.E), but none is actually lost.
cannot gain or loose momentum unless some external force is applied, i.e.
body in the case of a fluid, to apply this law, we suppose that a flowing
within a body flowing fluid. The action is usually at a fixed size regards
the regional of he dynamics' forces cancel each other. The control volume
32
Application of the Conservation Laws to Fluid Flows
Fig. 5:
that for any control volume, the mass flow entering minus the mass flow
leaving equals the change of mass within the control volume. If is steady,
then the mass must be entering or leaving the volume at a constant rate:
Mass M = Q
Q (entering) = Q (leaving)
flow. Suppose the velocity of flow across the constant at U1 m/sec, if the
U1A1.
Similarly, if the velocity of flow leaving the volume is U2 and the area of
the streamtube at exist is A2, then Q leaving = U2A2. Therefore the continuity
33
The Energy Equation (Principle of Conservation of Energy)
The figures above shows the control volume used to develop the
work is done. Thus, if pressure packs on, area A, the corresponding force
work done equal is the product of force and distance i.e. flow work done =
PAL.
For the constant volume under consideration, the fluid entering the
The flow work done during this time is P1A1 L. The mass M, acquiring the
system is
during
H= + + = + +Z2
34
Derivations of Euler's and Bernoullis Equations
section. The forces acting in the direction of flow along the streamtube
- (P + P) A
-mgcos= PAcos
dz = dLcos
Divided by
35
and in the limit
for steady flow, velocity (u) only varies with distance (L).
Therefore
= =u
1 dp du dz
+ U + g =0
dL dL dt dL
This is known as the Leonhard Euler's equation.
For incompressible fluids integrated to yield
+ + gz = constant
or divided by g, we have
+ + z = constant
Consider the streamtube shown in Fig. 6 and apply Newton's second Law
in the form:
d (mu)
i.e. F =
dt
in a time dt
36
Momentum leaving = dQ2tu2
dQ = dQ2 = dQ
change of momentum.
dF dQt(U2 U1)
dt
dF = dQ (U2 U1)
dF = dQ (U2x U1x)
Fx = (FP =FR)
The derivation of the equation for the energy coefficient rests on the
37
hence as
12 Q = 12 QV2
and Q = AV
= 12 QV2 = 12 AV3
Thus,
Or u = u3 dA
V3 A
Momentum M = Mu = m
mu = MV
pdQu = QV
dQu.u = A.V.V
+ +Z = constant
Fx = Q (V2x V1x)
38
The values of and may be derive from the velocity distribution across
a region. They always exceed unit, but usually by only a small margin, so
+ + = + +Z2 = constant
For the friction less siphon above, determine the discharged and the
pressure heads at A and B given the pipe diameter is 200 mm and the
and B respectively
Solution:
To find the discharge, first apply Bernoulli's equation along the streamline
39
between 1 and 2.
is negligible i.e.
= 1.37 m
U22 = 2g X 1.37
U22 = 26.85
U2 = 5.18m/sec
Q = 5.18 (x 0.152)
4
Q = O.092m3/sec
To find the pressure head at A, again apply Bernoulli's equation along the
streamline from 1 to A.
40
+ + = + + ZA
= (Z + Z ) -
-2.44 -
.
UA = ( . )
= 2.93m/sec.
= 0.44m
= -2.44-0.44 = -2.86m
= -2.88m
+ + = + +Z B
Z1 - ZB = 1.22 m
41
Example:
head of 11 m and the frictional head losses are 0.7 m. If the pipe diameter
Solution
reservoir.
H1 + 11= H2 = 0.7
or
+ + = + + Z2 +
fluid.
which energy losses. Occur that cannot be evaluated directly, or when the
42
flow is unsteady. Examples of such problems include local head losses in pipes,
Example:
Calculate the force required to hold a fire house for a discharge of 5 lines
per sec if the nozzle has an inlet diameter of 75 mm and outlet diameter of 25
mm.
Solution
The force acting in the x-direction on the control volume are the pressure
Forces on a Nozzle
The sum of these forces must equal the momentum force FM. Thus
and
43
.
V1 = ( . )
=1.13m/s
V2 = 10.19 m/sec
+ += +
P1 = (V V )
= (10.19)2 (1.13)2
= 51.28KN/m2
Hence
( . )
Fp = 51.28 x 103 x
= 0.225 KN
= 0.0453KN.
44
Hence the reactive force is
FR = Fm - Fp
= 0.0453 0.226
= 0.181 KN
= -0.181KN
FR is the force exerted by the nozzle on the fluid. The fireman must of course
Example:
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the pipe bend
shown in the figure below, if the diameter is 600mm the discharge is 0.3m 2/sec
Solution:
In the case, the force exerted is due to the change of direction and x and y
.
V2 = = ( . )
= 1.06m/sec.
P2 = P1 = 30 = 294.3 KN/m2
Pressure forces
( . )
FPX = P1A1 - 0 = 294.3 X
= 83.21KN
And
Momentum forces
FMX = PQ (0 - V1)
= -0.318KN.
And
= -83.528KN
And
= 0.318 - (-83.21)
= 83.528KN
Hence
FR = ( FMX - FRY)
= ( -83.538)2 + (83.528)2
= 118.1KN
And
Tan =
= tan-1 = 450
From ve x direction
To +ve y direction
Force on T -junction
Example:
47
= 0.15m3/sec, the diameter D1 = 450 mm, D2 = 300 mm, D3 = 200 mm and the
Solution
In this case there are changes of direction and pressure and velocity. First
find the three velocities by continuity, and then apply Bernoullis equation to
Velocities
V2 = Q2 = 2. 122m1s
A2
V3 = Q3 = 4.775mls
A3
Pressure
48
+ = + = +
Pressure forces
Momentum forces
Reaction forces
Hence,
( ) ( )
=
49
= 82.43 KN
Tan =
= tan-1
Velocity Measurement
The pilot tube is used to measure velocity. At the nose of the pilot tube, the
fluid is brought to rest and the height of the fluid in the pilot tube
therefore correspond to
50
is measured separately by a second tube and hence
+ = + h
= h :. U2 = 2gh
:. U = 2gh
integrated instrument called the pilot static tube. The instrument when
tapering out to the pipe diameter at each end. In the throat section, the
made as follows:
Consider a streamline from the upstream position (1) to the throat position
(2). Then
51
+ = +
Also, by continuity
where,
Solving for V1
52
Hence
Taking
Qideal = 2gh
The actual discharge will be slightly less than this due to energy losses
major difference between the devices lies in the fact that the downstream
of the orifice late, the flow area expands instantaneously while the fluid is
turbulent eddies in which large energy losses occur. Cd for the orifice is
about 0.85. The advantage of the orifice plate is its lower cost and its
instead of a venturimenter.
53
Discharge through a Small Orifice
The figure shows a jet of water issuing from a large tank through a
small orifice. At a small distance from the tank the streamline are
Bernoulli's equation between this point and the water surface in the
tank yields.
+h = +
Or U = 2gh
54
This result is usually attributed to Torricelli. The discharge may be
Q = u.A
Qideal = A 2gh
Where A is the area of the jet. The area of the jet is small than that of the
orifice due to the convergence of the streamlines. The contraction of the jet
is called the vena contraction. Experiment have shown that the jet area A
A = CCAl = Cc.Ao
Or
55
Owing to viscous stress, of fluid, the fluid particles flow regular
layers known as laminar flow. The other type of flow known as turbulent
which each may be expected to exist, and the law which govern them.
produced by similarity of forces that is, when the force acting on a particle
in the flow are in the same ratio of magnitudes as the forces noting on a
particle at the correspondence point in the other flow. The only force
du
=
dy
Viscous force = 2 = p= I2 = 1u
56
U is the velocity of flow.
i.e.
Re =
Re = where v =
v = Kinematic viscosity
when applying this equation t pipe flow; is taken as diameter of pipe i.e. d
Re =
Or
The length and velocity U appearing I the Reynolds number are quantities
57
For flow in a circular pipe, for example, the representative length
measurement is the diameter and representative velocity is the mean
velocities are compared in the two flows the particular choices of length
and velocity do not matter. For turbulent flow the velocity considered is
the given pattern of flow and they are readily measurable. It should be
borne in mind that Reynolds number concerns only the force due to
viscosity and inertial. Inertial forces are present even when the flow as a
particle has even the slightest degree of curvature the particles must
58
form of the expression.
Or a small value of
inertia force dominates the flow while viscous force play only a small part
when Re is small in value, the viscous forces have the upper hand inertia
59
If fluid passes with steady velocity along a pipe the loss of mechanical
completely closed conduit such as a pipe, which the fluid fills entirely.
A. The mean pressure at section (1) is P, and at section (2) P + dp. The
gAdx
Where
represents the density of the fluid; we obtain for the net force on
PA - (P + dP) A - gAdxcos ) + dx
Where P represents the perimeter of the section in contact with the fluid
and is the mean shear stress at the boundary. This force is zero and
thus:
gAdxcos = 0
PA - (p+dp) A - 0 + pdx = 0
Adp = pdx
= Adp/ pdx
for a pipe of radius R
60
= =
Laminar Flow
Laminar flow may occur in many situations. Its distinguishing features are
that individual particles of fluid follow paths, which do not cross those
hand at once firmly brings back the errant one, and the orderly procession
61
The law governing laminar flow in circular pipes was studied by Enginer
The diagram above shows a cylinder of radius r, moving from let to right
cylinders bring viscosity into play, and thus there is a stress along the
Radius r is given
62
given the equation
Thus,
= +
U = 0 and r = R.
0 = R2 +
63
From the above equation, it is clear that the maximum velocity occurs at
Area i.e.
Q = x 2 dr
( )
For a length l of the pipe over which the piezometric pressure drops from
suitable, Thus:
= [ ]
Mean velocity =
65
QUESTIONS
la What is fluid?
(i) Viscosity;
=1
the drag per Kilometre length of the pipe power is required to overcome
this.
2a (i) Define the terms known as the "Buoyant Force and how would
in a fluid
66
end, which is cylindrical, and of diameter 2.794mm in diameter. How
much deeper will it float in oil of relative density of 0.780 than in alcohol
0.1778m, the diameter of the pipe and the throat of the metre are 0.1524m
and 0.0762m respectively. The coefficient of the meter is 0.97. Find the
67
where a1 ,a2, h and Q are well defined parameters.
and the throat tapping is 34.5KN/m2 and the area ratio m is 4, calculate the
6(a).Derive an expression for the Kinetic energy correction factor and for
(b) A 25mm diameter nozzle discharges 0.76m3 per minute when the
head is 60m the diameter of the jet is 22.5mm. Determine the value of the
coefficients.
7. (i) State the Hagen-Poisseuille's formula and then define the parameters
(ii) An oil of viscosity 8 poises and specific gravity 0.9 flows through a
pipe is 2000KN/m2
68
Determine
8. Show from the first principle that the steady discharge of a viscous
69