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RECIPROCATING & SCREW COMPRESSORS
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THE NEED FOR CONCRETE COOLING
C.J.HEWETSON 22/11/04
The recommendations to reduce placement temperature are a) to precool the concrete mixture using flake ice at
-8C and chilled water at 0.5C to pre cool the aggregate sand cement and b) for large mass concrete
constructions like dams to use post placement chilled water circulation to slow the rate of exothermic heat
generation and to ensure the curing rate is controlled over time to provide the design concrete compressive and
flexural strength.
The main problem with concrete mixed, placed and cured at high temperatures is it develops higher early strengths
than concretes produced and cured at lower temperatures, but at 28 days or later, strengths are generally lower as
per figure 1.
compressive strength versus temperature
7000
Compressive strength PSI
6000 6000
5800
5450
5000
4800
4200
4000
compressive strength PSI
compressive strength at 1 day
3000
2250
2000 2000
1500
1000 1000
400
0
10 20 30 40 50
Temperature C
Additionally plastic shrinkage cracking is a major problem with hot weather concrete placement, whenever the rate
of evaporation of the mix water is greater than the rate at which the water can rise or bleed to the surface. High
winds, high air temperatures combined with low humidity, cause rapid evaporation which increase the likelihood of
plastic shrinkage cracking occurring. Plastic shrinkage cracks are virtually impossible to close. Precautions to
avoid plastic shrinkage cracking during hot weather placement when the rate of evaporation approaches
0.98kg/M2/hr, consist of dampening sub-grade and forms, placing concrete at the lowest possible temperature,
erecting wind breaks and sunshades, fog spraying with potable water.
Higher cement temperatures effect the rate at which the cement hydrates in the mix, the rate of stiffening and water
content.
Generally the concrete placement temperature for heavy construction where the exothermic heat of hydration is
greatest should be < 18C or lower. If the contractor or consultant specifies a given maximum placement
temperature, which is the temperature in the forms, then the concrete mix must be batched at a lower temperature
still, say 2-3C to allow for the temperature rise from the batching plant, transport to the site and the forms as well
as the hydration heat arising during transport and placement.
However as can be seen from figure 2 it is impossible to achieve a temperature of <18C purely by the addition of
chilled water at 0.5C plus flake ice at -5C as the weight is approximately only 50% of the cement, 3
< 9% of the aggregate & pozzolon's per M3. Too, the water requirement of a concrete mix increases with higher
mix temperatures, as the water content effects the concrete strength, its durability and cured permeability, it is
important to reduce the amount of water in the mix, another reason why cooling cannot be satisfactorily achieved
using chilled water alone or with flake ice.
Admixtures meeting ASTM specifications may be beneficial in offsetting some of the undesirable effects of
concrete placement during hot weather to obtain a uniform setting time regardless of temperature changes. Water
reducing retarders will reduce the chilled water requirement and may also increase the compressive and flexural
strength of the concrete.
For larger plants chilled water spray cooling of the aggregate and sand, either in purpose designed insulated storage
silos or conveying elevator (from storage silo to batching tower) provides the most economical solution. However
with chilled water spray cooling of sand and aggregate, the higher water or moisture content of the sand and
aggregate needs to be taken into account, by sample trial analysis, and the concrete mix chilled water flake ice
quantity adjusted accordingly. Mix formulaes are generally specified in terms of dry weight of each ingredient.
Therefore it is necessary to know the approximate amount of surface or retained water of the various grades of
aggregate and sand used. It is common practice to assume that the uncooled aggregates contain approximately 2-
5% surface moisture and the sand contains 5-10% surface moisture depending on storage methods and ambient
temperature.
The cement also should be pre-cooled as it constitutes up to 20% of the mix, for small plants where the cement is
bagged, the cement should be kept in an air conditioned warehouse, for larger plants where the cement is stored in
vertical silos, the silos should be insulated double skinned type and air conditioned. The cement should not be
introduced into the batcher higher than 25C.
For chilled air cooling, a packaged stand alone air chiller is located adjacent to the storage silos, chilled air at
around 0-5C is ducted into the underside of the storage bins or silos above the stone gates or so called fill valves,
blows up through the aggregate and is collected at the top of the bins and returned through a common return air
duct to the air cooling system. The storage silo should therefore be airtight and provided with a roof with hinged
gates for filling the silo with the various aggregates, the sides and top would need to be insulated. For multi
compartment aggregate silos storing the full range of aggregate from say 6" to 3/4, individual air ducts can supply
chilled air in to the individual compartments, ducts would be sized for a minimum velocity of 20m/s, the ducts can
be galvanized spiral lock formed circular form. Where the aggregate is not prewashed to remove dust, a spray
washer can be incorporated into the system to remove the dust.
Assuming the aggregate moisture content amounts to 2% and is precooled, the amount of flake ice required at -8C
would be approximately 22kg/m3 and the weight of chilled water at 0.5C would be approximately 18kg/m3.
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FIGURE 2
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CONTAINERIZED FLAKE ICE PRODUCTION AND DELIVERY PLANT
The ice storage silo is specially modified from new double 40' ISO high cube containers to provide storage capacity of
30 70 tonne of flake ice. It is stiffened and reinforced to accept the dead & live weights of the equipment and ice as
well as the plant room above. All necessary structural steel galvanized or painted support steelwork is supplied for field
erection. The ice store is supplied fully painted, with separate low temperature air cooling system, automatic ice rake,
lighting and insulation.
It is equipped with specially-designed internal double thermal layers, which ensures cold air circulation around the
flake ice to maintain dry flake ice at -8C regardless of the ice store volume. In this way, the ice flakes can remain dry
and reduces the problem of rat holing and bridging and we can guarantee that no problems will appear when ice flakes
are raked from the ice storage container into the discharge screw auger and into the electronic weighing system and
from the weigher into the flake ice delivery screw or pneumatic flake blower rotary valve.
Container supporting steelwork & access ladders are supplied in CKD for site installation. The steelwork
and ladders can be painted or galvanized.
The ice rake always raises to its maximum height to ensure it does not become embedded in the ice.
The internal structural steel and rake are hot dipped galvanized after manufacture or stainless steel
(optional).
Ice height & ice production is automatically controlled via a maximum level sensor at the top of the ice bin.
The Snowkey ice drum is insulated with 100mm Polyurethane foam injected under polished Aluminium or
Stainless steel sheet cover. The drum is stationary and the ice scraper blade or auger plus water spray jets rotate
around the inside of the drum. There are no seals or potential leaks as with systems where the drum rotates around
a stationary blade.
The flake ice thickness is adjusted by changing the speed of the rotating ice blade or auger, the slower the rotation
the thicker the ice. The ice drum surface area is 1750M2/tonne which is far higher than competitor ice drums and
therefore provides superior efficiency. The flake ice is delivered to the ice storage container completely dry at -8C,
there is no surplus water thanks to the superior design of the drum which catches unfrozen spray water in a trough
at the bottom of the drum and returns it to the circulating tank. The ice drum is completely packaged and factory
tested, complete with water pump & distribution system, drive motors, connecting hoses, insulation, refrigerant
controls and safety controls.
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SCREW ICE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
Screw auger ice delivery systems perform better for short-distances between the weighing system and the
concrete batching plant and is more economic.
Screw auger ice delivery systems can perform vertically and horizontally upto an angle of repose of 30.
Screw augersice can deliver the flake ice to two or more target hoppers.
The length of ice delivery screw auger can be upto 25 meters.
Screw auger ice delivery units are the most effective for vertical and horizontal delivery.
The pneumatic blowing system is ideal for transporting ice flakes over long distances. The blowing system is
installed into its own 20 or 40' ISO container which is airconditioned with a separate R134a or R404a
airconditioning system. The container is fitted out with Aluminium chequer plate floor, lights, air intake louvers
and filters and air extract louvers with necessary sand traps. The pneumatic system incorporates all necessary
automatic controls including air lock rotary valve feeder, discharge line air cooler to reduce the blower discharge
temperature. If ice flakes need delivering to several concrete batchers, then the blowing unit is the most ideal
choice. Automatic diverting valves can be provided to accomplish this or alternatively separate blowers can be
supplied for each batcher. The system is delivered complete with all necessary 4" or 6" HPDE piping and bends
which transports ice flakes pneumatically from the ice store weigher to a cyclone feeder above the mixer or to a
small ice storage bin over the concrete batcher to remove air. The discharge line air cooler ensures the ice is
delivered without excessive heat pick up or ice melting so the ice flakes are delivered to the batcher dry. The
maximum weight of ice delivery for our systems is 30 tonne/hr.
MAXIMUM HORIZONTAL
DELIVERY
HDPE PIPE DIA
DELIVERY DISTANCE (MTRS)
MODEL CAPACITY
(mm)
TONNE/HR
AID-6 6 200 100
AID-10 10 200 100
AID-12 12 200 100
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AID-15 15 180 125
AID-18 18 160 125
AID-20 20 160 180
AID-25 25 150 180
AID-30 30 150 180
IN ORDER TO PROCESS YOUR ENQUIRY PLEASE PHOTOCOPY THIS PAGE, COMPLETE ALL DATA IN THE QUESTIONAIRE AND RETURN
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FALLING FILM & FLOODED WATER CHILLERS
Falling film water chillers are installed with a separate refrigeration plant, independent of the flake ice system. The
systems are packaged or site installed including industrial refrigeration reciprocating or screw compressors,
evaporative condensers, HP liquid receiver. The chillers can provide chilled water from 0.5 to 2C, the water is
chilled by flowing over a number of stainless steel plates and collected in an insulated tank underneath. The
stainless steel plates are fully flooded with either R22/R717 or R404A refrigerant. The plates can if required
operate with a thin film of ice unlike conventional shell & tube evaporators.
Alternatively ice bank chilled water systems should be considered, comprising similar plates as above but installed
in an insulated tank and immersed in the water to be cooled. The ice bank can be operated overnight to build up ice
on the plates, which then provides the means of chilling the water required for the following day. Systems from
40000 to 40000ltrs are available.
PAC industrial factory packaged chillers use either industrial reciprocating compressors or screw compressors. The
chillers operate on a flooded Thermosyphon principle using R717/R22/R404A/R134a, the package is complete
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with plate heat exchanger evaporators + LP liquid accumulator, plate heat exchanger water cooled condenser,
starter and control panel, structural steel base frame and all necessary safety and operational controls and stop
valves.
TYPICAL 50 TONNE ICE STORE AND DUAL PNEUMATIC ICE DELIVERY SYSTEM
FIGURE 3
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Containerized Modular Concrete Cooling Systems
1. The system is designed on the basis of modules, which can be added or reduced according to actual use
2. The product is containerized for cost effective and quick installation on site.
3. The equipment can easily be relocated to different plants around the Kingdom
4. The refrigeration systems use environmentally and efficient refrigerants such as R717
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5. Designs are optimized to provide the highest efficiency for the lowest cost.
7. Intelligent design and all-automatic electrically controlled system.
Even under the most severe climatic conditions in Saudi Arabia, it is possible to cool water from an average supply
temperature of 40C down to as low as 32C depending on the local Wet bulb temperature, using an evaporative
condenser without the use of a refrigeration system. This reduces the water chiller load and improves the system
overall efficiency of the system.
Using a Plate exchanger operating on direct expansion, further water cooling from 35C to 10C is possible taking
the refrigeration load as a side load when the system utilizes screw compressors. This cooling is virtually free as
the compressor shaft power only increases by some 1.5-2% when the load is taken as a side load.
When reciprocating compressors are used, a separate independent falling film type exchanger or PHE water chiller
can be used which can reduce the water temperature to 0.5 and 2C respectively. The falling film system consists of
a stainless steel water tank in which a stainless steel plate extended surface exchangers is installed.
The plate heat exchanger surface builds up a thin film of ice over which the water is circulated.
PHE water chillers boast high efficiency and adopt 3 or 4-stage cooling.
The twin helical screw compressor is an industrial heavy duty compressor with stepless capacity control and
variable volume ratio control. Screw compressors are more liquid refrigerant tolerant than reciprocating
compressors (but contrary to popular belief are not liquid tolerant in terms of rotor and bearing wear) and provide
extended operating life and mean time between failures. Screw compressors exert fewer shaking, inertial, torsional
moments providing good dynamic balance and low vibration, stable in operation, have a small footprint. Drive may
be electric or gas or diesel engine drive.
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