RTI - Rev.2010 (NDT2A 2B Course Notes)

Radiographic Interpretation
Preparation Course Radiographic Theory
NDT2A/2B
Training & Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK
Copyright TWI Ltd
Rev 1 January 2010
Contents
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
Radiographic Interpretation
Preparation Course Radiographic Theory
NDT2A/2B
Contents
Section Subject
Preliminary pages
Standards and Associated Reading
COSHH, H&S, Cautions and Warnings
Introduction to NDT Methods
Certification Schemes
1 Properties of Penetrating Radiation
2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 Simple Atomic Theory
4 Ionising Radiation
5 X-rays or Bremsstrahlung
5.1 X-ray equipment
6 Gamma Rays
6.1 Alpha and beta emission
6.2 Sealed sources
6.3 Penetrating power of gamma radiation
6.4 Quantity of gamma radiation
6.5 Radioactive isotope containers for industrial radiography
6.6 Comparison of X- and gamma rays
7 Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image

7.1 Radiographic film
8 Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography)

8.1 Radiographic quality
8.2 Radiation scattering and scatter control
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9 Sensitivity
9.1 Radiographic sensitivity
9.2 Controlling radiographic quality
9.3 BS EN 462-1 wire type IQIs
9.4 Other wire type IQIs
9.5 BS EN 462-2 step-hole type IQIs
9.6 ASTM E 1025 plaque type penetrameters
9.7 IQI sensitivity
10 Radiographic Techniques (for welds in plate and pipe)

10.1 Classification of radiographic techniques
10.2 IQI type and placement
10.3 Location markers
10.4 Identification of radiographs
10.5 Radiation energy
10.6 Source to film distance
10.7 SWSI techniques
10.8 Double wall single image
11 Interpretation of Radiographs
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Viewing conditions
11.3 Reporting
11.4 Film quality
11.5 Interpretation of radiographic images
11.6 Artefacts
11.7 Interpretation of weld radiographs
11.8 Interpretation of casting radiographs
12 Localisation
12.1 90 method
12.2 Tube (source) shift method
12.3 Tube (source) shift method with lead markers
13 Units Used in Radiography

13.1 Ionisation (exposure)
13.2 Absorbed dose
13.3 Man mammal equivalent or radiobiological equivalent
13.4 Dose rate
13.5 Source strength or activity
13.6 Specific activity
13.7 Output
14 Radiation Monitoring Devices

14.1 Survey meters
14.2 Personal monitors
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15 Radiation Safety
15.1 Precautions
15.2 Exposure limits for radiation workers
15.3 Permitted levels
15.4 Safe working distances
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Prelims
Standards and Associated Reading

BS EN ISO 1330-1 Non Destructive Testing Terminology
Part 1: List of general terms

Part 2: Terms common to NDT methods

Part 3: Terms used in industrial radiographic testing
BS EN 444 Non-destructive testing General principles for radiographic

examination of metallic materials by X- and gamma-rays
BS EN 462-1 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

Part 1: Image quality indicators (wire type) Determination of
image quality value

Part 2: Image quality indicators (step/hole type)
Determination of image quality value

Part 3. Image quality classes for ferrous metals

Part 4: Experimental evaluation of image quality values and
image quality tables

Part 5. Image quality indicators (duplex wire type),
determination of image unsharpness value
BS EN 584-1 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

Part 1: Classification of film systems for industrial radiography
BS EN 584-2 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

Part 2. Control of film processing by means of reference values
BS EN 1435 Non-destructive testing of welds Radiographic testing of

welded joints
BS EN 4094-1 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

Part 1: Shielding from gamma radiation
BS EN 4094-2 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

Part 2: Shielding from X radiation
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BS EN 12517-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 1: Evaluation of welded

joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys by radiography
Acceptance levels
BS EN 12517-2 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 2: Evaluation of welded
joints in aluminium and its alloys by radiography Acceptance
levels
BS EN 12681 Founding Radiographic examination
BS EN 25580 Minimum requirements for industrial radiographic illuminators

for non-destructive testing
BS M 34 Method of preparation and use of radiographic techniques
BS M 38 Guide to compilation of instructions and reports for the in-

service non-destructive testing of aerospace products
BS EN 473 Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of NDT

personnel. General principles
BS EN 4719 Aerospace series. Qualification and approval of personnel for

non-destructive testing
ISO 9712 Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of

personnel
Associated Reading
NDT Ed.org Introduction to radiographic testing

http://www.ndt-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/cc_rad_index.htm
Mathematics and Formulae in NDT. Edited by Dr. R Halmshaw.

Obtainable from the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing
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Prelims
COSHH, H&S, Caution and Warnings Relevant to TWI Training & Examination
Services
Introduction
The use of chemicals in NDT is regulated by law under the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2005. These regulations require the
School to assess and control the risk of health damage from every kind of substance
used in training. Students are also required by the law to co-operate with the
Schools risk management efforts and to comply with the control measures adopted.
Hazard data sheets

The School holds Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets for every substance in use.
Copies are readily available for students to read before using any product. The Data
Sheets contain information on:
The trade name of the product; eg Magnaglo, Ardrox, etc.

Hazardous ingredients of the products.
The effect of those ingredients on peoples health.
The hazard category of the substance; eg irritant, harmful, corrosive or toxic, etc.
Special precautions for use; eg the correct Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
to wear.
Instructions for First Aid.
Advice on disposal.
EH40 Occupational exposure limits
What is exposure?
Exposure to a substance is uptake into the body. The exposure routes are by:
Breathing fume, dust, gas or mist.

Skin contact.
Injection into the skin.
Swallowing.
Many thousands of substances are used at work but only about 500 substances
have Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs). Until 2005 it had been normal for HSE to
publish a new edition of EH40, or at least an amendment, each year. However with
increasing use of the website facilities the HSE no longer always publishes a revised
hardcopy edition, or amendment.
The web based list which became applicable from 1st October 2007 can now be
found at http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/table1.pdf
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Introduction to Non Destructive Testing

Non destructive testing (NDT) is the ability to examine a material (usually for
discontinuities) without degrading it as opposed to destructive testing which renders
the product virtually useless after testing.
Other advantages of NDT over destructive testing are that every item can be
examined with no adverse consequences, materials can be examined for conditions
internally and at the surface and most importantly parts can be examined whilst in
service making a good balance between cost effectiveness and quality control1.
NDT is used in almost every industry with the majority of applications coming from
the aerospace, power generation, automotive, rail, petrochemical and pipeline
markets, safety being the main priority of these industries. When properly applied,
NDT saves money, time, materials and lives. NDT as it is known today has been
developing since around the 1920s with the methods used today taking shape later
with vast technological advancements being made during the Second World War.
The five principal methods, other than visual inspection, are:
Penetrant testing
Magnetic particle inspection
Eddy current testing
Ultrasonic testing
Radiography
In all NDT methods interpretation of results is critical. Much depends on the skill and
experience of the technician, although properly formulated test techniques and
procedures will improve accuracy and consistency.
Visual Testing (VT)

With sufficient light and access, visual techniques provide simple, rapid methods of
testing whilst also being the least expensive. Visual testing begins with the eye,
however, the first boroscopes used a hollow tube and a mirror with a small lamp at
the end to investigate the bores of rifles and cannon for problems and discontinuities.
In the 1950s, the lamps were replaced by glass fibre bundles which were used to
transmit the light. These became known as fibrescopes which were also less rigid,
increasing the capabilities of testing. With usage expanding, many users began to
suffer from eye fatigue which led to the development of video technology. This was
first used in the 1970s and relies on electronics to transmit the images rather than
fibreoptics.
Further enhancements to video technology include pan, tilt and zoom lenses,
mounting cameras to platforms and wheels, all allowing more parts to be tested and
better images for improved inspection. Video devices also allow recording of
inspections to be taken meaning permanent records can be kept. This has a number
of advantages such as enabling other inspectors to observe the test as it was
performed and allowing further review and evaluation.
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Penetrant Testing
Penetrant testing locates surface-breaking discontinuities by covering the item with a
penetrating liquid, which is drawn into the discontinuity by capillary action. After
removal of excess penetrant the indication is made visible by application of a
developer. Colour contrast or fluorescent systems may be used.
Advantages Disadvantages
Applicable to non-ferromagnetics Only detects defects open to the surface
Able to test large parts with a portable kit Careful surface preparation required
Batch testing Not applicable to porous materials
Applicable to small parts with complex Temperature dependant
geometry
Simple, cheap, easy to interpret Cannot retest indefinitely
Sensitivity Compatibility of chemicals
History of penetrant testing

A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on
glazed pottery, whereby the carbon black would settle in surface cracks rendering
them visible. Later, it became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and
steel components by the oil and whiting method. In this method, heavy oil, commonly
available in railway workshops, was diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that
locomotive parts such as wheels could be submerged. After removal and careful
cleaning, the surface was then coated with a fine suspension of chalk in alcohol so
that a white surface layer was formed once the alcohol had evaporated. The object
was then vibrated by being struck with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any
surface cracks to seep out and stain the white coating. This method was in use from
the latter part of the 19th century to approximately 1940, when the magnetic particle
method was introduced and found to be more sensitive for ferromagnetic iron and
steels.
A different (though related) method was introduced in

the 1940s. The surface under examination was coated
with a lacquer, and after drying, the sample was
caused to vibrate by the tap of a hammer. The
vibration causes the brittle lacquer layer to crack
generally around surface defects. The brittle lacquer
(stress coat) has been used primarily to show the
distribution of stresses in a part and not for finding
defects.
Many of these early developments were carried out by

Magnaflux in Chicago, IL, USA in association with
Switzer Bros, Cleveland, OH, USA. More effective penetrating oils containing highly
visible (usually red) dyes were developed by Magnaflux to enhance flaw detection
capability. This method, known as the visible or colour contrast dye penetrant
method, is still used quite extensively today. In the 1940s, Magnaflux introduced the
Zyglo system of penetrant inspection where fluorescent dyes were added to the
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liquid penetrant. These dyes would then fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light
(sometimes referred to as black light) rendering indications from cracks and other
surface flaws more readily visible to inspectors. UV lights have become increasingly
portable with hand held UV torches now readily available.
Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is used to locate surface and slightly sub-surface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials by introducing a magnetic flux into the
material.
Will detect some sub-surface defects Ferromagnetic materials only
Rapid and simple to understand Requirement to test in two directions
Pre-cleaning not as critical as with dye penetrant Demagnetisation may be required
inspection (DPI)
Will work through thin coatings Odd shaped parts difficult to test
Cheap rugged equipment Not suited to batch testing
Direct test method Can damage the component under test
History of magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

The origins of MPI can be traced to the 1860s when cannon barrels were tested for
defects by first magnetising the barrel and then running a compass down the length
of the barrel. By monitoring the needle of the compass, defects within the barrel
could be detected.
This form of NDT became much more common post First World War, in the 1920s,
when William Hoke discovered that flaws in magnetised materials created distortions
in the magnetic field. When a fine ferromagnetic powder was applied to the parts, it
was observed that they built up around the defects providing a visible indication.
Magnetic particle inspection superseded the oil and chalk method in the 1930s as it
proved far more sensitive to surface breaking flaws. Today it is still preferred to the
penetrant method on ferromagnetic material and much of the equipment being used
then, is very similar to today, with the only advances coming in the form of
fluorescent coating to increase the visibility of indications and more portable devices
being used. In the early days battery packs and direct current were the norm and it
was some years before alternating current proved acceptable.
Magnetism
The phenomenon called magnetism is said to have been discovered in the ancient
Greek city of Magnesia, where naturally occurring magnets were found to attract
iron.
The use of magnets in navigation goes back to Viking times or maybe earlier, where
it was found that rods of magnetised material, when freely suspended, would always
point in a north-south direction. The end of the rod which pointed towards the North
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Pole star became known as the North Pole and consequently the other end became
the South Pole.
Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) discovered the connection between electricity

and magnetism, to be followed by Michael Faraday (1791-1867) whose experiments
revealed that magnetic and electrical energy could be interchanged.
Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is based on inducing electrical currents in the material being
inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the material.
Eddy currents are generated by coils in the test probe and monitored simultaneously
by measuring the coils' electrical impedance. As it is an electromagnetic induction
process, direct electrical contact with the sample is not required; however, the
material must be an electrical conductor.
Sensitive to surface defects Very susceptible to permeability changes
Can detect through several layers Only on conductive materials
Can detect through surface coatings Will not detect defects parallel to surface
Accurate conductivity measurements Not suitable for large areas and/or complex
geometries
Can be automated Signal interpretation required
Little pre-cleaning required No permanent record (unless automated)
Portability
History of eddy current testing

The principles of eddy currents arose in 1831 with Faradays discovery of
electromagnetic induction; eddy current testing methods have their origins in a
period just after the First World War, when materials with a high magnetic
permeability were being developed for electrical power transformer cores and motor
armatures. Eddy currents are a considerable nuisance in electrical engineering
they dissipate heat and efforts to reduce their effect led to a discovery that they could
be used to detect material changes and cracks in magnetic materials. The first eddy
current testing devices for NDT were by Hughes in 1879 who used the principles of
eddy currents to conduct metallurgical sorting tests and the stray flux tube and bar
tester.
It was left to Dr. Friedrich Frster in the late 1940s to develop the modern day eddy
current testing equipment and formulate the theories which govern their use.
Since then, eddy current methods have developed into a wide range of uses and are
recognised as being the forerunner of NDT techniques today. From the mid 1980s
the microprocessor based eddy current testing instruments were developed which
had many advantages for inspectors. Modern electronics have made instruments
more user friendly, providing reduced noise levels which made certain test
applications very difficult, but also improving methods of signal presentation and
recording capabilities.
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Microcomputer chips abound, from giving lift-off suppression in simple crack

detection to providing signal processing for immediate analysis of condenser tube
inspection. As with other testing methods, improvements to the equipment have
been made to increase its portability and computer-based systems now allow easy
data manipulation and signal processing. Eddy current testing is now a widely used
and understood inspection method for flaw detection as well as for thickness and
conductivity measurements.
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing measures the time for high frequency (0.5 50MHz) pulses of
ultrasound to travel through the inspection material. If a discontinuity is present, the
ultrasound will return to the probe in a time period other than would be expected of a
fault free specimen.
Sensitive to cracks at various orientations No permanent record (unless automated)
Portability Not easily applied to complex geometries and
rough surfaces.
Safety Unsuited to coarse grained materials
Able to penetrate thick sections Reliant upon defect orientation
Measures depth and through-wall extent
History of ultrasonic testing (UT)

In Medieval times craftsmen casting bells for churches were aware that a properly
cast bell rang true when struck and that a bell with flaws would give out a false note.
This principle was used by wheel-tappers inspecting rolling stock on the railways,
they struck wheels with a hammer and listened to the note given out. A loose tyre
sounded wrong.
The origin of modern ultrasonic testing (UT) is the discovery by the Curie brothers in
1880 that quartz crystals cut in a certain way produce an electric potential when
subjected to pressure - the piezo-electric effect, from the Greek piedzein, to press or
strike. In 1881 Lippman theorised that the effect might work in reverse, and that
quartz crystals might change shape if an electric current was applied to them. He
found this was so and experimented further. Crystals of quartz vibrate when
alternating currents are applied to them. Crystal microphones in a modern stereo rely
on this principle.
When the Titanic sank in 1912, the Admiralty tried to find a way of locating icebergs
by sending out sound waves and listening for an echo. They experimented further
with sound to detect submarines during the First World War. Between the wars,
marine echo sounding was developed and in the Second World War ASDIC (Anti-
Submarine Detection Investigation Committee) was extensively used in the Battle of
the Atlantic against the U-boats.
In 1929 a Russian physicist, Sokolov, experimented with through transmission

techniques of passing vibrations through metals to find flaws; this work was taken up
by the Germans. In the 1930s the cathode ray tube was developed and miniaturised
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in the Second World War to fit small airborne radar sets into aircraft. It made the UT
set as we know it possible. Around 1931 Mulhauser obtained a patent for a system
using two probes to detect flaws in solids and following this Firestone (1940) and
Simons (1945) developed pulsed UT using a pulse-echo technique.
In the years after the Second World War researchers in Japan began to experiment
on the use of ultrasound for medical diagnostic purposes. Working largely in isolation
until the 1950s, the Japanese developed techniques for the detection of gallstones,
breast masses, and tumours. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler
ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as
blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.
The first flaw detector was made by Sproule in 1942 while he was working for the
Scottish firm Kelvin & Hughes. Similar work was carried out by Firestone in the USA
and by German physicists. Sproule went on to develop the shear-wave probe.
Initially UT was limited to testing aircraft, but in the 1950s it was extensively used in
the building of power stations in Britain for examining thick steel components safely
and cheaply. UT was found to have several advantages over radiography in heavy
industrial applications:
It did not have health hazard associated with radiography, and a UT technician
could work next to welders and other employees without endangering them of
holding up work.
It was efficient in detecting toe cracks in boilers a major cause of explosions
and lack of fusion in boiler tubes.
It could find planar defects, like laminations, which were sometimes missed by
radiography.
A UT check on a thick component took no more time than a similar check on a
thin component as opposed to long exposure times in radiography.
Over the next 20 years, improvements focused on accurate detection and sizing of
the flaws with limited success, until 1977 when Silk first discovered an accurate
measurement and display of the top and bottom edges of a discontinuity with the
Time of Flight technique (TOFD). Advances in computing technology have now
expanded the use of TOFD as real time analyses of results are now available.
It was also during the 1970s that industries focused on reducing the size and weight
of Ultrasonic flaw detectors and making them more portable. This was achieved by
using semi-conductor technology and during the 1990s microchips were introduced
into the devices to allow calibration parameters and signal traces to be stored. LCD
display panels and digital technology have also contributed to reducing the size and
weight of Ultrasonic flaw detectors. With the development of Ultrasonic Phased Array
and increased computing power, the future for Ultrasonic inspection is very exciting.
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Radiography
Radiography monitors the varying transmission of ionising radiation through a
material with the aid of photographic film or fluorescent screens to detect changes in
density and thickness. It will locate internal and surface-breaking defects.
Gives a permanent record, the radiograph Radiation health hazard
Detects internal flaws Can be sensitive to defect orientation and so can
miss planar flaws
Detects volumetric flaws readily Limited ability to detect fine cracks
Can be used on most materials Access is required to both sides of the object
Can check for correct assembly Skilled radiographic interpretation is required
Gives a direct image of flaws Relatively slow method of inspection
Fluoroscopy can give real time imaging High capital cost
High running cost
History of radiographic testing

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen (1845-1923) who was a Professor at
Wrzburg University in Germany. Whilst doing some
experiments in which he passed an electric current
through Crookes tubes, an evacuated glass tube with
an anode and a cathode. When a high voltage was
applied, the tube produced a fluorescent glow.
Roentgen noticed that some nearby photographic
plates became fogged. This caused Roentgen to
conclude that a new type of ray was being emitted
from the tube. He believed that unknown rays were
passing from the tube and through the plates. He
found that the new ray could pass through most
substances casting shadows of solid objects.
Roentgen also discovered that the ray could pass
through the tissue of humans, but not bones and
metal objects. One of Roentgen's first experiments
late in 1895 was a film of the hand of his wife.
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Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another

form of penetrating rays was discovered. In
1896 French scientist Henri Becquerel
discovered natural radioactivity. Many
scientists of the period were working with
cathode rays, and other scientists were
gathering evidence on the theory that the
atom could be subdivided. Some of the new
research showed that certain types of atoms
disintegrate by themselves. It was Becquerel
who discovered this phenomenon while
investigating the properties of fluorescent
minerals.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day
when it was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored
some of the compound in a drawer with photographic plates. Later when he
developed these plates, he discovered that they were fogged (exhibited exposure to
light). Becquerel questioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had
wrapped the plates tightly before using them, so the fogging was not due to stray
light, in addition, he noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer with the
uranium compound were fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound
gave off a type of radiation that could penetrate heavy paper and expose
photographic film. Becquerel continued to test samples of uranium compounds and
determined that the source of radiation was the element uranium. Becquerel did not
pursue his discovery of radioactivity, but others did.
While working in France at the time of

Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie
Curie became very interested in his work. She
suspected that a uranium ore known as pitch-
blende contained other radioactive elements.
Marie and her husband, French scientist Pierre
Curie, started looking for these other elements.
In 1898, the Curies discovered another radio-
active element in pitchblende, and named it
polonium in honour of Maries native
homeland. Later that year, the Curies
discovered another radioactive element which
they named radium, or shining element. Both
polonium and radium were more radioactive
than uranium. Due to her life long research in
this field, Marie Curie is widely credited with the
discovery of gamma radiation and the
introduction of the new term: radio-active.
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Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or
produced. Radiography in the form of NDT took shape in the early 1920s when Dr.
H.H. Lester began testing on different materials. Radium became the initial industrial
gamma ray source. The material allowed castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick to be
radiographed. During the Second World War industrial radiography grew
tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding programme. In 1946, man-made
gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available. These new
sources were far stronger than radium and much less expensive. The man-made
sources rapidly replaced radium, and use of gamma rays grew quickly in industrial
radiography.
William D Coolidge's name is inseparably linked with the

X-ray tube popularly called the Coolidge tube. This
invention completely revolutionised the generation of X-
rays and remains the model upon which all X-ray tubes for
medical applications are patterned. He invented ductile
tungsten, the filament material still used in such lamps. He
was awarded 83 patents.
Although the theories and practices have changed very

little, radiographic equipment has developed. These
developments include better images through higher
quality films and also lighter, more portable equipment.
In addition to conventional film radiography Digital Radiographic systems are now

wide spread within the NDT industry. The use of Phosphor stimulated imaging plates
(PSP) with photomultipliers to capture image signals and Analogue to Digital
Converters (ADC) to convert to digital image are used extensively in Computed
Radiography (CR).
Direct Radiography systems (DR) are also used based upon CMOS (complimentary
metal oxide sensor) technology and TFT (thin film transistors). These systems have
the ability to directly convert light into digital format, additionally they may be coupled
with a scintillator which coats CMOS and CCD (charged couple device) sensors, the
scintillator converts photon energy to light before the sensor and ADC converts to
digital format. Systems which use scintillators in this way are often referred to as
indirect systems.
Quality issues of any digital system are based upon the effective pixel size and the
SNR (signal to noise ratio).The benefits of using Digital systems is the speed of
inspection, the absence of chemical processing requirements and wet film, however,
the initial equipment costs will be high.
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Section 1
Properties of Penetrating Radiation

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1 Properties of Penetrating Radiation

Radiation has 6 basic properties:
Penetration
The ability to pass through solid objects such as metals, woods, plastics,
bone etc. In fact these materials actually absorb some or even all of the
radiation depending upon their thickness, density and atomic number.
Rectilinear Propagation
This simply means that radiation used in radiography, like visible light, travel
in straight lines. If this were not the case, we would not be able to produce a
true image on the radiograph.
Ionisation
The ability of a the radiation energy to knock an electron out of its orbit,
leaving a charged atom and oppositely charged particle.
Fluorescence
At some wavelengths, radiation can cause some chemicals to fluoresce
when exposed to ultra-violet light. X-Rays lie within the same band of
electro-magnetic energy as UV light and therefore have the same effect on
these chemicals.
Chemical Effect
This is the effect that the radiation has on the emulsion used on
radiographic film. After processing, the affected emulsion turns black.
Physiological Effect
This is the harmful effect that radiation has on living tissue.
Within the field of radiography, we utilise 3 properties; penetration,

rectilinear propagation and the chemical effect. But with safety being of
great importance, we also need to be concerned and aware of, the
physiological effect.
Penetrating radiation can be used in non-destructive examination (NDE)

because:
1 It travels in a straight line.

2 It is absorbed as it passes through matter. The extent to which it is
absorbed depends upon three factors.
Thickness of the absorber.

Physical characteristics of the absorber (in particular its density and
atomic number).
Wavelength or photon energy of the radiation itself.
1-1
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3 Can be detected using a photographic emulsion or by other means. The

system used to detect the radiation must be capable of differentiating
between different intensities of radiation.
Film
Source
of radiation
Object
Figure 1.1 Penetrating radiation passing through an object.
Figure 1.2 the radiograph that would result from the set-up above in figure 1.1.
Note: In film radiography thin sections appear darker while thicker sections
appear lighter. The opposite is true if a fluorescent screen rather than a
photographic film is used as a radiation detector.
1-2
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Film
Object
Source of
radiation
Figure 1.3 Radiation passing through an object containing two voids at different
depths.
Figure 1.4 The radiograph resulting from the set-up in 1.3.
Note: The radiograph cannot be used to determine the through-thickness

position of the voids.
Two important things to keep in mind when viewing a radiographic image

are:
A radiograph is a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object:

The through thickness position and size of an object producing a
radiographic image cannot be determined solely from the information
given by a single radiograph (demonstrated in Figure 1.3).
2A defect will only appear as an image in a radiograph if the:
Defect causes a local difference in radiation absorption and the method

used for detecting the radiation is capable of detecting the difference in
radiation intensity so caused by the defect.
1-3
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For example, suppose that a chosen radiographic technique is capable of

detecting a thickness difference of say 0.5mm in 50mm of steel. If we use
this technique to radiograph the weld shown in Figure 1.3 then:
The gas pore will readily be detected because A - (B + C) = 3mm.

The lack of side fusion will not appear as an image on the radiograph
because.
A - (D + E) = 0.01mm which is much too small to be detected by the
technique used.
Set-up
Resultant
radiograph
Figure 1.5 Radiography of a weld.
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Self assessment questions
Properties of penetrating radiation
1 The 3 properties of the radiation used for NDE radiography are.
a Fluorescence, ionisation, penetration.

b Penetration, chemical effect, fluorescence.
c Penetration, chemical effect, travels in straight lines.
d Chemical effect, ionisation, travels in straight lines.
2 The darkest area on a radiographic film is the part of the film that:
a Has received the least exposure to x-rays.

b Has received the most exposure to x-rays.
c Was under the thickest part of the specimen.
d Where very little metallic silver is present.
3 Compared with ultrasonic testing one advantage of film radiography is:
a It's cheaper.
b A permanent record is directly produced.
c Lack of fusion is easily detected.
d All of the above are significant advantages.
4 Radiography is a reliable method for the detection of:
a Volumetric flaws.
b Planar flaws.
c Both volumetric and planar flaws.
d Laminations in rolled steel products.
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Section 2
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

All types of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same velocity (v), the
velocity of light, which is about 2.998 x 108ms-1 (186,000 miles per second),
but differ in terms of their wavelength ( ) and frequency (f). Wavelength can
be defined as the distance travelled during one complete field oscillation
while frequency is the total number of oscillations occurring in one second.
The properties of electromagnetic radiation, especially in the way it interacts

with matter are largely determined by its wavelength. Figure 2.1 shows the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Wave length in nanometres
Photon energy in MeV
Figure 2.1 Electromagnetic spectrum.
When thinking about wavelength we can say as the wavelength decreases

the energy increases and as the wavelength increases the energy
decreases. With this in mind when thinking about the penetrating capability,
it is a reasonable analogy to think about a sieve.
A high density material is like a fine sieve due to the size of the atoms (the
nucleus and amount of orbiting electrons). In order for the photon energy to
pass through the material it will need to be small to pass through the gaps in
the fine sieve, hence, higher energy. The thickness of the material also
means that there are more possibilities that the individual photons will
collide with either a nucleus or orbiting electrons where scattering (explained
in section 8) will cause absorption of the photons.
The amount of energy therefore that is eventually emitted after the photon
energy passes through a material of a given density and thickness depends
upon the above factors.
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Ideally selecting a wavelength (or energy level) that just passes through the
sieve will produce the best quality radiograph with high contrast on the
radiographic film. Using an energy level where the wavelength is much
smaller than the sieve will mean the photons pass easily through the sieve
but results in a lower contrast radiographic image. With this in mind the
radiographic standards highlight the maximum energy values that can be
used for a given material and thickness, to ensure the best quality is
achieved.
Keep this in mind when reading the remaining material.
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The electromagnetic spectrum
1 One thing that x-rays and gamma rays have in common with visible light
is that x-rays, gamma rays and light:
a All cause ionisation.

b Are all refracted as they enter a glass prism.
c Are all reflected by dense metals like lead.
d Are all travel at the same velocity (about 300,000 km/sec).
2 The wavelength determines the penetrating ability of radiation:
a Higher photon energy gives a shorter wavelength.

b Higher photon energy gives a longer wavelength.
c Photon energy and wavelength are independent.
d Photon energy can be adjusted in x and gamma to produce the required
wavelength.
3 Comparing X and gamma rays at the same wavelength in the

electromagnetic spectrum:
a X-rays are more penetrating then gamma.

b Gamma rays are more penetrating than x-rays.
c Penetration is the same.
d Penetration is not related to the wavelength.
4 Compared with x-rays or gamma rays, light:
a Has longer wavelength and higher frequency.

b Has longer wavelength and lower frequency.
c Travels faster.
d Has shorter wavelength and lower frequency.
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Section 3
Simple Atomic Theory

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3 Simple Atomic Theory

To understand how X- and gamma rays are produced it is necessary to
have a basic understanding of atomic theory. An atom is the smallest part of
any chemical element. Atoms are known to consist of three basic types of
particle, these being the positively charged proton, the neutron (which has
no electrical charge) and the negatively charged electron. The electrical
charge on the proton and electron are equal in magnitude but opposite in
polarity. The atomic mass of a proton is, by definition, equal to 1 atomic
mass unit (abbreviation: amu. 1 amu = 1.6725 x 10-27kg). The electron has
a tiny mass, around 1/1836 that of a proton (0.000545 amu or about 9.11 x
10-31kg), while that of a neutron is very slightly greater than that of a proton
at 1.0014 amu (or 1.6748 x 10-27kg). The atom is thought to consist of a
positively charged nucleus (which consists of protons and neutrons)
surrounded by a cloud of orbiting negatively charged electrons.
proton nucleus
neutron
electron
Figure 3.1 Simple model of atomic structure.
In the equilibrium state the number of orbital electrons is equal to the

number of protons and there is no net electrical charge. When there is
inequality between the number of protons and electrons then there is a net
electrical charge and the atom is said to be ionised. Ions may be negatively
charged if the number of electrons exceeds the number of protons or
positively charged if the converse is true. So called electropositive elements,
a group which includes all metals, like to form positive ions while the
electronegative elements such as oxygen, phosphorus, chlorine and sulphur
like to form negative ions.
Each element has its own characteristic number of protons in the nucleus.
This number is the atomic number, usually abbreviated as Z. It is the atomic
number that determines the chemical properties of a given substance.
However, each element can exist as any one of a number of nuclides or
isotopes. Each isotope of a given element has the same atomic number,
number of protons and chemical properties, but each isotope has a different
atomic mass number.
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The difference in atomic mass number is due to a difference in the number

of neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic mass number is equal to the total of
protons + neutrons in the nucleus. Most elements can exist in nature as any
one of several stable isotopes. Some isotopes are not stable these are the
so called radioactive isotopes. The following notation is typically used, for
example:
59
Co
27
where:
59 is the number of protons + neutrons (the atomic mass number).

27 is the number of protons (the atomic number).
Co is the chemical symbol, in this case cobalt.
The example shown, if in a non-ionised state, would have 27 protons, 27

electrons and 32 neutrons in each atom.
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1 An electron:
a Carries an electric charge that is equal and opposite to that of a proton.

b Is approximately 1836 times heavier than a neutron.
c Is called an alpha particle when travelling at very high velocity.
d (a), (b) and (c) are all correct.
2 An ion is:
a An atom that has fewer neutrons than protons.

b An atom that has more neutrons than protons.
c Either (a) or (b).
d An atom that has a number of electrons that is unequal to the number of
protons in the nucleus.
3 The fundamental particle that has a positive charge is:
a A proton.
b A beta particle.
c An electron.
d A neutron.
4 The standard abbreviation used to denote atomic number is:
a A.
b .
c Z.
d W.
5 The nucleus of any atom other than hydrogen contains:
a Protons and electrons.

b Neutrons and protons.
c Protons, neutrons and electrons.
d Alpha, beta and gamma particles.
6 Iridium 192 has:
a 192 protons in the nucleus.

b 192 neutrons in the nucleus.
c A combined total of 192 protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
d 192 alpha particles in the nucleus.
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Section 4
Ionising Radiation
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Ionising Radiation
4 Ionising Radiation
The two types of penetrating radiation most used in industrial radiography,
X- and gamma rays, are often referred to as ionising radiation. This is
because the nature of their interaction with matter is to cause ionisation.
Ionisation is caused by loss of an orbiting electron which leaves the
atom in a electrically positively charged state (+ ion). Alpha and beta
particles, which are products of radioactive fission also cause ionisation and
are therefore included within the term ionising radiation. Neutron radiation
is a hazard in the nuclear power industry, it can [indirectly] cause ionisation,
and it is therefore often included within this group of types of radiation
referred to as ionising. Alpha and beta particle radiation are covered in
greater detail in Sections 6 and 7.
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Ionising Radiation
Ionising radiation
1 Ionising radiation includes:
a X and gamma rays.

b Beta particles.
c Alpha particles.
d All of the above.
2 Alpha and beta particle emission is caused by radioactive:
a Fusion.
b Fission.
c Friction.
d Ionisation.
3 Ionisation is:
a The addition or loss of a nucleus from an atom.

b The addition or loss of a neutron from an atom.
c The addition or loss of an electron from an atom.
d All of the above.
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Section 5
X-rays or Bremsstrahlung
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5 X-rays or Bremsstrahlung
The term X-ray is applied to ionising radiation produced when a beam of
high velocity (ie high kinetic energy) electrons collides with the atoms of a
target material. The photon energy of the X-radiation thereby produced
depends on two factors:
Kinetic energy of the electron at the point of collision.

Relative efficiency of the process of stopping the incident electron, does
this occur in a single large event or in a series of events of varying
magnitude?
Kinetic energy of the electron partially absorbed, low

energy x-ray photon emitted
X-ray photon
(low energy)
Deflected
electron
Atom in target
material
X-ray photon
(high energy)
High velocity
electrons Captured
electron
Kinetic energy of the electron completely absorbed, high

energy x-ray photon emitted
Figure 5.1 X-ray production.

(photons per square metre)
Characteristic
radiation peaks
Radiation intensity
Increasing wave length, decreasing photon energy
Figure 5.2 X-ray spectrum.
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The ability of the X-rays to penetrate matter depends on their photon

energy, the shorter the wavelength, the higher the photon energy, the more
penetrating the radiation. The penetrating power of the X-rays can be
controlled by increasing or decreasing the accelerating voltage, the greater
the accelerating voltage, the more penetrating the radiation. In an X-ray set
the accelerating voltage is the tube voltage.
The total number of photons produced at all wavelengths is directly related

to the number of high velocity electrons arriving at the target. The total
number of electrons is directly proportional to the magnitude of the electric
current passing through the accelerating field. This current in an X-ray set is
referred to as tube current. Radiation intensity is directly proportional to tube
current.
The two characteristic peaks shown in Figure 8 are caused by target

material inner shell electrons jumping to a higher energy level, then falling
back to their equilibrium state. Characteristic radiation generally occurs at
relatively low energy, long wavelength and is of no great importance in the
industrial radiography of metallic components although it can cause a
problem known as diffraction mottling (see the section on artefacts). As the
name suggests, each element produces its own specific characteristic
peaks, and measurement of these can be used to perform chemical analysis
(X-ray fluoroscopy). Low energy X-rays can be diffracted by crystalline
materials such as metals. In the diffraction process radiation is deflected
from its original path at an angle that is determined by its wavelength and
the spacing of the atoms in the crystalline material. This effect can be used
to produce the mono-wavelength X-rays that are used in X-ray
crystallography.
5.1 X-ray equipment

In order to produce X-rays three things are required:
1 Source of electrons.
2 Target, constructed from a suitable high melting point material.
3 Means of accelerating electrons toward the target.
High velocity electrons cannot travel far in air, therefore the process of
acceleration must take place in a high vacuum.
5.1.1 The cathode

The source of electrons is called the cathode. In a conventional X-ray tube it
consists of a tungsten filament heated by passing a small current through it.
Heating the filament produces a cloud of loosely bound, low kinetic energy
electrons in close proximity to the filament. This process is known as
thermionic emission. Electrons are negatively charged and can be
accelerated toward the target by making it positively charged with respect to
the source of electrons.
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Copper focusing cup
Tungsten filament
Figure 5.3 Section through a typical X-ray tube cathode.
5.1.2 The anode (target)

The anode consists of a heavy section of high conductivity copper with a
small tungsten (or other high melting point high atomic number metal) insert
which is called the target. The anode has a positive electrical potential with
respect to the cathode. The body of the anode is always copper because it
is an efficient conductor of heat. This property is necessary because
approximately 95% of the kinetic energy of the impacting electrons is
converted to heat at the anode.
The target material is usually tungsten because this has a very high melting
point (3370C). This reduces the chances it will be vaporised by the large
amount of heat generated. Tungsten has a high atomic number and
therefore a large number of electrons, this makes it a relatively efficient
material for converting kinetic energy to X-ray energy which in turn helps to
reduce the amount of heat produced as a proportion of the total output of
energy. Sometimes the target is constructed from tantalum (melting point
2996C) and less frequently from other refractory metals.
Nearly all anodes are hooded (see Figures 5.3 and 5.4). The hood is a high
conductivity copper shroud which is designed to intercept stray electrons
and prevent them from hitting the tube walls. The hood has a window in the
form of a beryllium insert or a thinned section of copper which permits
X-rays to exit without unduly increasing inherent filtration. Inherent filtration
is the term used to describe removal of X-rays from the primary beam due to
absorption by the materials used in X-ray head construction. The reason
that a beryllium window is used in many X-ray heads is that beryllium has a
very low absorption factor and this minimises inherent filtration whilst still
affording the tube walls protection from stray electrons.
Anodes may be directional (Figure 5.3) or panoramic (Figure 5.4). In either

case anode design is such that the effective focus size in the direction of the
useful beam is much smaller than the actual focus size. This arrangement is
called a line or Benson focus and it serves to maximise anode life without
unduly compromising image quality.
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High conductivity
copper
Hood
Electrons
Cooling fins
Beryllium
window
Tungsten target
Useful X-rays
Figure 5.3 Directional anode.

High conductivity hood
Hood
Electrons
Cooling fins
Beryllium
window
Tungsten target
Useful X-rays
Figure 5.4 Panoramic anode.
The target is generally set at an angle of about 70 to the electron beam as

shown in Figures 5.3 and 5.4. This produces a small effective focus size
whilst maintaining a large actual focal spot size. The large actual focus size
helps to dissipate the heat generated more efficiently. Therefore higher tube
currents can be sustained without the risk of damaging the target. This
design feature is known as Benson or line focusing, see Figure 5.5 below.
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Effective focus size

viewed from B
= 4 x 3.8mm
Actual focus size

viewed from A
Target = 4 x 11mm
Electrons
70o
Figure 5.5 Line or Benson focus.
5.1.3 X-ray tubes

The cathode and anode are mounted in an evacuated glass (or in modern
tubes metal-ceramic) envelope (Figure 5.6). The tube may be provided with
shielding to absorb any unwanted radiation that is not already shielded out
by the natural geometry of the anode. Directional type tubes produce a
useful beam of radiation that is usually in the form of a cone with a dihedral
angle of around 40. X-ray tubes fitted with a panoramic anode produce a
useful beam of radiation through an angle of 360 about the tube axis.
Aluminium shell
Ceramic
insulator
Cathode Anode
Electrons
X-rays
Evacuated
chamber Ceramic
insulator
Figure 5.6 Directional X-ray tube (metal-ceramic type.
The X-ray beam produced is filtered by the wall of the glass (or metal-
ceramic) envelope. This reduces the useful quantity of X-rays produced,
with the low energy components of the spectrum being particularly affected.
Therefore it is common in glass tubes that the tube wall is ground thinner in
the region of the useful beam in order to minimise the X-ray energy lost due
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to self-filtration. Metal-ceramic X-ray tubes (and low kilovoltage glass tubes)

may have beryllium inserts (usually called windows) in order to minimise the
filtration effect of the tube wall. Beryllium is used because it has a very low
X-ray absorption coefficient and it is mechanically strong enough to contain
the necessary vacuum.
X-ray tubes are invariably mounted inside some form of tank. This is usually
a metal cylinder that may be fitted with a beryllium or plastic window to
minimise self-filtration of the X-rays produced. The tank contains a coolant
which may be oil or some type of gas. It provides high voltage insulation and
mechanical protection. In portable equipment the high voltage transformer is
mounted inside the tank.
5.1.4 X-ray tube power supply

In order to produce a beam of electrons from the filament in the tube it is
necessary to make the anode positive with respect to the cathode. If an AC
supply is connected across the tube then the beam of electrons will pass
only when the anode is positive and the tube will act as a half-wave rectifier.
Applied
single phase
AC voltage
Resultant
tube current
flowing
Figure 5.7 Current flow across a half-wave self-rectified X-ray tube.
Most older type portable X-ray sets were half-wave self-rectified. This
produced a considerable weight-saving compared with the earlier types of
constant potential unit. Most modern portable units are constant potential
and use lightweight solid state rectifiers to produce what is effectively DC
current.
The metal-ceramic tubes used in modern equipment are able to safely

withstand a greater potential difference between the anode/cathode and the
tube wall. This permits the use of grounded anode type circuitry which in
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turn permits direct water-cooling of the anode. In an older type unit

operating at say 200kV the cathode voltage would have been minus 100kV
while the anode voltage would have been plus 100kV, giving a maximum
potential difference between the electrodes and the glass tube wall of
100kV. With modern grounded anode circuitry it is safe to hold the cathode
at minus 200kV with the anode at zero volts to produce the same 200kV
potential difference. An anode held at zero volts can be safely cooled by
water.
Water is a very efficient coolant and direct water-cooling of the anode

permits operation at greatly increased tube currents. For example, the
maximum tube current for an older type 200kV oil-cooled head was typically
5mA self-rectified. With modern portable equipment maximum constant
potential tube currents of 15 or 20mA are not unusual for a 200kV head.
Older type constant potential industrial X-ray units were extremely heavy,
bulky and suitable for use only in fixed installations. Much of the weight and
bulk came from the rectification circuitry used, the so called Greinacher
Circuit and the large external oil-cooling system necessary to dissipate the
large amount of heat generated.
Single phase
AC voltage
Full wave rectified

AC voltage
Greinacher
circuit
Figure 5.8 Greinacher circuit voltage.
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The total quantity of X-rays produced by an X-ray unit is directly proportional

to the area under the line showing voltage against time. Thus for the same
tube current and peak voltage, an X-ray tube using a smoothed and fully
rectified supply (i.e. a constant potential unit) will produce more X-rays than
a self-rectified tube. In fact the output of X-rays is more than doubled for the
same tube current. In a self-rectified unit the tube voltage varies from zero to
the peak voltage and back again with each cycle. In a constant potential unit
the tube voltage is close to constant. Thus, looking at the spectrum of X-
rays produced, a self-rectified unit produces proportionally more low energy
radiation than a similar constant potential unit.
Self-rectified
Constant potential
Wavelength
Figure 5.9 X-ray spectra of constant potential and self-rectified tubes.
5.1.5 X-ray tube controls

The radiation produced by the X-ray tube can be varied in quantity and
penetrating power (or quality) by controlling the electrical supplies to the
tube.
Quality of radiation or penetrating power (kV)

The penetrating power of X-rays depends on the magnitude of the
accelerating voltage which is applied between the cathode and the anode.
The higher the voltage, the higher the kinetic energy of the accelerated
electrons, the higher the photon energy of X-rays produced. The higher the
photon energy, the shorter the wavelength, the greater the penetrating
power. Thus the penetrating power or quality of X-rays is controlled by the
tube voltage.
Conventional X-ray tubes, as used in industrial radiography, are capable of

being operated in the range from below 50 to 400kV. If greater penetrating
power is required high energy X-ray sources such as betatrons, linear
accelerators or Van der Graaf generators can be used to provide X-ray
energies of up to 30 or even 40MeV.
National codes and standards such as ASME V (pre-1996 revisions) and BS

EN 1435 relate the maximum kilovoltage which may be used to the material
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thickness which is to be examined. Table 1 gives the approximate limiting

maximum economically penetrable thicknesses of steel for various
kilovoltages. The figures given are typical for film radiography using lead
intensifying screens and portable self-rectified equipment. Constant
potential units can be used economically on greater thicknesses than can
self-rectified units.
Table 5.1 Approximate penetrating power in mm of steel for various

kilovoltages.
Kilovolts Penetrating power,
mm of steel
120 6
160 20
200 30
250 45
300 60
Quantity of radiation (mA)

The quantity of radiation produced by the X-ray tube per unit time depends
on the number of electrons released by the cathode filament. The number of
electrons per second reaching the anode multiplied by the charge on the
electron is equal to the tube current. The tube current is not controlled
directly, it is increased or decreased by controlling the size of the heating
current supplied to the cathode filament, the higher the heating current, the
hotter the filament, the greater the thermionic emission of electrons and
hence the greater the tube current. Tube current will also be increased for
the same heating current if the tube voltage is increased. This is because
higher voltages can draw more electrons from the filament even though the
filament temperature does not change. So if the tube voltage is altered it will
be necessary to adjust the heating current if the same value of tube current
is to be maintained. Too high a tube current would cause damage to the
anode due to overheating; therefore X-ray equipment always incorporates a
safety cut-out switch to prevent the use of a too high value of tube current.
The total quantity of radiation produced by the X-ray set is directly

proportional to the product of the exposure time (i.e. the time for which the
X-ray tube is energised) and the tube current; therefore X-ray exposures are
usually given in milliampere minutes (mAmin) at a given tube voltage.
The standard controls on the X-ray set are:
1 Voltage control: This alters the tube voltage (kV) by varying the low
voltage supply to the high voltage transformer. Note that high voltage is
not generated in the control panel, this minimises the hazard to
personnel.
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2 Milliampere control: An ammeter incorporated into the control panel

measures (albeit indirectly) the current flowing across the tube. This is
proportional to the number of electrons flowing from the cathode to the
anode per unit time. In order to increase the supply of electrons the
heating current to the filament is increased using the milliampere control.
Note that the ammeter measures the current flowing between the anode
and the cathode, not the current flowing in the filament (ie the heating
current).
3 Timer: Since the quantity of X-rays produced is proportional to the length

of time during which the tube is energised it is convenient to incorporate
a time-switch into the control panel of the X-ray set which automatically
terminates the exposure at a preset time.
As explained above it is convenient to refer to X-ray exposures in terms of

milliampere minutes. For example an exposure which produces an
acceptable radiograph may have been determined to be, 36mAmins at
200kV. If this was the case then any of the following exposures should give
an identical acceptable result:
a 9mA for 4min at 200kV

b 18mA for 2min at 200kV Reciprocity law
c 2mA for 18min at 200kV
This is because the amount of radiation produced is the same in each case.
Obviously it would be desirable to use a high value of mA, in order to reduce
the exposure time, but as explained above the use of high tube currents can
severely damage the anode of the X-ray tube and thus reduce its service
life. Therefore it is usual to operate at a value of mA which is well within the
tubes specified capabilities.
The reciprocal relationship between time and tube current is sometimes

referred to as the reciprocity law or the Bunsen Roscoe reciprocity law.
5.1.6 High energy X-ray sources

Betatrons
Betatrons are used to produce ultra-hard extremely penetrating radiation
with photon energies in the range 1-30MeV. The efficiency with which the
kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons is converted to X-rays is much
better at high voltages than at those experienced in conventional X-ray
tubes. Consequently betatrons usually benefit from quite small focal spots.
In betatrons electrons are accelerated in a spiral path of perhaps 1,000,000
revolutions by means of alternating magnetic fields before being deflected
towards the target. The radiation produced by betatrons can penetrate
300mm or more of steel. They are primarily used for the radiography of
castings or large section welds in fixed installations but portable units are
available. These are sometimes used on site for the inspection of reinforcing
bars in heavy concrete sections. Up to around 10MeV betatrons are usually
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preferred to linear accelerators because they are more compact and less
expensive to manufacture.
Linear accelerators
Linear accelerators (often called linacs) accelerate electrons to very high
velocities along a straight path by means of an electromagnetic waveform
generated by a device called a magnetotron. The particle velocities are
similar to those achieved in betatrons but a much higher output of radiation
is achievable. For radiation energies above 10MeV linear accelerators are
generally the preferred solution.
Van der Graaf generators

Van der Graaf generators generate a high voltage charge of static electricity
by mechanical means - friction. This can be used to accelerate electrons for
X-ray production. Van der Graaf generators can produce short intense
pulses of X-ray energy so have therefore found some application in the field
of ballistic radiography.
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X-rays
1 In a conventional x-ray tube the target material is usually:
a Copper.
b Beryllium.
c Tungsten.
d Aluminium.
2 In x-radiography radiation intensity is proportional to:
a tube voltage
b filament current
c tube current
d the square of the focus to film distance
3 The penetrating power of x-rays is controlled by:
a Tube current.
b Tube voltage.
c (tube current) x (tube voltage)
d Both (a) and (b).
4 The 2 factors that determine effective or projected focus size in an x-ray

tube are:
a The diameter of the beryllium window and the diameter of the tungsten
target.
b The diameter of the electron beam and the diameter of the tungsten
target.
c Diameter of the beryllium window and the angle of the tungsten target
with respect to the window.
d Diameter of the electron beam and the angle of the tungsten target with
respect to the electron beam.
5 X-ray equipment may have a self-rectified or a Greinacher circuit

arrangement. The main advantage of equipment that uses a Greinacher
circuit is:
a Better radiographic sensitivity at the same tube voltage.

b Shorter exposure time at the same tube voltage & tube current.
c The focus size is generally much smaller.
d The Greinacher circuit is ideal for on-site radiography.
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6 The x-ray radiation generated as high velocity charged particles are

decelerated is sometimes referred to as:
a Compton radiation.
b Cosmic radiation.
c Bremsstrahlung.
d Black body radiation.
7 The body of the anode in an x-ray set is usually made from pure copper
why? Because pure copper:
a Is a very good electrical conductor.

b Has excellent thermal conductivity.
c Oxidises only very slowly.
d Is an excellent source of electrons.
8 The radiation spectrum produced by an x-ray source is:
a Continuous all wavelengths represented over a wide range.

b Discrete made up of several specific wavelengths.
c Either (a) or (b).
d None of the above.
9 In industrial radiography a Greinacher circuit is used in:
a An automatic film processor.

b Manufacture of radioactive isotopes.
c A type of survey meter.
d A constant potential x-ray set.
10 The Bunsen Roscoe law or law of reciprocity basically states that:
a For a direct type film with lead screens the same film density will be
produced provided that the product of exposure (in this sense radiation
intensity) and time remains constant.
b Radiation intensity is inversely proportional to the distance from the
source squared.
c Film density is directly proportional to radiation intensity and time.
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Section 6
Gamma Rays
Rev 1 January 2010
Gamma Rays
6 Gamma Rays
Gamma () ray is the term applied to the electromagnetic radiation which is
sometimes produced when the atomic nuclei of a radioactive isotope
disintegrate in the process known as atomic fission. Alpha () and beta ()
particles may also be produced during the disintegration process; in fact
gamma emission is always a by-product of alpha or beta emission. Of the
three main types of radiation produced by fission alpha is by far the most
hazardous to health; alpha and beta radiation must be taken into
consideration when assessing safety. Except as a health hazard, alpha and
beta particle radiation have no significance for industrial radiography since
they are easily absorbed by very thin materials.
The disintegration process is fixed for each radioactive isotope and as a

result the gamma ray energies produced are also fixed.
60 60
27 Co 28 Ni
031MeV 1.17MeV 1.33MeV
Figure 6.1 Decay path for cobalt 60.
The spectra produced are line or discrete spectra as opposed to the

continuous spectra produced by X-ray equipment. Table 2 lists the principal
gamma emissions for various commonly used isotopes. Figure 21 shows
the line spectrum for Iridium 192.
6.1 Alpha and beta emission

6.1.1 Alpha particles
Alpha particles are emitted during the decay of heavy nuclides such as
uranium (U) 238 and plutonium (Pu) 239. An alpha particle consists of 2
protons and 2 neutrons basically a helium (He) nucleus, emitted from the
nucleus at very high velocity.
For example:
239 235 4
94 Pu 92 U+ 2 He
Thus in alpha emission there is a loss of 4amu from the nucleus and a
reduction in atomic number of 2 (see the example above). Alpha particle
radiation cannot penetrate more than a thin sheet of paper or a few
centimetres of air, it is, however, very strongly ionising. The great danger to
health with alpha emitters is that they may be ingested radioactive
contamination. Once within the human body they will in most cases cause
cancer.
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6.1.2 Beta particles

Beta particles may be emitted during radioactive decay. A beta particle
consists of a very high velocity electron emitted from the nucleus of a
radioactive atom when a neutron converts to a proton. It is important to note
that although the beta particle is an electron it has very much higher kinetic
energy than a free electron which has resulted from an ionisation event.
For example:
14 14
6 C 7 N E
Thus in beta emission there is no loss from the atomic mass number whilst
the atomic number increases by 1 (see the example above). Beta radiation
is more penetrating than alpha. It can penetrate the outer layers of the skin
and lead to fatal skin burns. The damage caused is very similar to sunburn,
but much more severe. Many of the early victims of the Chernobyl disaster
died as a result of skin burns caused by exposure to high intensities of beta
radiation. If beta emitters are ingested they will often lead to cancer.
6.2 Sealed sources

The first gamma ray emitting radioisotopes to be used in industrial
radiography were naturally occurring radioactive materials such as radium.
Such sources were not sealed and therefore there was a danger of
exposure to alpha () and beta () particles, both of which are extremely
damaging to human tissue. Coupled with this was the even greater hazard
of radioactive contamination by which radioactive materials might find their
way into the human body.
All gamma sources in use today are man-made. They are manufactured by
neutron bombardment of non-radioactive raw materials in the core of a small
nuclear reactor. The sources in use are all beta emitters, gamma rays being
produced as a by-product of beta emission. In order to prevent beta
emission or contamination hazard the sources used in industrial radiography
are invariably sealed sources. The fissile material is encapsulated in a high
integrity titanium or stainless steel shell. Beta radiation is not capable of
penetrating the walls of the capsule, and the capsule further precludes any
possible contamination hazard so long as it remains intact.
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Gamma Rays
100
Note that the Iridium 192
spectrum includes several other
less significant gamma
emissions. The emissions shown
50
account for more than 98% of all

gamma radiation produced.
0.0 0.5 1.0

Photo energy/MeV
Figure 6.2 Iridium 192 principal gamma emissions.
Table 6.2 Gamma emissions for commonly used isotopes.

Isotope Half-life Principal Equivalent X-ray Penetrating
emissions, kilovoltage, kV power in mm of
MeV steel
Iridium 74.4 days 0.31 400 75
(Ir) 192 0.47
0.60
Cobalt 5.3 years 1.17 1200 200
(Co) 60 1.33
Thulium 127 days 0.052 80 4

(Tm) 170 0.084
Ytterbium 32 days 0.17 145 10

(Yb) 169 0.20
Selenium 118.5 days 0.121 217 30

(Se) 75 0.136 (low energy beam
0.265 components
0.28 improve sensitivity)
0.401
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Gamma Rays
Isotope
Glass fill material
Titanium capsule
High integrity weld

Connection device
(stainless steel)
Figure 6.3 Sealed source.
Figure 6.3 shows the typical encapsulation arrangement for iridium 192 and
cobalt 60. Some isotopes such as caesium 137 are double encapsulated. In
the case of caesium 137 this is because it is in the form of caesium chloride
which is highly corrosive and highly water soluble (but this is still an
improvement on caesium metal which causes an explosion on contact with
water).
6.3 Penetrating power of gamma radiation

The penetrating power is fixed for each isotope because the spectrum of
gamma radiation emitted is fixed. If a material thickness is too great to
produce a radiograph using, say, Ir192 then an isotope which produces
higher energy gamma radiation, such as Co60, must be used.
6.4 Quantity of gamma radiation

The amount of gamma radiation, the number of photons, produced by an
isotope is controlled by the number of disintegrations (atomic fissions) per
unit time. The source strength of an isotope is usually expressed in curies
(Ci) or becquerels (Bq). Source strength may also be referred to as source
activity.
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second.

1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second.
The becquerel, which is the SI unit of radioactivity, is a very small unit in

terms of what is required for industrial radiography. The curie is therefore
generally preferred. If the becquerel is used at all then it is usually in the
form of gigabecquerels (GBq). One gigabecquerel is equal to one thousand
million (109) becquerels. One curie is equal to 37 gigabecquerels (37GBq).
In the majority of cases gamma ray exposures are expressed in curie-hours,
curie-minutes or curie-seconds; this in each case being the product of
source strength measured in curies multiplied by exposure time measured in
hours, minutes or seconds.
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Gamma Rays
Example:
A steel section 50mm thickness requires an exposure of 700 curie-minutes

using iridium 192 with a source to film distance of 1 metre using Kodak CX
film and lead intensifying screens.
All other factors being equal the exposure time would therefore be:
a 1 hour 10 minutes with a source strength of 10 curies.

or
b 20 minutes with a source strength of 35 curies. Reciprocity
or law
c 7 minutes with a source strength of 100 curies.
Gamma rays are produced by a disintegration process. Atoms having

unstable nuclei decay with a fixed probability to form other atoms having
stable nuclei. Therefore the source strength of the radioactive isotope will
reduce with time. The probability decay for a large number of unstable
atoms is fixed and proportional to the number of unstable atoms present.
This means that the strength of a radioactive source will always reduce
exponentially: ie the strength of a given source will reduce by 50% in a fixed
time. This fixed time is referred to as half-life.
The half life of various commonly encountered isotopes are given in Table 2.
If the half life of an isotope is known then the source activity at a given time
can be calculated if the source activity had previously been measured.
Suppose that an isotope having a half life h, had an activity S0, at time t = 0.
Then at time t, the source strength or activity St, can be calculated using:
St = S0 2-(t/h)
Alternatively the activity of a source can be estimated using a decay chart.

Figure 6.4 shows the decay chart for iridium 192.
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Gamma Rays
Figure 6.4 Iridium 192 decay
6.5 Radioactive isotope containers for industrial radiography

Radioactive isotopes emit gamma rays continuously; the decay process
cannot be switched off or in any way slowed down. Gamma radiation is
extremely harmful to human body tissues so radioactive isotopes must be
shielded when not in use. The shielding materials used in isotope containers
are always dense materials such as lead, tungsten or (more commonly)
depleted uranium. Most modern containers use depleted uranium shielding
because uranium is an extremely efficient absorber of gamma radiation.
Uranium shielded isotope containers are much lighter and more portable
than their lead shielded counterparts. A uranium shielded container having a
weight of about 20kg can safely store 100 Ci of iridium 192. A lead shielded
container of the same weight would be capable of safely containing only 20
Ci of iridium 192.
Radioactive isotope containers are designed to fulfil two important functions:
1 Contain the radioactive isotope and reduce the emitted intensity of

radiation to a level which allows for safe transportation and storage.
2 Allow the radioactive isotope to be safely exposed in order that it may be

used for radiography.
In addition, radioactive isotope containers have to be capable of

withstanding possible accidents involving impact or fire.
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All modern isotope containers are designed to be operated by cable (see

Figure 6.7). They are of two basic types, (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). Of the two
types depicted the S tube type is intrinsically safer but around 30% heavier
than the equivalent shutter type. Older types of isotope container did not
provide for remote operation.
Sealed
source Locking device
Connector
for delivery
tube Connector
for wind-out
Fireproof packing material Depleted uranium shielding
Figure 6.5 S tube type radioactive source container.
Locked position Unlocked position
Figure 6.6 Shutter type radioactive source container.
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Gamma Rays
Projection tube
Isotope container
Wind-out
mechanism
Figure 6.7 Remote control isotope delivery system.
Figure 6.8 Sealed source with flexible cable (pigtail) attached.
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Gamma Rays
6.6 Comparison of X- and gamma rays

6.6.1 Energy and output of radiation
X-ray equipment produces a continuous range of photon energies up to a
threshold level dependent upon the tube voltage setting. The threshold
photon energy level can be adjusted from 50keV or less up to a maximum
(for high energy equipment) of perhaps 30MeV. The photon energy of
gamma ray sources is fixed.
The output of radiation per unit time is variable for X-ray equipment up to the
maximum mA rating of the tube. The output of radiation from a radioactive
isotope is fixed by the source activity. The output of radiation produced by
X-ray equipment is generally much greater than that produced by
radioactive isotopes.
The penetrating power of ionising radiation is controlled by its maximum

photon energy and the photon energy distribution. Table 4 gives an
indication of the maximum steel thickness that can practically be
radiographed using conventional X-ray equipment and the commonly
encountered isotopes. The penetrating power of X-rays produce by self
rectified equipment is less than that of X-rays produced by constant
potential equipment operating at the same tube voltage. This is because the
constant potential equipment produces a larger proportion of high energy
radiation than does the self rectified.
Table 6.3 Useful thickness range for various sources of radiation.

Source of radiation Useful thickness range/mm of steel, mm
X-ray 100 kV (peak) Maximum
self- 150 kV (peak) Maximum 20
rectified
200 kV (peak) Maximum 30
300 kV (peak) Maximum 60
X-ray 100 kV Maximum 10
constant 150 kV Maximum 32
potential
200 kV Maximum 45
300 kV Maximum 100
Gamma ray Thulium 170 Maximum 4
Selenium 75 4-30
Ytterbium 169 2-8
Iridium 192 10-75
Cobalt 60 40-200
Note: Steel sections of 500 or 600mm can be radiographed using X-rays

generated by linear accelerators or betatrons.
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6.6.2 Radiographic contrast

Low energy radiation is more easily absorbed than high energy radiation.
Therefore low energy radiation will show a bigger change in radiation
intensity for the same change of penetrated section thickness than will high
energy radiation. Thus radiographs made with low energy radiation will
usually show better contrast than those made using high energy radiation.
The contrast of X-radiographs is generally better than gamma radiographs

since it is possible to optimise the X-ray energy for the thickness of the
material which is to be examined; in so doing obtaining the best possible
contrast. With a gamma ray source the radiation energy is fixed and is
optimum for a narrow range of thickness only. Contrast is better for X-rays
of the same maximum radiation energy than it is for gamma rays because
X-ray tubes produce a continuous range of energies as opposed to the line
spectrum which is obtained from a gamma ray source.
6.6.3 Focal spot size versus source size

A radiograph produced using small effective source size will usually be of
higher quality than one produced with a larger effective source size. The
average focal spot size an X-ray tube is similar to the average physical size
of the gamma ray sources which are commonly used. Most X-ray tubes
have a fixed effective focal spot of between 1 and 4mm. With some X-ray
equipment the focal spot size can be varied. Microfocus X-ray tubes may
have an effective focal spot of less than 0.1mm. The size of the focal spot in
an X-ray tube tends to be larger for the higher maximum kilovoltage tubes.
This is due to the need to dissipate the increased amount of heat generated
at high kV. The practical source size for a radioactive isotope is determined
by the maximum economically achievable specific activity. Specific activity
is usually expressed in curies (or becquerels) per gram. Table 4 below gives
typical practical achievable maximum specific activity for 4 common
isotopes.
Table 6.4 Specific activity for common radioisotopes

Isotope Practically Density. Maximum practically achievable
achievable maximum activity for 3mm diameter, 3mm
specific activity. long cylindrical pellet.
curies per gram g/cm3 curies
Cobalt 60 50 8.9 10
Iridium 192 350 22.4 166
(1)
Caesium 137 25 3.5 2
(2)
Thulium 170 1,000 4 85
Note:
1 Density is for compressed caesium chloride (CsCl).
2 Density is for thulium oxide (Tm2O3).
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Gamma Rays
Note that the maximum activity of a gamma ray source is limited by its
physical size. The most useful isotopes are those which have a high value
of practically achievable specific activity. In an iridium 192 source at the
maximum achievable activity, about 2.5 atoms per 100 million are
radioactive. In a cobalt 60 source the figure is only about 1 atom in every
10,000 million.
The output of radiation from a typical X-ray machine is much greater than
from a typical gamma source. This means that in X-radiography the use of
long focal to film distances is more economically feasible than in gamma
radiography. Thus, even though the focus is similar in physical size when
compared with the average gamma source, it is generally the case that
geometric unsharpness is better for X-ray techniques than for gamma.
6.6.4 Exposure time (film radiography)

An exposure time of between 1-5 minutes is usual for X-ray radiography. A
conventional self-rectified X-ray set operating at maximum kilovoltage and
tube current will generally be capable of continuous use with an exposure
time of up to 5 minutes followed by a rest period between successive
exposures of around 1 or 2 minutes. If the exposure time is extended
beyond 5 minutes then overheating will generally occur if the rest period is
not considerably extended. Constant potential equipment intended for fixed
installation usage will usually be capable of continuous operation at its
maximum output rating. However, even with such equipment, exposure
times exceeding 10 minutes will generally be avoided.
The exposure time for gamma radiography tends to be longer. This is

because the output of radiation (in photons per second) is generally much
less. Gamma ray exposure times are usually in the range from about 30
seconds to 1 hour, but exposure times exceeding 24 hours are not unheard
of. The required exposure time for a gamma ray source increases as the
source activity reduces with time.
6.6.5 Power supply

X-ray sets require power from a mains supply or mobile generator. Usually a
4.5kW generator will provide sufficient power to operate a 300kV self-
rectified set. Gamma radiography can in general be carried out without the
need for a power supply.
6.6.6 Physical size and weight

An iridium 192 isotope with a source activity of up to 100 curies can safely
be stored in a container weighing 15-20kg which has outside dimensions of
approximately 200 x 400 x 100mm. Such isotopes are useful for the
radiography of steel sections of up to 75mm thick. Gamma ray sources can
be used to make exposures in situations where access is extremely limited.
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Gamma Rays
A typical self-rectified 300kV rated X-ray set (which is useful for the
radiography of steel sections of up to 60mm thickness) is on the other hand
considerably less portable and less manoeuvrable. A typical 300kV SR tube
head could weigh 55kg and measure 300 x 300 x 750mm while the
associated control panel might weigh as much as 30 kg and measure 450 x
350 x 250mm. Low kilovoltage equipment offers improved portability and
manoeuvrability but this has to be offset against the reduced penetrating
power.
6.6.7 Equipment cost

The initial cost of X-ray equipment for site work is about 2-5 times that of a
portable gamma ray container. The cost of maintenance and repair is
greater for X-ray equipment, due to the nature of the electrical equipment
involved and because X-ray equipment is less rugged and therefore more
prone to damage in site conditions.
Gamma ray sources have to be replaced on a regular basis due to

radioactive decay. This can become costly if the source is not used
regularly. Gamma ray sources have, by law in most countries, to be stored
in very secure conditions. This factor also adds to costs when compared to
X-ray equipment.
X-ray exposures tend to be shorter so there can be a cost saving with X-ray
equipment if the setting-up time between successive exposures is
minimised. Overall gamma radiography tends to be the most cost effective
solution for construction site work but X-radiography may provide the
cheapest option where are large number of similar radiographs are required
(such as may be the case in pipeline or mass production environments).
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Gamma Rays
Gamma rays
1 A beta particle is a high velocity:
a Electron.
b Helium nucleus.
c Proton.
d Neutron.
2 A gamma ray may be emitted:
a Following alpha emission.

b Following beta emission.
c Following either alpha or beta emission.
d By itself or following either alpha or beta emission.
3 The half life of Iridium 192 is 74 days. If an 80 curie source arrives today,
222 days from now the source activity will be:
a 5 Ci.
b 10 Ci.
c 20 Ci.
d 40 Ci.
4 The number of fission events occurring per second in a radioactive

source that has an activity of 1 curie is:
a 3.7 x 108.
b 3.7 x 109.
c 3.7 x 1010.
d 3.7 x 1011.
5 When an particle is emitted the atomic mass changes by:
a Minus 2.
b Zero.
c Minus 4.
d Plus 4.
6 In gamma radiography radiation intensity is proportional to:
a Source activity.
b Half life.
c Exposure time.
d The square of the source to film distance.
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Gamma Rays
7 The half life of a gamma ray isotope can be extended by:
a Storing the isotope close to other isotopes of the same type.

b Storing the isotope at a very low temperature.
c Storing the isotope in a powerful magnetic field.
d The half life is a constant and cannot be changed.
8 The radioactive materials used in modern industrial radiography are:
a Naturally occurring.
b Produced by neutron bombardment.
c By products of nuclear fission.
d By products of nuclear fusion.
9 Which of the following presents the greatest hazard from gamma

radiation?
a 10 curies of cobalt 60.

b 10 curies of iridium 192.
c 10 curies of ytterbium 169.
d All of the above are equally dangerous.
10 In x-ray or gamma ray radiography radiation intensity is proportional to

tube current or source strength; another way to describe intensity would
be:
a As a measure of the penetrating power of the radiation beam.

b As the number of rays or photons striking a unit area (1m2) each second.
c As the number photons striking a unit area (1m2) each second multiplied
by the average photon energy.
11 The radiation spectrum produced by a gamma ray source is:
a Continuous all wavelengths represented over a wide range.

b Discrete made up of several specific wavelengths.
c Either a or b.
12 The type of radiation that presents (potentially) the greatest hazard to

human health is:
a X-rays.
b Gamma rays.
c Beta particles.
d Alpha particles.
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Section 7
Methods of Producing a
Radiographic Image
Rev 1 January 2010
Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image
7 Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image

7.1 Radiographic film
Radiographic film is essentially the same as that used in photography in that
it consists of a suspension of silver halide grains (typically silver bromide) in
a gelatine binder on an acetate or polyester base. radiographic film, differs
from photographic film in that the:
Acetate or polyester base material is considerably thicker than

photographic film.
Emulsion is applied to both sides of the film. This effectively doubles the
film density (ie degree of darkness) for the same exposure to radiation
and thereby doubles the film speed.
Emulsion tends to be thicker (usually around 0.025mm) than or
photographic films, in order to further increase the film speed.
Coarse grained film requires a shorter exposure time than fine grain film
because each grain of silver halide needs only to receive as few a single
photon of radiation or single secondary electron in order to become
sensitised. When a sensitised grain contacts the developer solution the
entire grain, regardless of its size, is converted to image forming metallic
silver. Large grains of silver will block out more light than small grains so a
coarse grained film will appear darker after processing than will a fine
grained film even though the exposure conditions were exactly the same.
Table 5 lists the direct type radiographic films produced by various
manufacturers in order of their relative film speed.
For the most part, industrial radiography is carried out using fine grain film
such as Kodak CX, Agfa D7, Cronex NDT 70 or Fuji 100. Ultrafine grained
film is used where adequate sensitivity cannot be achieved using fine
grained film. Coarse grained film is rarely used where except very rapid
results have to be obtained.
Table 7.5 Radiographic film

Film manufacturer/ Film Kodak Agfa DuPont Fuji
type Gevaert (Cronex)
Ultrafine grain NDT 45
MX D4 NDT 55 50
D5 NDT 65 80
Fine grain AA D7 NDT 70 100
CX NDT 75
Coarse grain D10 NDT 91 150
400
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7.1.1 Latent image formation

When film is exposed to X-rays, gamma rays, or light, an invisible change
called a latent image is produced in the film emulsion. The areas exposed
become dark when the film is immersed in a developing solution, the degree
of darkening depending on the amount of exposure.
7.1.2 Intensifying screens

In industrial radiography intensifying screens of one form or another tend to
be used for most exposures. An intensifying screen amplifies the effect that
the primary radiation beam has upon the radiographic film emulsion, thus
shortening the required exposure time.
Metallic foil intensifying screens

At first it may seem to be a little paradoxical that metallic (nearly always lead
but occasionally copper, steel or tantalum) foil screens can produce an
intensifying effect. All metals are good absorbers of ionising radiation so one
would naturally expect that the film density would be reduced rather than
increased. In practice however, lead or copper foil screens brought into
close contact with direct type radiographic film reduce the required exposure
for radiation energies in excess of 120keV by a factor of about two. The
reason for this is that under the action of ionising radiation of energy 120keV
or greater metals produce secondary electrons which have kinetic energy
sufficient to cause the sensitisation of the grains of silver halide which they
strike. Metallic foil screens further add to the quality of the radiograph by
filtering out a large proportion of the scattered radiation which is of lower
energy (therefore more easily absorbed) than the primary beam.
For most purposes lead foil screens 0.125mm thickness are used but thicker
screens are used for high energy radiography. Copper screens tend to be
used only for extremely high energy techniques (above 1MeV). The lead
screens found in pre-packed film are only a few microns thick, they produce
a strong intensifying effect but have a much reduced effect on the scattered
radiation as compared with standard re-useable lead screens. Pre-packed
film is available either in individual disposable cassettes or as rollpack
where a long narrow length of film is supplied complete with lead screens in
a protective light proof sheath. Rollpack film can be cut to any desired
length. The cut ends have to be light sealed with suitable adhesive tape.
Rollpack is commonly used on pipelines in conjunction with the panoramic
technique.
BS EN 1435 Tables 2 and 3 specify metallic foil screens of lead, copper,

steel and tantalum. The specified thickness range and screen material
change for different X-ray tube voltages and different isotopes.
Salt screens
Salt screens consist of a layer of calcium tungstate (or other fluorescent
material), attached using a suitable binding material, to a sheet of
cardboard. While salt screens can produce a dramatic reduction in exposure
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time when used with screen type film they are seldom used in industrial
radiography because they produce an image of inferior quality, are
expensive and very easily damaged.
Salt screens produce an image intensifying effect by fluorescing, usually the

blue part of the spectrum, under the action of ionising radiation. They are
capable of cutting the exposure time required by a factor of up to 500.
Fluorometallic screens
These screens, which attempt to combine the advantages of lead screens
with those of salt screens are occasionally used in industrial radiography
when there are strong financial pressures for a reduction in exposure time.
One such application is on offshore pipe laying barges. They are even more
expensive than salt screens at around 70 for a pair of 10x40cm screens
and they are just as easily damaged. They do not provide quite the same
reduction in exposure time as do salt screens but the image quality is
considerably improved (although still inferior to that produced using lead
screens). Fluorometallic screens consist of a cardboard backing material
with a layer of lead foil attached, then a layer of calcium tungstate or other
fluorescent crystalline material suspended in a suitable binding material.
7.1.3 Film processing

Radiographic film forms a latent image during exposure to ionising radiation,
light or secondary electrons. By a process which is not fully understood,
silver halide grains become sensitised during exposure (see Section 7.1.1).
To make the latent image formed by the sensitised grains visible it is
necessary to chemically process the film. Films can be processed either
manually or automatically but the chemical processes involved are the
same. Radiographic film must not be exposed to light except that from
darkroom safe-lamps; even this exposure must be minimised as prolonged
exposure can result in film fogging. Extreme care must be exercised during
film processing because the wet film emulsion is extremely fragile.
Velcro fastening
Lead foil
Film Black PVC

cassette
Cardboard
backing
Velcro fastening
Figure 7.1 Film/lead screens/flexible cassette.
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Development
The first stage in film processing is development. During this stage a
reducing agent such as hydroquinone or metol reduces the sensitised silver
halide grains in the film emulsion to metallic silver. Development, whether
manual or automatic, must be carried out within the temperature range
recommended by the developer manufacturer otherwise image quality will
be severely impaired.
If processing is done manually agitation must be carried out to make sure

that air bubbles trapped on the film surface are removed ensuring the
developer achieves full contact. Agitation must be continuous for the initial
30 seconds and then every 10 seconds per minute thereafter.
Stop bath
The stop bath serves two purposes: (1) Curtail the action of the developer
and (2) Protects the fixer by reducing carry over of developer solution. It is
not essential to use a stop bath but it is desirable because it will
considerably extend the life of the fixer. It will also help to avoid possible film
artefacts, dichroic fogging in particular, damage to the fixer. It is normal to
allow a time of 2-3 minutes when using running water stop baths.
Fixing and hardening

The chemicals which are used to fix the image and harden the emulsion are
normally combined in a single chemical bath. Both types of chemical have to
be protected by an acid buffer solution. In acid solution the active ingredient
in the fixer will dissolve only silver halide from the film; if the solution
becomes alkaline it will, in addition, begin to dissolve any metallic silver
present. The silver halides which remain intact in the film emulsion after
development must be removed to preserve the image which has been
formed and in order that it can be viewed using transmitted light. Any silver
halide which remains in the emulsion of a fully processed film will quickly
deteriorate on contact with air under the influence of light to form brown
stains which severely degrade the quality of the image.
The process of removing excess silver halides is called fixing. The chemical
used to achieve this is sodium (or ammonium) thiosulphate (sometimes
called hypo).
For manual processing the fixer-hardener bath should be maintained at the

same temperature as the developer, although in this case the temperature is
not so critical. Films should be fixed for twice the clearing time (the time
taken for the fixer to strip out the remaining silver halide). The clearing time
for a fixer bath maintained in good condition will generally be less than 2.5
minutes at 20C. While fixing times of 1 hour or more generally have no ill
effects, over-fixing should be avoided because in some circumstances it can
lead to frilling, (frilling is a film artefact whereby the film emulsion becomes
detached from the base). Frilling can be caused by allowing film to remain in
the fixer for an extended period at high temperature, particularly where
hardener has not been added to the fixer.
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Washing
After fixing the film must be thoroughly washed so as to remove all traces of
the fixer chemicals from the emulsion. Insufficient washing will result in the
formation of brownish yellow stains while over-washing can cause water
marks or even frilling (see above). Adequate wash times in a running water
wash vary from 10 minutes at 30C to 30 minutes at 10C. Most film
manufacturers recommend that the wash temperature should not be more
than 25C. Film can be washed successfully in a still water bath provided
that the water is changed regularly.
Drying
The application of a wetting agent to the film prior to drying will help the film
to dry quickly/evenly without watermarks. If the films are to be dried using a
warm air draught then care must be taken to ensure that dust is not blown
onto the wet films. Warm air dryers with a downward draught dry the film
more quickly.
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Methods of producing a radiographic image
1 In manual film processing agitation of the film in the developer should be:
a Continuous for the first 30 seconds and 10 seconds per minute

thereafter.
b Continuous throughout the full development time.
c Continuous in the final 30 seconds of the development time.
d Minimised so as to avoid frame marks.
2 The ideal thickness of lead in lead foil screens:
a Is 0.125mm.
b Increases with increasing radiation energy.
c Decreases with increasing radiation energy.
d Is 0.05mm.
3 With which type of intensifying screen is the main intensifying effect due
to the emission of secondary electrons?
a Salt screens.
b Fluorometallic screens.
c Lead screens.
d All of the above.
4 Compared with a fast radiographic film a slow radiographic film has:
a Thicker emulsion.
b Lower contrast.
c Increased inherent unsharpness.
d Smaller grain size.
5 Normal good practice for manual film processing requires:
a A darkroom with separate wet and dry areas.

b Chemicals to be covered when not in use to reduce oxidation.
c A calibrated thermometer to check bath temperatures.
d All of the above.
6 The image formed on a film during exposure to ionising radiation prior to

development is usually referred to as:
a A raw image.
b An underdeveloped image.
c An imaginary image.
d A latent image.
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7 The photosensitive material in a radiographic film emulsion is:
a Kryptonite.
b Sodium thiosulphate.
c Silver bromide.
d Calcium tungstate.
8 The intensifying effect of lead screens occurs above what minimum x-ray
kilovoltage?
a 180 kV.
b 80 kV.
c 55 kV.
d 120 kV.
9 X-ray film differs from photographic film in that the film emulsion is
applied to both sides of the base. What advantage is gained by double
coating the film in this way?
a Decreased exposure time (increased film speed).

b Improved film contrast.
c Improved radiographic sensitivity.
d All of the above.
10 Lead screens decrease exposure time by a factor of:
a 10 or 12 at radiation energies exceeding 120 keV.

b 5 or 6 at radiation energies exceeding 120 keV.
c 4 or 5 at radiation energies exceeding 120 keV.
d 2 or 3 at radiation energies exceeding 120 keV.
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Section 8
Production of a Radiographic
(Film Radiography)
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Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography)
8 Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography)

A radiograph is a record of the way in which a beam of radiation has been
differentially absorbed by an object stored on photographic film. In order to
produce good quality radiographs economically numerous factors have to
taken into account. First it is necessary to understand what is meant by
radiographic quality.
8.1 Radiographic quality

The quality or sensitivity of a radiograph is a measure of the ability of the
radiograph to detect small changes in radiation intensity caused by
variations in object thickness or composition. In order to detect small
imperfections in an object an adequate level of sensitivity must be achieved.
The standard methods of measuring or estimating sensitivity are described
in the next chapter. Achieving adequate sensitivity is the crucial factor which
determines the level of success of radiography as an NDT technique.
Figure 8.1 summarises the factors which must be considered if radiographs

of adequate quality are to be produced. Radiographic quality or sensitivity
depends on achieving good contrast and good definition.
Radiographic sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Figure 8.1 Factors affecting radiographic sensitivity.
8.1.1 Contrast
Contrast can be defined as the ease with which it is possible to distinguish
between two adjacent areas of different film density. The chief factor which
determines whether or not the two areas will be clearly defined is the degree
of difference in film density.
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Radiographic contrast comes from two sources:
The object being radiographed: subject contrast.
The film used to produce the radiograph: film contrast.

Subject contrast can be defined as the degree of difference in transmitted
radiation intensity produced by a given change in subject thickness. This is
primarily a function of the type of material from which the subject is made.
For instance a 1mm step in a 10mm section of lead will produce a much
greater change in transmitted radiation intensity than would the same step in
a similar section of aluminium (assuming that the energy of the incident
radiation was the same in both cases).
Film contrast can be defined as the degree of difference in film density

produced by a given change in radiation intensity or exposure time. This is
primarily controlled by the type of film used.
The factors affecting film and subject contrast are discussed below.
Film type (affects film contrast)

In considering the effect that film type has upon film contrast (the type of film
has no effect on subject contrast) it is useful to refer to a type of graph
called a film characteristic curve. Such graphs relate the logarithm of the
relative exposure time to the achieved film density; an example is given in
Figure 8.2.
The gradient of a film characteristic curve represents the change in film

density produced by a small change in subject thickness. Figure 8.3 shows
how the gradient of the film characteristic curve varies with film density.
Note that the curve for Kodak MX, an ultrafine grain film, has the steepest
gradient. The Agfa D7 curve is in turn steeper than that of Kodak CX. D7
and CX are both class C5 fine grain film, but CX is a faster film than D7.
Thus MX will provide the best film contrast, whilst D7 should produce
contrast better than that of CX.
Film density (affects film contrast)

Film density can be defined as the degree of darkening of the film or more
properly the degree to which the film prevents light from passing through it.
Mathematically, film density is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the
ratio of the incident to transmitted light intensity. It can be calculated using
the following formula:
Incident Light Intensity

Film Density = Log10
Transmitte d Light Intensity
The logarithm to the base 10 of a number is just the power of 10 that will
produce the number itself.
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For example:
102 = 100 and the logarithm of 100 = 2

103 = 1000 and the logarithm of 1000 = 3
100.301 = 2
Film density and the logarithm of 2 = 0.301
Log10 relative exposure
Figure 8.2 Film characteristic curves CX-D7-MX (direct type film/lead screens).
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increasing gradient = increasing film contrast

Gradient of film characteristic curve
8.0 10.0
MX
6.0 D7
CX
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

Film density
Figure 8.3 Gradient of the film characteristic curve versus film density for Kodak
MX, Agfa D7 and Kodak CX.
Thus a film having a density of 2 transmits 1% of the incident light intensity

while a film with a density of 3 transmits only 0.1%. A film with a density of
0.3 would transmit about 50% of the incident light intensity.
Figures 8.2 and 8.3 show how film density affects film contrast. Film density
does not affect subject contrast. The gradient of the film characteristic curve
is a good measure of film contrast. The gradient for all films increases with
increasing film density. If the gradient is steep then a small change in
radiation intensity or exposure time will produce a large change in film
density. The gradient of all of the film characteristic curves becomes shallow
at film densities of less than 1.5, indicating that film contrast will be poor at
low film densities. In view of this all relevant national standards stipulate a
minimum film density of about 2.0 for industrial radiography.
Base fog level (affects film contrast)

National standards generally limit the base fog level of unexposed
radiographic film to 0.3. If the base fog level exceeds this value film contrast
can be quite severely affected. Fog level can be checked by processing a
sample of the unexposed film. Figure 8.4 demonstrates how the base fog
level affects film contrast.
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Film density
Log10 relative exposure

Figure 8.4 Effect of film fogging on the film characteristic curve.
(The dotted lines show the average gradient between film densities 1.5 and
2.5 for film having a base fog level of 0.1 and 0.5 respectively. The average
gradient with a base fog level of 0.1 is about 3.6 while that for a base fog
level of 0.5 is about 2.7. This decrease in average gradient is indicative of a
reduction in film contrast.) can, to some extent, be increased to compensate
for a lower developer temperature or reduced if the temperature is above
the optimum, but this will invariably be at the cost of reduced film contrast.
In order to maintain the developer in good condition it must be replenished.

Developer which has not been properly replenished quickly leads to low
contrast low quality radiographs.
Radiation quality (affects subject contrast)

As the photon energy of the incident beam of radiation increases the subject
contrast produced by the same change in component thickness decreases.
This is because higher energy radiation is less absorbed as it passes
through a given thickness of the same material than is lower energy
radiation.
It is useful to talk about different radiation energy in terms of its half value
layer. The half value layer can be defined as the thickness of any particular
material which will reduce the intensity of the incident radiation by a factor of
2. The thickness of the half value layer for any material increases with
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increasing radiation energy. Examples of half value layers for various

materials and radiation energies are given in Table 8.6.
Table 8.6 Half value layers.

Nature of incident radiation Half value layer, mm
Steel Aluminium Lead
Iridium 192 -rays 13 35 4.8
Cobalt 60 -rays 22 70 12.5
100kV X-rays 2.4 15 0.1
150kV X-rays 4.5 18.5 0.3
200kV X-rays 6 21 0.65
300kV X-rays 8 25 1.6
Note: that as half value layer decreases subject contrast increases.
Scatter (affects film and subject contrast)

As ionising radiation passes through any material it undergoes a process
known as scattering. Scattering occurs due to various mechanisms (the
principal cause varies with the radiation energy) all of which occur due to the
way in which radiation photons interact with atoms. When an X-ray photon
strikes an atom it will cause the atom to lose one or more electrons, so that
the affected atom becomes positively charged. Such electrically charged
atoms are normally referred to as ions. Ions, by their nature, are not stable;
they will try to attract electrons into their empty energy shells in order to
achieve a zero electrical charge. As electrons are captured from free space
by ions they give up part of their kinetic energy as a photon of radiation.
These photons will radiate in all directions from the affected atoms. Such
radiation is known as scattered radiation and can lead to an overall fogging
of the film emulsion. This reduces film contrast by effectively shifting the film
characteristic curve upwards on the y-axis of the graph (the effect is the
same as excessive base fog level, see Figure 8.4 above).
Scatter can severely reduce subject contrast by reducing the differences in

radiation intensity reaching the film from various parts of the component
under test.
Scattering mechanisms and methods of controlling scattered radiation are

discussed in a later section.
8.1.2 Definition
Definition is a measure of the sharpness of the images on the radiograph. It
can be defined as the width of the boundary between two areas of different
density on a film. The opposite of definition is unsharpness.
An illustration of unsharpness is given in Figure 8.5.

The total unsharpness on a radiograph is due to three factors:
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Geometric unsharpness (also called penumbra or penumbral shadow).

Inherent unsharpness (also called film unsharpness).
Relative movement during exposure.
These are described and discussed below.
Increasing unsharpness
Figure 8.5 The unsharpness of the boundary between light and dark increases
from left to right.
Geometric unsharpness (Ug)

A major factor affecting definition on a radiograph is geometric unsharpness.
This can be defined as the width of the penumbra. Penumbra is the word
used in physics to describe the lack of sharpness at the edge of a shadow.
Umbra means full shadow and penumbra means half shadow. So long as
the source of radiation is not a true point source (and it never is a true point
source) there will be a penumbral area at the edge of any shadow. A
radiographic image is basically just a shadow.
Focus
Object
Image
Unsharp image Sharp image
Umbra
Penumbra
Figure 8.6 Penumbra.
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The focal spot of an X-ray tube and a radioactive isotope always have finite
physical dimensions so a penumbra is always produced. Once the achieved
penumbra falls below about 0.2mm the unaided human eye ceases to
perceive any further improvement in definition. For very high quality
radiographic techniques geometric unsharpness is therefore generally kept
to a value of less than 0.2mm. To achieve this, the object to film distance is
kept short and the radiation source to film distance is made as long as
necessary depending upon the radiation source dimensions.
To determine the focal sport size of an X-ray tube, the pin-hole camera
method can be used.
f OFD
Ug
FOD
Figure 8.7 Geometric unsharpness.
Relative movement during exposure

An increase in unsharpness will also be produced if there is any relative
movement between the source, object or film during exposure. This can be
a particular problem when carrying out radiography of pipework which is in
service (and therefore vibrating) or when radiography has to be performed in
windy conditions.
8.2 Radiation scattering and scatter control

Matter which has absorbed ionising radiation and which has therefore
reached an unstable energy state will emit energy in the form of radiation as
it returns to a stable energy state. Some of this radiation will be in the form
of heat, in a few specialised cases it will be in the form of light and in many
cases X-rays will be produced. Such X-rays are termed scattered radiation
and they can very adversely affect radiographic quality. Control of scattered
radiation is therefore essential if high quality radiographs are to be
produced.
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Source
Primary radiation Scatter
Figure 8.8 Scattered radiation.
8.2.1 Scattering mechanisms the causes of scatter

There are three scattering mechanisms of particular importance in
radiography, the photoelectric effect, Compton (or incoherent scattering)
and pair production. The predominant scattering mechanism depends on
the photon energy of the primary beam.
Photoelectric effect
Takes place below 0.6MeV where all the energy of the incident X- or
gamma photon is transferred to an orbiting electron which is ejected from
the atom. When the atom re-captures an electron an x-ray is emitted.
Compton (incoherent)
Occurs between 0.6MeV and 6MeV where only part of the incident photon
energy is transferred to an orbiting electron. The remaining photon energy
continues as a lower energy X-ray although slightly deflected from its
original path.
Pair production
Generally occurs above 6MeV where the incident photon collides with the
nucleus or inner shell, converting to an electron-positron pair. The positron
is short lived and when meeting with an electron and annihilation takes
place, emitting 2 photons of 0.541MeV radiation. Note: pair production
cannot take place below a 1.02MeV threshold.
Several other scattering mechanisms are possible, including Rayleigh or

coherent scattering, but these are of little importance in industrial
radiography.
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8.2.2 Types of scatter

Several types of scatter cause problems in radiography, side, back and
internal scatter (self-scatter). The angle formed between the direction of
travel of the primary beam and the scattered radiation (reaching the film) is
called the scattering angle or angle of scatter. Side and internal scatter have
an angle which is less than or equal to 90 while for back scatter the angle
exceeds 90.
Side scatter
Radiation may be scattered by parts of the object that are not within the
diagnostic area of the radiograph or by the walls of the exposure room. This
is termed side scatter.
This type of scatter can be reduced by collimating the beam such that only
the area to be examined is subjected to the primary beam and by the use of
lead masking, diaphragms or grids. In X-radiography the use of a filter may
help to reduce side scatter.
Side scatter causes undercutting of the radiographic image around the

edges of a component where these can be seen on the radiograph or at any
site where there is a large change in section thickness (eg a bolt hole).
Undercutting causes a lack of sharpness and may mask possible defect
indications.
Back scatter
Back scatter is caused by the primary beam striking an object behind the
film and scattering back.
It can easily be reduced by shielding the back of the film cassette with a
sheet of lead; approximately 2mm thick is adequate for most applications. In
X-radiography the use of a filter may help to reduce back scatter.
The presence of excessive back scatter may be detected by placing a lead

letter B on the back surface of the cassette (ie the cassette surface furthest
from the source of radiation). If there is excessive back scatter then a light
image of the letter B will be seen on the developed film. The use of a lead
letter B is mandatory when working in accordance with the ASME code and
is required for each new technique by BS EN 1435 (ie not for production
radiography). In accordance with BS EN 1435 the lead letter B shall be a
minimum of 10mm high and 1.5mm thickness.
Note: If a dark image of the letter B appears this is not excessive back
scatter. It merely indicates scatter caused by the letter B itself.
Should back scatter be detected then the thickness of the lead sheet
shielding the back of the film cassette must be increased.
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Self-scatter
Self-scatter is scattered radiation originating from within the test component.
The detrimental effect on film quality can be reduced by the use of lead
intensifying screens placed in contact with the film and in X-radiography, by
the use of filters.
If the radiation source is an X-ray tube then the use of a copper filter can
help to reduce the effects of this type of scatter. A copper filter significantly
reduces the proportion of low energy radiation within the primary beam.
Since it is the low energy radiation which is chiefly responsible for scatter
the use of such a filter can reduce the overall amount of scatter occurring
and in this way improve image quality. Filters made from lead, steel or other
metals may be used in a similar way.
Metallic foil intensifying screens made from lead or other metals reduce the
effects of self-scatter for both X and gamma ray radiography as they filter
out the low energy scattered radiation and prevent it from reaching the film.
8.2.3 Scatter control

Collimation
Probably the single most effective way of reducing scatter is to collimate the
radiation beam. Collimators shield out most of the radiation which is not
travelling in the useful direction. X-ray equipment is always to some extent
self-collimated; the geometry of the hooded anode shields out much of the
unwanted radiation produced, but some X-ray heads may contain additional
shielding. In gamma radiography collimators consisting of hollowed out
blocks of lead weighing around 2.5kg are common. More effective (but more
expensive) collimators for gamma radiography are made from tungsten or
tantalum.
The principle of collimation is simply that if there is less radiation then there
will be proportionally less scatter.
8.2.4 Diaphragms
Diaphragms take collimation a step further. They consist of a sheet of lead
which has a hole cut in it the same shape as the object which is being
radiographed. Using a diaphragm the radiographer is attempting to shield
out all unwanted radiation, the set up for radiography must however, be
extremely accurate if it is to be successful. Diaphragms are therefore more
likely to be seen where a fully automated technique is in use that allows for
a very high degree of repeatability in the set-up accuracy.
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8.2.5 Exposure charts

Exposure charts provide a convenient means of estimating radiographic
exposures for both X and gamma ray techniques. All exposure charts are
correct only for a fixed set of conditions; all of the factors mentioned in Table
7 are fixed for any particular chart. Exposure charts for X-ray equipment are
usually applicable only to a single type of equipment. Figure 8.9 shows an
example of an X-ray exposure chart. Figure 8.10 is an example of an
exposure chart for iridium 192.
Table 7 Factors affecting radiographic exposure (film radiography).

Factors affecting film speed (Table 7 Part 1)
Factor Comments
Film type Coarse grained films are fast and require a short exposure while fine
grained films are slow and require a long exposure.
Intensifying screen The effect of intensifying screens varies with the incident radiation
type energy. Metallic foil intensifying screens reduce the required exposure
time by a factor of about 2 or 3 at radiation energies of 120keV or more.
Fluorometallic screens reduce the exposure time by a factor of about 50
with films designed for use with such screens. Salt screens can reduce
the required exposure time by a factor of 500 but are seldom used for
industrial radiography.
Film processing Developer type and concentration together with the development
temperature can affect the film speed. Automatic processing usually
gives a slight increase in film speed when compared with manual
processing.
Radiation energy Fairly minor compared with other factors. Can affect the efficiency of the
intensifying screens, and to a lesser extent the film speed.
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Factors affecting the intensity of radiation reaching the film (Table 7 Part 2)
Factor Comments
Material type The amount of radiation absorbed by a material increases with
increasing density and atomic number.
Material thickness The amount of radiation absorbed by an object rises exponentially with
increasing material thickness.
I = I0e-t
Where I0 = the intensity of the incident radiation;

I = the intensity of the transmitted radiation;
= the coefficient of linear absorption; t = the penetrated thickness
Radiation energy The amount of radiation absorbed by a material decreases with
increasing radiation energy. For X-ray techniques the amount of
radiation which will be absorbed for a given radiation energy can not be
calculated - this has to be measured experimentally.
Radiation energy Exposure times for self-rectified X-ray equipment are always longer
distribution than those for constant potential equipment operating at the same peak
tube voltage. The radiation produced by constant potential equipment is
said to be harder because it contains proportionally more high energy
radiation. In fact radiation energy distribution can vary quite markedly
even between different types self-rectified or constant potential unit. X-
ray exposure charts therefore are applicable to only a single equipment
type.
Source or focus to film The amount of radiation reaching the film is proportional to the
distance reciprocal of the square of the source to film distance. As the required
exposure time is inversely proportional to the radiation intensity:
E al D2
Where E is the exposure time at distance D.

Filters If the half value layer of the material from which the filter is made is
known and its thickness is known then it is possible to compensate the
exposure for the insertion of or removal of a filter.
Source strength or Radiation intensity is proportional to the tube current for x-rays and to
tube current the source activity for gamma rays.
Film density (Table 7 Part 3)

Factor Comments
Film density The required exposure is strongly dependent upon the required film
density. Film characteristic curves can be used to compensate for a
change in the required film density.
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Steel thickness/mm
Exposure/mAmins
Exposure/mAmins
Pantak 200kV
Kodax CX
FFD 914mm
Lead screens
Density 2.2
Steel thickness/mm
Figure 8.9 Exposure chart for Pantak 200kV CP directional.
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Steel thickness, mm
Source - Iridium 192

Development - 4min at 20oC
Source to film distance - 900mm
Material - steel
Screens - lead
Film - Kodak CX
Exposure/curie hours
Exposure/curie hours
Steel thickness.mm
Figure 8.10 Exposure chart for iridium 192.
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Example:
Figure 8.11 Butt weld in 15mm plate. Radiograph of a butt weld in 15mm thickness
steel plate (allows for a weld reinforcement of 3mm).
Using exposure charts (X-ray)
Focus to film distance

Two factors affect the choice of focus to film distance, geometric
unsharpness (Ug) requirements and the desired diagnostic film length (DFL).
BS EN 1435 does not directly specify geometric unsharpness, but controls it

by specifying a minimum value of focus to film distance for a given effective
focus size and object to film distance, see Figures 8.12 and 8.13 below.
Taking the example given in Figure 8.11 above lets suppose that we wish to
achieve a geometric unsharpness of 0.25mm or better. This would be
sufficient to satisfy the requirements of most national codes or standards
including BS EN 1435 class A.
f (OFD)
Ug =
(FOD)
but the OFD can be taken as being equal to the material thickness, in this
case 18mm, and the FFD is equal to the FOD plus the material thickness
so:
f x 18
0.25 =
(FFD 18)
If we choose to use the Pantak 200 CP the effective focus size on the broad
focus setting is about 4mm, so:
4 x18
Minimum FFD = + 18 = 306mm
0.25
Source to film dis tan ce

SFD/FFD =
Focus to film dis tan ce
OFD = Object to film distance (from top of the object).
FOD = Source or focus to object distance.
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Object to film distance, mm
Source size: 3mm Note that this diagram is
Minimum source to film distance, mm

Minimum source to film distance, mm
for an effective source
size of 3mm. The
minimum SFD for other
source sizes can be
found as follows:
Find the minimum SFD

for the desired image
class from the figure, let
this distance = d
Minimum SFD for source

size = f is then equal to:
f (d-OFD)+OFD
Figure 8.12 BS EN 1435 minimum SFD/FFD.
Note: That in BS EN 1435 standard techniques are Class A, while

enhanced techniques are Class B.
Geometric unsharpness at minimum
source to film distance, mm
Figure 8.13 BS EN 1435 geometric unsharpness at minimum SFD/FFD.
So a focus to film distance of 306mm will achieve the required value of

geometric unsharpness. However if we use this minimum FFD the
diagnostic film length (DFL) will be rather short due to fade off. BS EN 1435
has a requirement for Class B techniques that the penetrated thickness
(based on the nominal thickness) at the ends of the DFL shall not exceed
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110% of the nominal thickness. For Class A the requirement is that the
penetrated thickness shall not exceed 120% of the nominal thickness at the
end of the DFL. This translates to a DFL that is approximately 0.9 x FFD for
Class B and 1.3 x FFD for Class A. In this case lets apply the BS EN 1435
Class A requirement. If we want to achieve a DFL of 450mm the minimum
FFD based on this will be 450/1.3 = 346. For convenience we can round this
up to say 400mm.
Figure 8.14 The inverse square law.
Intensity = number of photons per square metre. At 2D the same number of

photons that passed through one square at D now passes through 4
squares. Thus the intensity at 2D is one quarter of what it was at D. Intensity
is proportional to 1/(distance)2. Radiographic exposure time is proportional
to 1/(intensity), thus exposure time is proportional to (distance)2.
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The inverse square law can be stated as follows:

2
Old

Old radiation int ensity dis tan ce
New radiation intensity or dose rate = 2
or dose rate New

dis tan ce
Or
2
New

dis tan ce
New exposure = (Old exposure) 2
Old

dis tan ce
Changing the film type
Sometimes we may wish to change to a different type of film. For example if
the required radiographic sensitivity could not be achieved using Kodak CX
film we might consider using MX film which should produce better contrast
and consequently better sensitivity. This can be achieved using the film
characteristic curves, but it is more convenient to use film factors. Table 8
lists film factors for some common direct type X-ray films.
Table 8.8 Film factors.

Film manufacturer Film type Film factor
Kodak CX 2.50
AX 3.75
MX 10.00
Agfa D7 3.50
D5 5.50
D4 13.00
Fuji 150 1.90
100 3.10
80 6.50
DuPont (Cronex) 75 2.00
65 4.00
55 8.00
Note: that the film factors given in Table 8.8 are approximately correct for
radiation energy in the range 0.1-1.0MeV. Film factors can vary with
radiation energy.
Suppose that we wish to change from film A to film B.
New exposure =
Old exp osure x (Film factor B).
Film factor A
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Thus to change from CX to MX we divide by the film factor for CX (= 2.50)

and multiply the result by the film factor for MX (= 10.0).
Therefore using MX film, for a film density of 2.5 our exposures become
140mA-mins at 120kV or 37mA-mins at 140kV. The exposure at 120kV is
now rather long (14 minutes at 10mA) so an exposure using 140kV of
around 3 minutes at 12.1mA would be preferred.
Radiography of other materials

All of the exposure charts in the figures above have been constructed for
steel. If radiography has to be carried out on materials other than steel then
the exposure time will have to be adjusted to compensate for the difference
in radiation absorption. This can be done using half value layers. The half
value layer of a given material for a given incident radiation energy is the
thickness of the material which reduces the intensity of the incident radiation
by a factor of 2. However the simplest way is to use equivalence factors,
some examples of which are listed in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9 Equivalence factors.

Material Radiation energy/isotope
100keV 150keV 220keV 400keV Ir192
Steel 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.1
Aluminium 0.08 0.12 0.18 - 0.35
Al alloy 4.5% Cu 0.13 0.16 0.22 - 0.35
Titanium 0.5 0.45 0.35 - -
Going back to the example, if we needed to radiograph a weld dimensionally

similar but made in a copper-based alloy rather than steel then the first thing
would be to work out the steel equivalent thickness.
This is equal to the actual thickness of copper divided by the steel

equivalence factor and multiplied by the equivalence factor for copper.
Stated generally this is:
From the table it can be seen that at 140kV the copper equivalence factor is
probably about 1.55, while that for steel is 1.0, so 18mm copper is
radiographically equivalent to (18 1.0) x 1.55 = 27.9mm steel.
Looking at Figure 8.9 it can be seen that an exposure of about 205mA-mins

would be required using the Pantak 200 CP to achieve a film density of 2.2
at a FFD of 914mm using CX film on 18mm thickness copper (28mm steel
equivalent).
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Compensating for the use of a filter

If problems arise with scattered radiation one possibility in X-radiography is
to use a filter. Typically filters made from 1 or 2mm thickness copper sheet
are used, filters made from other metals such as lead may also be used.
The difference which the use of a filter will make to the exposure time for the
steel weld in the example can be calculated using the equivalence factors in
Table 8.9.
Suppose that we wish to radiograph our 18mm thickness steel weld using
the Pantak 200 at 140kV with a focus to film distance of 400mm. The
exposure required for a film density of 2.5 without a filter was calculated
above as 9.2mA-mins if using CX film. The equivalence factor for copper at
140kV is about 0.64. Therefore 1mm of copper will be radiographically
equivalent to 10.64 x 1 = 1.6mm of steel. To find the correct exposure (for
a copper filter thickness of 1mm) we simply need to add this amount to the
steel thickness which is being radiographed:
18 + 1.6 = 19.6mm
Figure 8.9 gives an exposure of about 50mA-mins for 19.6mm of steel at a

focus to film distance of 914mm, which is an increase of 25% compared to
the exposure which was required under the same conditions without the
filter. Thus the exposure required with a FFD of 400mm using CX film for a
film density of 2.5 increases by 25% from 9.2-11.5mA-mins.
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Production of a radiograph
1 If D is the distance from the source radiation intensity is proportional to:
a D2.
b D.
c 1/D.
d 1/D2.
2 It is desirable that the focal spot of an x-ray tube be as small as possible

why? Because this:
a Reduces scatter & improves safety.

b Helps to produce better radiographic definition.
c Extends the service life of the target.
d Helps to produce better radiographic contrast.
3 An exposure chart for iridium 192 that has been constructed for SFD =
500mm gives an exposure of 100 Ci-min for 25mm of steel. The
specification calls for a minimum SFD = 800mm. If all other factors
remain equal what exposure is needed at the specified minimum SFD?
a 160Ci-min.
b 62.5Ci-min.
c 39.1Ci-min.
d 256Ci-min.
4 At 160 kV the equivalence factor for copper is 1.6 while that for steel is
1.0. This means that:
a 32mm of copper is radiographically equivalent to 20mm of steel.

b The exposure time for 20mm of copper will be 1.6 times that for an equal
thickness of steel.
c 20mm of copper is radiographically equivalent to 32mm of steel.
d the exposure time for 20mm of copper will be 0.625 times that for an
equal thickness of steel.
5 The major cause of scatter up to a radiation energy of about 0.6 MeV is:
a The photoelectric effect.

b Compton (incoherent) scattering.
c Rayleigh (coherent) scattering.
d Pair production.
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6 One way to reduce the effects of scatter is to use a:
a Reduced kilovoltage in x-ray radiography.

b Higher tube current with an appropriately shorter exposure time.
c Collimator.
d Gamma ray source that has a higher specific activity.
7 Calculate geometric unsharpness for single wall single image

radiography of a weld in 60mm thick steel plate (assuming that the film is
in contact with the plate) for an effective source size of 3mm and a
source to film distance of 720mm:
a 0.25mm.
b 0.30mm.
c 0.24mm.
d 0.27mm.
8 A good radiograph is produced with an exposure of 25 mAmins at a

focus to film distance (FFD) of 400mm. If the FFD is increased to 850
mm and all other factors remain equal the exposure required to produce
a good radiograph will be about:
a 100mAmins.
b 113mAmins.
c 53mAmins.
d 91mAmins.
9 If the effective focus size = 4mm, the object to film distance = 35mm and
the focus to film distance = 750mm what is value the geometric
unsharpness that has been obtained?
a 0.196mm.
b 0.200mm.
c 0.125mm.
d 0.187mm.
10 Geometric unsharpness is proportional to:
a The effective physical size of the radiation source.

b The object to film distance.
c The source to film distance.
d Both a and b.
11 For unexposed film, BS EN 444 specifies a maximum fog density of:
a Zero.
b 0.1.
c 0.2.
d 0.3.
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12 An alternative to the terminology inherent unsharpness is:
a Penumbra.
b Film unsharpness.
c Geometric unsharpness.
d Chromatic aberration.
13 If the specified maximum geometric unsharpness is 0.25mm and the

effective source dimension is 2.3mm what minimum source to film
distance is required for SWSI radiography of a 45mm thick butt weld in
flat plate?
a 414mm.
b 459mm.
c 503mm.
d 519mm.
14 If a good radiograph was produced using an exposure of 100 curie

minutes at a source to film distance of 850mm what exposure will
produce a good radiograph if the source to film distance is changed to
550mm (assuming that all other factors remain equal)?
a 42 curie minutes.
b 65 curie minutes.
c 155 curie minutes.
d 239 curie minutes.
15 A film characteristic curve is a graph of:
a Radiographic exposure against penetrated thickness.

b Development time against film density.
c Film density against logarithm relative exposure.
d Film density against penetrated thickness.
16 A radiographic technique, using an exposure of 10 mAmin, produces a

film density of 1.5 where a film density of 2.3 is required. A film
characteristic curve is available which gives a log relative exposure value
of 1.2 for [density = 1.5] with a corresponding value of 1.8 for [density =
2.3]. Thus the acceptable minimum film density should be achieved with
an exposure of:
a 33.33mAmin.
b 15.17mAmin.
c 40.00mAmin.
d 20.00mAmin.
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17 A 2 mm thick copper filter is to be used in conjunction with 220kV x-rays

for radiography of a 15mm thick butt weld in steel plate. If the
equivalence factor for steel is 1.0 while that for copper is 1.4 what
(approximate) thickness of steel should be used when obtaining an
exposure from a chart constructed for unfiltered x-rays?
a 16mm.
b 18mm.
c 19mm.
d 17mm.
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Section 9
Sensitivity
Rev 1 January 2010
Sensitivity
9 Sensitivity
9.1 Radiographic sensitivity
Radiographic sensitivity can be defined as the ability of a radiographic
system to reveal small changes in section thickness. It may also be defined
as the ability of a radiographic technique to reveal the smallest possible
flaw. True radiographic sensitivity is a difficult quantity to measure.
9.2 Controlling radiographic quality

Prior to interpretation of a radiograph it is necessary to establish adequacy
of the radiographic technique used. National codes and standards describe
devices known as image quality indicators (IQIs). Occasionally the word
penetrameter is used when referring to the IQI. It is very important to realise
IQI sensitivity is not a direct measure of radiographic sensitivity per se.
Good IQI sensitivity does not necessarily indicate good radiographic
sensitivity, but it does to some extent prove the quality of the radiographic
technique in a general sense.
These days the type of IQI most commonly in use is the wire type but other
types exist, two examples being the plaque and the step hole types.
9.3 BS EN 462-1 wire type IQIs

BS EN 462-1 wire type IQIs each consist of 7 wires from a list of 19 wires.
Four standard wire groupings are available, designation 1, wires 1-7,
designation 6, wires 6-12, designation 10, wires 10-16 and designation 13,
wires 13-19. Each of these groupings is available in any of 4 types of
material; steel, designated FE, copper CU, aluminium, AL and titanium TI.
Figure 9.1 BS EN 462-1 wire type IQIs.
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Table 9.10 BS EN 462-1 wire diameters.

Designation Diameter ,mm
W1 3.2
W2 2.5
W3 2.0
W4 1.6
W5 1.25
W6 1.0
W7 0.8
W8 0.63
W9 0.5
W10 0.4
W11 0.32
W12 0.25
W13 0.2
W14 0.16
W15 0.125
W16 0.1
W17 0.08
W18 0.063
W19 0.05
Note: that it is fairly easy to remember the wire diameters: if you can
remember the diameters of the first three, 3.2 and 2.5 and 2mm you can
arrive at all other wire diameters by halving as shown below in Figure 57.
W21=3.2 W4=1.6 W7=0.8 W10=0.4 W13=0.2 W16=0.1 W19=0.05

W2=2.5 W5-1.25 W8=0.63 W11=0.32 W14=0.16 W17=0.08
W3=2.0 W6=1.0 W9=0.5 W12=0.25 W15=0.125 W18=0.063
Figure 9.2 Remembering the EN 462-1 wire diameters. Looking along each row
the wire diameters are successively halved, eg 3.2, 1.6, 0.8.
The BS EN 462-1 material groupings are as follows: the Fe designated IQIs

(made from low alloy steel) cover all ferrous materials; the Cu (made from
copper) cover copper, tin, zinc and their alloys; the Al (made from
aluminium) cover aluminium and its alloys; the Ti (made from titanium) cover
titanium and its alloys. Special IQIs can be used for materials lying outside
these four groups, or the contracting parties could agree to use one of the
four normal designations.
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9.4 Other wire type IQIs

Several other wire type IQIs are in common usage, amongst these are the
BS 3971, the DIN 54 109 and the ASTM E 747. The BS 3971 series
consisted of 21 wires where wire number 21 was the thickest at 3.2mm and
wire number 1 was the thinnest at 0.032mm, the order of numbering was
basically the reverse of that used by EN 462-1 with wire number 11 being
the same diameter in both series (0.32mm).
W1=3.2 W18=1.6 W15=0.8 W12=0.4 W9=0.2 W6=0.1 W3=0.05

W20=2.5 W17-1.25 W14=0.63 W11=0.32 W8=0.16 W5=0.08 W2=0.04
W19=2.0 W16=1.0 W13=0.5 W10=0.25 W7=0.125 W4=0.063 W1=0.032
Figure 9.3 BS 3971 wire diameters.
The DIN 54 109 series consists of 16 wires corresponding exactly to the first
16 wires in the BS EN 462-1 series. The ASTM E 747 series consists of 21
wires ranging from 0.08-8.1mm in diameter; there are four overlapping
groups of six wires, each designated by a letter (A-D), see Table 9.11
below, and a large number of material groupings each designated by a
number with ferrous being 1.
Table 9.11 ASTM E 747 wire diameters.

IQI designation Wire diameters, mm
A 0.08 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.2 0.25
B 0.25 0.33 0.4 0.5 0.63 0.81
C 0.81 1.0 0.27 1.6 2.0 2.5
D 2.5 3.2 4.0 5.1 6.3 8.1
9.5 BS EN 462-2 step-hole type IQIs

BS EN 462-2 IQIs consist of stepped blocks of material with each step
having one or a pair of through drilled holes. Step thicknesses of 0.8mm or
less have two drilled holes, while the thicker steps have a single hole. In
each case the step thickness and the hole diameter are equal.
Figure 9.4 BS EN 462-2 step-hole IQIs. These IQIs are supplied encased in plastic
complete with lead number identification similar to that used in EN 462-1 wire type
IQIs.
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Table 9.12 BS EN 462-2 step-hole IQIs.

IQI designation Hole/step number Hole diameter/
step thickness, mm
H1 H5 H9 H13
X H1 0.125
X H2 0.16
X H3 0.2
X H4 0.25
X X H5 0.32
X X H6 0.4
X H7 0.5
X H8 0.63
X X H9 0.8
X X H10 1.0
X H11 1.25
X H12 1.6
X X H13 2.0
X X H14 2.5
X H15 3.2
X H16 4.0
X H17 5.0
X H18 6.3
9.6 ASTM E 1025 plaque type penetrameters

ASTM E 1025 describes plaque type penetrameters (penetrameter is just
another word meaning IQI). When using this type of IQI the required
sensitivity is typically specified as 2-2T, 1-2T or perhaps 2-4T. The number
2 or 1 indicates that the IQI thickness is 2 or 1% of the thickness of the
component under test. Where the component is a weld the reinforcement
should be taken into consideration when choosing the IQI. 2T or 4T
indicates the diameter of the drilled hole that must be clearly visible in the
radiographic image if the radiograph is to be considered acceptable. T1T
hole has a diameter equal to the plaque thickness, 2T two times and 4T four
times. Penetrameters up to 160 thousandths of an inch thick are rectangular
and contain 1T, 2T and 4T holes. Thicker penetrameters are circular and
contain 1T and 2T holes. Each rectangular penetrameter carries lead
markers indicating its thickness in thousandths of an inch. Each circular
penetrameter is identified by lead markers placed alongside which indicate
its thickness in thousandths of an inch. A total of eight material groups are
identified by adding notches to the edges of the penetrameter.
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Sensitivity
9.7 IQI sensitivity

IQI sensitivity is usually defined as the thickness of the thinnest wire, plaque
or step which is visible on the radiograph expressed as a percentage of the
specimen thickness. Exactly what is meant by specimen thickness varies
from standard to standard and from technique to technique. BS EN 1435
contains tables of essential wires for Class A and B techniques for IQI
placed source or film side. ASME V article 2 also permits the use of wire
type IQIs and takes a similar essential wire approach. BS EN 1435 bases its
requirements on nominal thickness while ASME V article 2 bases its
requirements on the actual weld throat thickness.
XX= IQI
thickness
thousandths of
an inch
Figure 9.5 ASTM E 1025 IQIs.
It used to be common good practice to place the IQI in the least favourable
position within the diagnostic area of the radiograph. This would usually
have meant placing the IQI on the source side of the specimen and towards
the extremities of the diagnostic area because this is where the contrast and
definition would tend to be at their least favourable (highest value of
geometric unsharpness and lowest film density).
Nowadays, when performing radiography of a weld in accordance with

BS EN 1435 the wire type IQI must be placed preferably source side,
possibly film side, in an area of uniform film density. This usually means on
the parent material and at the centre of the area of interest. The wires may
or may not be visible in the image of the weld for double wall single image
(DWSI) or single wall single image (SWSI) radiography but they shall be
placed at 90 to the weld axis and at least a 10mm length of wire shall
appear on the parent material in an area of uniform film density. For double
wall double image (DWDI) radiography the wires shall not be visible in the
image of the weld. The IQI shall be placed with its wires parallel to the weld
axis on the parent material adjacent to the weld. The requirement for visible
wire length remains unchanged.
In the past it was not uncommon for national codes or standards to specify
an overall requirement for a radiographic sensitivity of 2% or better. This
was easy to achieve on thicker sections but often impossible to achieve on
thinner sections of material. Modern radiographic standards take account of
the fact that the best achievable sensitivity for a given situation and
technique is not a fixed quantity but a variable which depends upon such
factors as the type of radiation source, the technique and the thickness of
the specimen. Such standards specify a minimum sensitivity which should
be achievable using a good quality radiographic technique. One such
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standard is BS EN 1435. Table 13 below gives some BS EN 1435

requirements for SWSI radiography with source side IQI placement, DWSI
radiography with film side IQI placement and DWDI radiography with source
side IQI placement.
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Table 9.13 BS EN 1435 sensitivity requirements for wire type IQIs.

Class A radiography Class B radiography
1. SWSI Technique Source Side IQI 1. SWSI Technique Source Side IQI
Thickness Required Wire Average Thickness Required Wire Average
wire diameter sensitivity wire diameter sensitivity
1.2 18 0.063 > 5.25% 1.5 19 0.05 > 3.33%
> 1.2 2 17 0.08 5% > 1.5 2.5 18 0.063 3.15%
> 2 3.5 16 0.1 3.64% > 2.5 4 17 0.08 2.46%
> 3.5 5 15 0.125 2.94% >46 16 0.1 2.0%
>57 14 0.16 2.67% >68 15 0.125 1.79%
> 7 12 13 0.2 2.1% > 8 12 14 0.16 1.6%
> 12 18 12 0.25 1.67% > 12 20 13 0.2 1.25%
> 18 30 11 0.32 1.33% > 20 30 12 0.25 1.0%
> 30 40 10 0.4 1.14% > 30 35 11 0.32 0.98%
> 40 50 9 0.5 1.11% > 35 45 10 0.4 1.0%
> 50 60 8 0.63 1.14% > 45 65 9 0.5 0.91%
> 65 85 7 0.8 1.07% > 65 120 8 0.63 0.68%
> 85 120 6 1.0 0.98% > 120 200 7 0.8 0.5%
> 120 220 5 1.25 0.74% > 200 350 6 1.0 0.36%
> 220 380 4 1.6 0.53% > 350 5 1.25 < 0.36%
> 380 3 2.0 < 0.53%
2. DWSI Technique Film Side IQI 2. DWSI Technique Film Side IQI
1.2 18 0.063 > 5.25% 1.5 19 0.05 > 3.33%
> 1.2 2 17 0.08 5% > 1.5 2.5 18 0.063 3.15%
> 2 3.5 16 0.1 3.64% > 2.5 4 17 0.08 2.46%
> 3.5 5 15 0.125 2.94% >46 16 0.1 2.0%
> 5 10 14 0.16 2.13% > 6 12 15 0.125 1.56%
> 10 15 13 0.2 1.6% > 12 18 14 0.16 1.07%
> 15 22 12 0.25 1.35% > 18 30 13 0.2 0.83%
> 22 38 11 0.32 1.07% > 30 45 12 0.25 0.67%
> 38 48 10 0.4 0.93% > 45 55 11 0.32 0.64%
> 48 60 9 0.5 0.93% > 55 70 10 0.4 0.64%
> 60 85 8 0.63 0.93% > 70 100 9 0.5 0.59%
> 85 125 7 0.8 0.76% > 100 180 8 0.63 0.45%
> 125 225 6 1.0 0.57% > 180 300 7 0.8 0.33%
> 225 375 5 1.25 0.42% > 300 6 1.0 < 0.33%
> 375 4 1.6 < 0.43%
3. DWDI Technique Source Side IQI 3. DWDI Technique Source Side IQI
1.2 18 0.063 > 5.25% 1.5 19 0.05 > 3.33%
> 1.2 2 17 0.08 5% > 1.5 2.5 18 0.063 3.15%
> 2 3.5 16 0.1 3.64% > 2.5 4 17 0.08 2.46%
> 3.5 5 15 0.125 2.94% >46 16 0.1 2.0%
>57 14 0.16 2.67% >68 15 0.125 1.79%
> 7 12 13 0.2 2.1% > 8 15 14 0.16 1.39%
> 12 18 12 0.25 1.67% > 15 25 13 0.2 1.0%
> 18 30 11 0.32 1.33% > 25 38 12 0.25 0.79%
> 30 40 10 0.4 1.14% > 38 45 11 0.32 0.77%
> 40 50 9 0.5 1.11% > 45 55 10 0.4 0.8%
> 50 60 8 0.63 1.14% > 55 70 9 0.5 0.8%
> 65 85 7 0.8 1.07% > 70 100 8 0.63 0.74%
> 85 120 6 1.0 0.98% > 100 170 7 0.8 0.59%
> 120 220 5 1.25 0.74% > 170 250 6 1.0 0.48%
> 220 380 4 1.6 0.53% > 250 5 1.25 < 0.5%
> 380 3 2.0 < 0.53%
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Sensitivity
1 EN 462-1 wire type IQIs contain:
a 5 wires.
b 6 wires.
c 7 wires.
d 8 wires.
2 The thinnest wire in a 10-FE-EN BS EN 462 wire type IQI is:
a Wire number 10, 0.1mm diameter.

b Wire number 10, 0.08mm diameter.
c Wire number 16, 0.08mm diameter.
d Wire number 16, 0.1mm diameter.
3 BS EN 462-1 specifies wire type IQIs covering a total of how many

material groups?
a 2: Fe, Al.
b 4: Fe, Al, Cu, Ti.
c 4: Fe, Al, Cu, Ni.
d 6: Fe, Al, Cu, Ti, Ni, Zn.
4 The minimum length of a wire element in a BS EN 462-1 IQI is:
a 10mm.
b 25mm.
c 30mm.
d 40mm.
5 Using an EN 462 10-FE-EN IQI four wires are visible in the radiograph of
a butt weld in 15 mm thick steel plate. The sensitivity achieved is:
a 0.83%.
b 1.66%.
c 1.33%.
d 1.07%.
6 A radiographer has achieved a sensitivity of 2.13% radiographing a

15mm thick welded plate. What diameter of wire can he see?
a 0.40.
b 1.25.
c 0.32.
d 0.16.
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7 With reference to Radiograph 1 in the following diagram, where should

the IQIs be placed?
a A.
b B.
c C.
d Any of the above as long as IQI wires and ident numbers are visible on
radiograph.
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Section 10
Radiographic Techniques
(for welds in plate and pipe)
Rev 1 January 2010
Radiographic Techniques (for Welds in Plate and Pipe)
10 Radiographic Techniques (for welds in plate and

pipe)
Three basic techniques are used for the radiography of butt welds in pipe,
these being the single wall single image (SWSI), double wall single image
(DWSI) and double wall double image DWDI techniques. All radiographs of
butt welds in plate will, in general, be SWSI.
Each technique is discussed below, paying particular attention to the extent

of the diagnostic area, the minimum source to film distance, the placement
of location markers and IQIs.
The primary standard referenced in this text is BS EN 1435, but other

standards are mentioned where appropriate. It is essential that
radiographers are familiar with the latest version of the standards as the
information contained in them does change periodically, so any values
stated in this section are subject to change and are to be used for training
purposes only.
10.1 Classification of radiographic techniques

There are two classifications used for the radiographic testing to account for
different requirements in geometric unsharpness, the energy levels and
other parameters used to generate the radiograph which define the
definition and contrast of the radiograph according to the requirements of
the specification in use.
Class A basic techniques.

Class B improved techniques.
In general Class B radiographs have an improved sensitivity with better

definition and higher contrast than a Class A radiograph. Further more
standards state a minimum film density of 2.0 for Class A radiography and a
minimum of 2.3 for Class B. The choice of techniques will be defined by the
specification.
10.2 IQI type and placement

It is important that IQIs are placed source or film side and at a position
within the diagnostic film length (DFL) in accordance with the requirements
of the contract specification.
As a general rule, wherever possible, the IQI should be placed source side.
As then they are affected both by radiographic contrast and geometric
unsharpness. Film side IQIs indicate radiographic contrast only, thus source
side IQIs give a more accurate measure of the overall radiographic quality.
It used to be standard good practice to place wire type IQIs towards the end
of the diagnostic area, with the thinner wires toward the outside of the DFL;
the wires were invariably placed across the weld and sensitivity was
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assessed on the weld allowing for any weld reinforcement present. This way
of working would still meet ASME V article 2 requirements, although this
document does not specify where within the DFL the IQI should be placed.
In Europe matters are different; when working in accordance with
BS EN 1435 sensitivity should generally be assessed at the centre of the
DFL on the parent material.
10.3 Location markers

All national codes and standards require the use of location markers, usually
in the form of lead letters or numbers that appear in the radiograph as a
radiographic image. It is very important that the markers are placed in such
a way as to prove coverage of the weld where a multiple exposure
technique is used. Three general rules apply:
1 When performing radiography of welds in flat plate location markers

must be placed source side. Film side markers will not prove coverage
because of parallax.
2 When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location
markers should be placed on the convex surface for all techniques
where the source or focus to film distance is equal to or exceeds the
radius of curvature.
3 When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location
markers should be placed source side for all techniques where the
source or focus to film distance is less than the radius of curvature.
Figure 10.1 Location marker placement parallax effect on flat plate.
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10.4 Identification of radiographs

All national codes and standards require unique and permanent
identification of radiographs. In general this can be applied by any suitable
means although in some cases identification using lead numbers that
appear as radiographic images is required. Where not prohibited by the
contract specification-flashing the radiographic identification is a good
method. The required identification is written on a scrap of white paper, the
radiograph is suitably masked and the scrap of paper is placed on the
unmasked area. The radiograph is then flashed with a suitable light source
and the identification becomes visible during subsequent film processing.
Exactly what constitutes an acceptable unique identification varies widely
from specification to specification, but the minimum is a unique number.
ASME V article 2 requires a unique weld number, the date and the
manufacturers name or symbol. Most codes require radiographs of repair
welds to be marked with R1, R2, R3 etc depending on the number of repair
attempts. RW is commonly used to identify a complete re-weld. Items such
as heat treatment condition, welder number and welding procedure
reference may also be required.
10.5 Radiation energy

BS EN 1435 specifies the maximum X-ray tube voltage which may be used
based on the component thickness. BS EN 1435 also specifies the minimum
and maximum thickness on which each type of gamma ray isotope may be
used (see Table 14 below). ASME V article 2 specifies a recommended
minimum steel thickness for iridium 192 of 19mm and a minimum of 38mm
for cobalt 60, a minimum of 63mm of aluminium is specified for iridium 192.
Table 10.14 BS EN 1435 applicable thickness ranges for gamma ray sources and
high energy X-rays.
Radiation source Penetrated thickness , w
Test Class A Test Class B
Thulium 170 w5 w5
(1)
Ytterbium 169 1 w 15 2 w 12
(2)
Selenium 75 10 w 40 14 w 40
Iridium 192 20 w 100 20 w 90
Cobalt 60 40 w 200 60 w 150
X-ray equipment, 1-4MeV 30 w 200 50 w 180
X-ray equipment, 4-12MeV w 50 w 80
X-ray equipment, 12MeV and above w 80 w 100
(1) For aluminium and titanium, the penetrated thickness is 10 w 70 for Class A and
25 w 55 for Class B.
(2) For aluminium and titanium, the penetrated thickness is 35 w 120 for Class A.
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10.6 Source to film distance

The minimum source to film distance for BS EN 1435 is calculated using the
formula: f/d kb2/3 where f is the source to object distance, d is the effective
source or focus size, b is the object to film distance and k is a constant
equal to 7.5 for Class A techniques and 15 for Class B. BS EN 1435 also
includes a nomogram for the less mathematically minded. Figure 8.12
shows BS EN 1435 requirements.
ASME V article 2 limits the minimum source or focus to film distance by

specifying maximum geometric unsharpness, 0.51mm for component
thickness up to 50.8mm, 0.76mm for greater than 50.8 and up to 76.2mm,
1.0mm for greater than 76.2 and up to 101.6mm and 1.78mm for component
thickness exceeding 101.6mm
f = SOD.
d = Focus Size.
b= OFD - object to film distance.
k= constant (7.5 or 15).
10.7 SWSI techniques

10.7.1 SWSI technique for plate
Figure 10.2 BS EN 1435 SWSI technique for flat plate.
Figure 10.2 shows a typical set-up for exposure of a butt weld in flat plate.
The annotations refer to BS EN 1435 requirements.
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The source should be positioned on the centre line of the weld, directly
above the centre of the diagnostic area.
10.7.2 SWSI technique: source internal, placed centrally (panoramic

technique)
Figure 10.3 SWSI panoramic technique (BS EN 1435). Required number of

exposures = 1 (see Figure 68 for BS EN 1435 requirements).
This technique is commonly used for pipeline welds where specially

designed, remotely operated, devices known as crawlers are often used.
These machines can travel up to several kilometres along the inside of the
pipeline in order to reach the desired position to radiograph a particular
weld. The typical battery life for an X-ray crawler will usually allow about 100
exposures to be made between successive battery charges. Gamma ray
crawlers are also used.
This technique may also be used for examining girth welds in cylindrical
pressure vessels. Using thulium 170 isotopes boiler tube welds, which may
have an outside diameter of only 40mm, are occasionally examined by this
technique.
The major advantage of this technique is that it can radiograph an entire

girth weld in a single exposure. With this technique location marker
placement is not critical, but it is usually more convenient to place the
markers film side. In most cases it will be impractical to place the IQI source
side for this technique, although source side IQIs would be preferred if
access is not a problem, film side IQIs are therefore generally used.
Comparator radiographs having IQIs placed source and film side can be
used to establish sensitivity requirements for film side IQIs. In most cases
three IQIs are placed at 120 intervals around the circumference, although
some specifications require more or fewer than this. The radiograph may
consist of a number of overlapping films or it may be a single length of
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rollpack film. Identification of the film may be included as a radiographic

image but it may also be added later. Where several overlapping films are
used each film must be uniquely and permanently identified.
10.7.3 SWSI technique: source internal, offset
Figure 10.4 SWSI source internal and offset technique (BS EN 1435). Required
number of exposures: see Figure 10.8 for BS EN 1435 requirements.
In some cases it may not be possible to satisfy the requirements of the

applicable specification for geometric unsharpness if the panoramic
technique is used. Where this is the case it may be possible to achieve a
satisfactory geometric unsharpness by offsetting the source towards the
inner wall of the pipe. Location markers should be placed film side if the
SFD or FFD is longer than the radius of curvature of the test item. If the
converse of this is true (as may be the case for a large diameter pressure
vessel) then the location markers should be placed source side.
10.7.4 SWSI technique: film inside, source outside
Figure 10.5 SWSI film inside, source outside (BS EN 1435). Required number of
exposures: see Figure 10.6.
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t/De
De/f
t/De
De/f
De = external diameter of pipe, f = source to object distance, t = nominal wall

thickness.
Figure 10.6 BS EN 1435: Exposures required for film inside source outside (FISO)
techniques.
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This is a rather unpopular technique because a large number of exposures

(usually 8 or more) are required to cover the entire circumference of the
weld. In general it will only be used when an acceptable radiograph cannot
be achieved using either of the two single wall techniques described in
10.6.2 and 10.6.3 and can also not be achieved using the double wall
techniques described. Location markers must be placed source side. The
IQI should always be placed source side, there is no excuse for using a film
side IQI when using this technique. Identification of the films may be
included as radiographic images (although it will probably be impractical to
use long identifications due to the limited amount of area available on the
film) but may also be added later.
10.8 Double wall single image

Where there is no access to the inside of a pipe double wall techniques
have to be employed.
In the DWSI technique the source of radiation is usually placed at the

minimum possible distance from the film. The reason is that as the source to
film distance increases so does the number of exposures needed to cover
the entire circumference of the weld. In addition, any improvement in image
quality due to the reduced geometric unsharpness associated with an
increase in SFD or FFD has to be offset against a reduction in image quality
due to increased scatter.
Geometric unsharpness limitations permitting gamma sources can be

placed almost in contact with the outside surface of the pipe. In many cases
this reduces the required number of exposures to just three (see Figure 10.8
for BS EN 1435 requirements).
X-ray tubes are bulky and the minimum achievable FFD will usually be
about 125mm plus the outside diameter of the pipe. A minimum of four
exposures per weld is therefore required when using an X-ray source for
this technique.
Being able to place the source of radiation in close contact with the pipe
gives gamma ray another significant advantage over X-ray techniques
particularly on smaller pipe diameters. Less offset is needed with gamma
ray sources in order to ensure that the image of the source side portion of
the weld is not superimposed upon the film side part of the weld. This can
increase the chance of finding vertical defects such as lack of root fusion in
the weld being radiographed.
As the wall thickness to diameter ratio increases the DWSI technique

becomes increasingly difficult to apply, the number of exposures required
increases and the quality of the radiographs produced diminishes. For these
reasons DWSI (superimposed) techniques tend to be preferred for heavy
wall small diameter pipes.
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Because there will in general be no access to the inside of the pipe when
this technique is employed the location markers and IQI are always placed
film side
Figure 10.7 Double wall single image technique (required number of exposures:
see Figure 10.8).
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De = external diameter, t = nominal thickness, SFD = source to film distance.
Figure 10.8 BS EN 1435: Exposures required for DWSI and SWSI source inside
film outside (SIFO) techniques.
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10.8.1 Double wall double image (elliptical)
Figure 10.9 DWDI technique (elliptical).
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In accordance with BS EN 1435 this technique is limited to girth welds in

pipe having an OD of less than 100mm. In accordance with ASME V article
2 welds in pipe of up to 3 inch nominal diameter (OD about 101.9mm, this
is slightly outside the BS EN 1435 requirement) may be radiographed using
DWDI.
For pipes with a wall thickness to OD ratio in excess of about 0.15 the DWDI
(superimposed) technique is preferred.
The minimum number of exposures required by both BS EN and American

standards is two at 90 to each other.
Long source to film distances are needed because the minimum value of
object to film distance is equal to the OD of the pipe. Exposure times for this
technique, therefore, tend to be rather long especially in the case of gamma
ray techniques.
A single location marker on each exposure is generally sufficient, although

some specifications require pitch markers (A -B, B-C, C -D and D-A, etc).
Location markers may be placed source side or film side. IQIs should
always be placed source side.
BS EN 1435 requires wire type IQIs to be placed on the parent material with
their wires parallel to the weld axis, see Figure 10.9). Working in accordance
with ASME V article 2 standard wire type IQIs should be placed with their
wires across the weld at 90 to the weld axis.
In the DWSI technique the film is wrapped around the pipe to remain as
close as possible to the weld. Conversely, in the DWDI technique the film
should be kept as flat as possible, see Figure 10.9.
10.8.2 DWDI (superimposed)

This has the same range of application as the elliptical technique, but is
preferred when the thickness to OD ratio exceeds 0.15. Welds having
difficult geometry that may prevent them from being radiographed using the
elliptical technique can generally be radiographed successfully using this
technique.
As the image of the source side part of the weld is superimposed on the
image of the film side part of the weld it is often not possible to accurately
locate a weld defect when using this technique. This is not usually much of a
handicap because small diameter welds tend to be cut out and re-welded
rather than being repaired locally.
A single location marker per exposure is usually sufficient when using this
technique and it may be placed either source or film side. IQIs should
always be placed source side.
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BS EN 1435 and ASME V article 2 both require a minimum of three

exposures at 120 to spacing (or three at 60 spacing for difficult access
situations) for this technique.
The DWDI superimposed technique may be more likely than the elliptical
technique to successfully detect lack of root fusion due to the more
favourable angle of incidence of the primary beam.
Figure 10.10 DWDI technique (superimposed).
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Radiographic techniques (welds)
1 DWDI radiography is usually limited to girth welds in pipe with an outside

diameter of:
a 75mm or less.
b 80mm or less.
c 85mm or less.
d 100mm or less.
2 The minimum film density in the diagnostic area of a radiograph for a BS

EN 1435 class B technique is:
a 1.8.
b 2.0.
c 2.3.
d 2.5.
3 Talking about the measurement of radiographic sensitivity BS EN 1435

says that:
a The image of the IQI must appear in an area of uniform film density.
b The image of the IQI must appear in the image of the weld.
c Wires in wire type IQIs must be placed parallel to the weld axis.
d An image of at least one IQI must appear in every production radiograph.
4 For the DWDI superimposed technique BS EN 1435 requires a minimum

of:
a 2 exposures for complete coverage of a girth weld.

b 3 exposures for complete coverage of a girth weld.
c 4 exposures for complete coverage of a girth weld.
d 5 exposures for complete coverage of a girth weld.
5 BS EN 1435 specifies requirements for two classes of radiographic

technique. Which statement given below is true class?
a B techniques are standard techniques while class A techniques are

enhanced techniques.
b A techniques are standard techniques while class B techniques are
enhanced techniques.
c A techniques are primarily intended for use in nuclear applications.
d B techniques are primarily intended for use in nuclear applications.
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6 When performing DWSI radiography it is usual to keep the source to film

distance to a practicable minimum while ensuring that geometric
unsharpness requirements are met. One advantage of this approach is:
a The number of exposures required for full coverage of a circumferential

weld is minimised.
b IQIs need not be placed source side.
c A lead number tape can be used.
d Gamma techniques can be performed without the use of a collimator.
7 In accordance with BS EN 1435:
a Cracks are not permitted.

b Lack of fusion is not permitted.
c Both (a) and (b).
d None of the above is correct.
a The image of a wire type IQI must appear in every radiograph.

b The image of a step hole type IQI must appear in every radiograph.
c The image of either a wire type or step hole type IQI must appear in
every radiograph.
9 Most national codes and standards require that the location markers
used in weld radiography must:
a Appear as a radiographic image.

b Be placed source side for all techniques.
c Be lead letters 9 mm high and 1.6 mm thick.
d All of the above are usually required.
10 When using a DWDI technique to radiograph a butt weld in small bore

pipe the OFD used to calculate penumbra should be the:
a Single wall thickness of the pipe.

b Double wall thickness of the pipe.
c Outside diameter of the pipe.
d Inside diameter of the pipe.
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Section 11
Interpretation of Radiographs
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11 Interpretation of Radiographs
11.1 Introduction
Competent interpretation of radiographs is a skill only gained through long
experience. This section gives the reader a guide to radiographic
interpretation and should be regarded as a base upon which to build.
The interpretation of a radiograph should not be confused with the

acceptance or rejection of a component. The radiograph must first be
interpreted and any defects observed assessed against the applicable
standard. A weld or casting must be accepted on its merits or rejected for its
faults and should neither be accepted nor rejected due to difficulties
encountered in the interpretation of radiographs. Any radiograph not
meeting code requirements with regard to radiographic quality must be
rejected.
In circumstances where there is doubt as to the nature of a radiographic

image it is often necessary to visually inspect the component or to cross
check the radiographic results using another NDT method.
11.2 Viewing conditions

The success or failure of radiographic interpretation is highly dependent
upon the film viewing conditions. The eye is very sensitive to small
variations in film density once it has developed night vision. Anyone carrying
out radiographic interpretation should therefore not begin to view
radiographs until night vision has developed. Since this cannot be achieved
in a brightly lit room it is important that the films are viewed in low ambient
light. Night vision takes several minutes to develop and so the films should
not be viewed immediately upon entering the viewing room. Five minutes is
the recommended period that should elapse before critical interpretations
are made. It is also important that film is properly masked on the viewer so
that the light falling on the eye comes from the radiograph only. If the film is
not adequately masked the eye will be blinded by the bright light coming
from around the film.
Radiographs are easily damaged, therefore the viewing room must be clean
and dry and the radiographs must be handled with care. The viewer should
be mounted on a table or bench large enough to allow the films to be spread
out without the danger of them falling to the floor. A well shielded reading
lamp will allow reports to be read or notes to be made, without unduly
increasing the overall ambient lighting.
The radiographs should be viewed at a normal reading distance (normally

less than 400mm). A low power magnifier (2 or 3X) may occasionally be
helpful, but it should not be necessary for routine examination. In
accordance with PCN and CSWIP requirements the visual acuity of the
radiographic interpreter must be J1 (corrected or uncorrected) in at least
one eye.
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The viewing of radiographs is often undertaken in the dark room where the
film was processed. This is satisfactory provided that the viewing bench or
table is clean and well away from the processing tanks. Under normal
circumstances films should NEVER be viewed whilst wet. There are two
reasons for this:
1 The film emulsion is swollen with water and the images are not as clear
as when the film is dry.
2 Emulsion is very delicate and any attempt to mask the film will result in
scratches or marks on the film, effectively ruining it.
National standards generally require that the illuminance of a radiographic

film viewer be sufficient to produce a transmitted light intensity of at least 30
and preferably 300 candela per square metre (cd/m2). This means that a
viewer suitable for viewing radiographic film with a density of 3.0 must have
an illuminance of at least 30,000cd/m2 with as much as 300,000cd/m2 being
desirable. BS EN 25580 requirements for radiographic film viewers are
given by Table 11.15 below. Note that these are minimum requirements.
Table 11.15 BS EN 25580 requirements for radiographic film viewers.

Film density Minimum screen Transmitted light
luminance, cd/m2 luminance, cd/m2
1.0 300 30.0
1.5 1,000 31.6
2.0 3,000 30.0
2.5 10,000 31.6
3.0 10,000 10.0
3.5 30,000 9.5
4.0 100,000 10.0
4.5 300,000 9.5
11.3 Reporting
The initial interpretation of a radiograph should always be undertaken by the
manufacturer or designated representative. Other interested parties should
be presented with a report which includes an interpretation of each film.
They check this and agree or disagree with it. The radiographic report
should contain the following as a minimum:
Identification of the item radiographed.

Date of manufacture.
Date of radiography.
Exposure details including the type of equipment used and the tube
voltage for X-ray and the type of isotope for gamma ray techniques.
Type of film used.
Type and thickness of the intensifying screens used.
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Geometric details, particularly the FFD or SFD and the effective focus or
source dimension.
Details of the component being radiographed, including the type of
material and method of manufacture, the thickness, the heat treatment
condition and the repair status.
Method of film processing.
Film density achieved.
Radiographic sensitivity achieved.
Technicians name, signature and date.
Interpreters name, signature and date.
An interpretation of each film and a statement of the components
acceptability or not.
Code or standard applicable to the radiographic technique.
Acceptance code or standard.
Reference to a written procedure or technique sheet.
11.4 Film quality

The success of radiographic interpretation is dependent upon the quality of
the film presented. If the film does not meet the minimum applicable
standards for quality then it should be rejected and reshot. The
manufacturers interpreter may, for economic reasons, not be inclined to
reject radiographs which do not meet the minimum quality standards.
Therefore any third party viewing the radiographs should be extremely
careful to correctly assess the quality of the radiographs prior to endorsing
the relevant report, otherwise they will be open to criticism should the film
become the subject of any subsequent legal inquiry. When assessing a film
for quality a number of items must be considered. These are discussed
below.
11.4.1 Component identification

All radiographs must be permanently and uniquely marked with sufficient
information so as to permit their identification with the component
radiographed at a later stage. It is often useful to include such items as the
date of test and heat treatment or repair status of the component in the
identification. Radiographic identification could appear on the radiograph as
a radiographic image but there is usually no reason why it should not be
added by any other suitable means. A written procedure should be in force
describing the standard method to be used for identifying radiographs.
11.4.2 Location markers

Location markers on a radiograph serve two functions: they permit the
radiograph to be identified with the area of the component radiographed and
they serve to prove that the component has been fully covered by the
technique used. Refer to the sections above on radiographic techniques for
details. Wherever possible location markers should permanently identify the
radiograph with the area radiographed. Items such as pressure vessels are
usually hard stamped with a permanent radiographic datum. A written
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procedure should be in force which describes the standard method used for
the placement of location markers.
11.4.3 Film density

It is important that the film density is within the specified range since a film
having low film density will also have inferior film contrast. BS EN 1435
requires a minimum film density of 2.0 for Class A radiography and a
minimum of 2.3 for Class B. ASME V article 2 requires a minimum of 1.8 for
X-ray and 2 for gamma ray techniques. In most cases (including BS EN
1435 and ASME V article 2) the minimum figures for film density apply to the
area of interest (the diagnostic area) on the radiograph. In weld radiography,
for example, film density should generally be measured on the weld area
between the location markers (which identify the ends of the diagnostic film
length).
Density can be assessed either by comparison with a calibrated density strip

(which preferably should have been made using film identical to that of the
radiograph) or by using a measuring device known as a densitometer.
Anyone accepting radiographs which do not meet the applicable density
requirements is open to criticism at a later stage should litigation follow a
component failure.
ASME V article 2 requires that the film density within the area of interest
must not vary by more than minus 15 or plus 30% from the value measured
through the body of the IQI. If necessary additional IQIs can be used in
order to satisfy this requirement for exceptional areas.
Occasionally an upper limit is specified for film density. ASME V article 2, for
example, specifies an upper limit of 4.
11.4.4 Radiographic sensitivity

Radiographic sensitivity is not directly related to the minimum detectable
defect size. However, a radiograph that meets the applicable code
requirement for radiographic sensitivity is much more likely to provide good
defect sensitivity than a radiograph which fails to meet the code
requirements.
The sensitivity of a radiograph depends upon the parameters chosen to

produce that radiograph (see the section on the production of a radiograph).
If any of the relevant parameters are altered the sensitivity will be affected. It
is therefore essential to use IQIs to prove that adequate radiographic quality
has been attained. Except in the case of the panoramic technique, which
has been described above, at least one IQI should generally appear on
each radiograph.
Anyone viewing radiographs should be careful to check the radiographic

sensitivity meets the requirements of the applicable code. Anyone who fails
to do is open to criticism should litigation follow a component failure.
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11.4.5 Artefacts and other unwanted images

In film radiography an artefact can be defined as any image resulting from a
cause that is not directly associated with the object that has been
radiographed.
Artefacts can be produced by mechanical or chemical damage to the film

and by damaged or dirty intensifying screens. Sometimes radiographic
images may be formed by things such as debris on the inside of a pipe.
These images, while they are strictly speaking not artefacts, can also
interfere with the proper interpretation of the radiograph.
When radiographs are produced on a commercial basis it is not possible for

every film to be free from artefacts. An artefact only becomes significant
when it cannot be identified as such or when it hinders the interpretation of
the film. These two factors are rather subjective but if any doubt exists then
the interpreter should call for a repeat radiograph. A list of possible artefacts
is given in the next section.
11.5 Interpretation of radiographic images

Three types of image may appear on a radiograph, due to:
Artefacts.
Surface irregularities in the component.
Internal discontinuities in the component.
Every image within the diagnostic area of a radiograph must be identified as

one of these three. It is not permissible to reject a component simply
because an image appearing within the diagnostic area cannot be
interpreted or because artefacts which are not within the diagnostic area.
The following sections attempt to give a description the various types of
image which may be seen. The ability to successfully identify all
radiographic images is a skill which can only be perfected with time and
experience.
11.6 Artefacts
Pressure marks (crimp marks)
Produced by careless film handling, if the film is crimped or buckled either
before or after exposure crescent-shaped images in the processed
radiograph will result. Light marks indicate crimping before exposure, dark
marks crimping after exposure but before film processing.
It is usually possible to identify crimp marks by viewing the film in reflected

light. They should appear as indentations in the surface of the film. Lead
screens which have been crimped should be discarded.
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Scratches: on the film

Radiographic film emulsion is delicate; it is easily damaged if handled
carelessly at any stage. Areas used for film handling must be free from dust
and films must be handled carefully at all times. Depending upon how
severe and when or how formed film scratches may produce either light or
dark images, and can usually be identified using reflected light.
Scratches: on lead intensifying screens

May appear as either light or dark images which cannot be seen in reflected
light. If the intensifying screens used to make the radiograph can be
positively identified then it may be possible to trace the shape and position
of such an image to a scratch on the screens. Even so it will probably be
necessary to reshoot the radiograph. Scratched lead screens should be
discarded.
Dirt: on the film or screens

Dirt which finds its way between the film and the screens will generally
produce a light image on the resultant radiograph not visible in reflected
light. Greasy fingers will produce dark marks on a finished radiograph which
can easily be seen in reflected light, but light marks before development.
Streakiness or mottling: poor development

Usually caused by insufficient agitation in the early stages of development
and is due to a process known as bromide streaming. Reaction products
from the chemical interaction of the developer with the silver halides in the
film emulsion tend to build up around high film density zones. These
reaction products slow down the action of the developer, and since they are
relatively heavy they tend to flow down the surface of the film leading to a
light coloured streak in the finished radiograph. Under- or over-development
usually leads to a mottled effect on the finished radiograph. A similar effect
will be produced by developer which has passed its service life. In less
severe cases such artefacts may not be a cause for rejection of the
radiograph but darkroom procedures should be reviewed to prevent a
recurrence or a further deterioration in radiographic quality.
Developer splashes
Appear as dark spots on the film and indicate poor dark room practice and
are usually visible in reflected light.
Fixer splashes
Appear as light spots on the film and again indicate poor dark room practice.
Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
Water splashes
Appear as either light or dark images on a radiograph. Water splashes
before exposure tend to cause light marks, after exposure tend to cause
dark marks. Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
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Water marks
Easily seen on the radiograph in both transmitted and reflected light and are
due to uneven drying. They commonly occur where a dry or partially dry film
is wetted locally either by splashing or by excess water running down from a
film clip. The appearance of water marks can be reduced or eliminated by
using a squeegee to remove excess water or a final wash that contains a
small amount of detergent (ie a wetting agent).
Air bells
Light marks caused by air bubbles adhering to the film in the early stages of
development and will not occur if the film is properly agitated.
Diffraction mottling
Can be a problem when X-rays are used to radiograph large grained
material, for example being austenitic steels. Diffraction is an apparent
bending of a beam of radiation due to interference. It occurs when radiation
passes through a grating that has a spacing approximately equal to one
wavelength. The spacing of atoms in a metallic crystal is about
0.1nanometres. This corresponds to X-ray radiation with a photon energy in
the region of 10keV. If low energy components are removed from the X-ray
beam by filtration the problem with diffraction mottling will disappear.
Diffraction mottling does not occur in gamma radiography because of the
absence of low energy beam components.
Diffraction can be used to advantage and it is the basis for the study of
metal crystals by X-ray crystallography.
Static marks
Penetrating radiation is by definition ionising. It always causes the build-up
of an electric charge on the film during exposure but under normal
circumstances this is not a problem because the charge quickly flows to
earth. In dry climates, however, a static charge may remain on the film until
it is unloaded in the darkroom, whereupon it flows to earth suddenly in a
manner which could be painful for the radiographer. Such a sudden
dissipation of electrical energy leads to the emission of a sudden burst of
light which produces dark tree-like marks on the finished radiograph. Static
marks can be avoided by careful film handling.
Dichroic fogging
Radiographs affected by dichroic fog will appear reddish when viewed using
transmitted light and greenish in reflected light. Dichroic means two-
coloured. It is caused when the development process continues during the
fixing process, when the fixer solution has become insufficiently acidic to
stop the development process. The use of an acidic stop bath between the
development and fixing processes will generally prevent the occurrence of
this seldom seen artefact.
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Reticulation
Appears on the radiograph as an orange peel-like mottling effect. It is
caused when the film emulsion is subjected to a temperature shock at any
stage during the film processing as the sudden change in temperature
causes the film emulsion to wrinkle. It will not generally occur as long as the
sudden change in temperature is less than 10C.
Film fogging by X- or gamma rays

If radiographic film is not stored well away from sources of ionising radiation
then it is likely to become fogged. Films which have been fogged in this way
will produce reduced radiographic contrast (fogging has much the same
effect as scattered radiation which is explained in a section above). If it is
suspected that the film is fogged then the level can be checked by
processing a piece of unexposed film. Film which has a density due to
fogging of 0.3 or more is not suitable for use in high quality industrial
radiography.
Light fogging
Exposure to light other than from darkroom safe lamps (and even prolonged
exposure to safe lamps) will cause fogging at any stage prior to fixing the
film. Such fogging may be localised or general - localised is not a problem
unless it encroaches onto the diagnostic film area but general light has the
same effect as fogging due to exposure to ionising radiation.
Film fogging due to inadequate storage conditions

Film stored at too high a temperature or exposed to chemical fumes may
become fogged. The fog level of all film increases with age, even under
ideal storage conditions, therefore all film boxes are marked with an expiry
date. High speed films deteriorate more quickly than slower ones.
Solarisation
Image reversal due to extreme over exposure to X or gamma rays or
caused by exposure to light during film development.
Frilling
When the film emulsion becomes detached from the base, most commonly
due to over-fixing.
A final word on artefacts

It should be stressed again that artefacts are cause for rejecting the film only
if they interfere with interpretation. A large number of artefacts present on
radiographs indicate poor practice and the interpreter should take time to
inspect the radiographic facilities and review darkroom procedures.
11.7 Interpretation of weld radiographs

Radiographic indications due to surface geometry
It is usually possible to successfully interpret weld radiographs in the as-
welded condition. Experience will help the interpreter identify surface marks
which are normal for a particular welding process and technique. Where
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there is doubt if a visual examination of the weld will often help. It is felt that
an indication resulting from surface geometry could mask a significant
defect indication, or where visual examination proves inconclusive, it may be
necessary to dress the weld to a smooth contour and reshoot the
radiograph.
The severity of weld defects such as excessive penetration or undercutting

is difficult to judge using radiographic evidence alone, wherever possible
defects of this type should be judged by visual means.
Listed below are some of the common surface conditions that can produce
radiographic images.
Excessive root penetration

Excess weld material protruding through the root of a single sided fusion
weld. It appears in the radiograph as a continuous or intermittent light
irregular band within the image of the weld. Common causes of excessive
penetration are, no root face, root gap too wide, excessive amperage, travel
speed too slow and incorrect polarity.
Figure 11.1 Excessive root penetration.
Root concavity
A shallow groove which may occur in the root of a single sided weld, it
appears in the radiograph as a series of dark areas along the centre of the
weld varying in density according to the depth of imperfection and it is often
seen in welds made with the use of a backing gas. The pressure of the
backing gas can cause the weld root to collapse during welding of the first
subsequent weld run (hot-pass). Other possible causes are no root face;
travel speed too slow, amperage too high, incorrect polarity on the hot pass;
excessive pre-heat and root gap too narrow.
Figure 11.2 Root concavity.
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Incompletely filled groove (lack of fill)

A continuous or intermittent channel along the edge of the weld due to
insufficient weld material. It is a fusion defect and should not be confused
with lack of reinforcement or undercutting. It produces an image in the
radiograph of a straight edged (on one side at least) dark band and is
caused by poor welding practice.
Figure 11.3 Incompletely filled groove or lack of fill.
Lack of reinforcement
This is a concave area of the weld cap where the weld is locally thinner,
sometimes thinner than the parent material. In the radiograph it appears as
a dark area towards the centre of the weld which has diffuse edges and is
caused by poor welding practice.
Figure 11.4 Lack of reinforcement.
Undercut
An irregular groove at the toe the weld in the parent material due to burning
away during welding. It appears in the radiograph as a dark/irregular/
intermittent band in a position adjacent to either the cap or root weld toe or
between adjacent capping runs. It may therefore appear inside or outside
the weld image on the radiograph. The major causes are excessive
amperage and poor welding technique. Welds in the vertical or horizontal
vertical position tend to be prone to undercutting.
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Figure 11.5 Undercut.
Spatter
Spatter consists of globules of molten filler metal expelled during arc
welding on to the surface of the parent material or weld. It appears in the
radiograph as small light spots and the major causes of spatter are incorrect
polarity and welding current too high. Spatter particularly affects MIG, MAG,
MMA and FCAW, and is highly unlikely to be seen in association with welds
made by TIG or SAW. In pipe welding spatter is possible on both external
and internal surfaces.
Figure 11.6 Weld spatter.
Excessive dressing/grinding marks

A reduction in material thickness caused by the removal of the surface of a
weld and adjacent areas to below the surface of the parent material.
Excessive dressing appears as a dark area with diffuse edges, whilst a
grinding mark appears as a dark area that will usually have clearly defined
edges, caused by poor practice or access for welding.
Figure 11.7 Excessive dressing.
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Hammer marks (tool marks)

Indentations in the surface of the parent material or the weld resulting from
the application of a tool, for example a chipping hammer. They mostly
appear in a radiograph as dark half moon shaped areas usually having
clearly defined edges. They are caused by poor fabrication practice and
often result from attempts to correct welding distortion.
Torn surface
A surface irregularity due to breaking off of temporary attachments. The
radiographic indication produced has a shape corresponding to that of the
affected area which may be either light or dark depending on whether part of
the attachment has remained or parent material has been torn away,
caused by poor fabrication practice, often seen in association with storage
tank or ship hull welds.
Surface pitting
Surface imperfection, usually of the parent material but also the weld metal
where a component has been in service. It usually takes the form of small
depressions resulting from localised corrosion. Pitting appears in a
radiograph as small dark rounded images and it is possible to mistake this
for a welding defect, as its appearance can be identical to that of porosity.
Internal defects
Cracks
In weld radiography four basic types of crack are sometimes detected by
radiography.
1 Centreline (shrinkage).
2 Transverse (including chevron).
3 Heat affected zone or toe.
4 Crater.
A crack is a linear discontinuity produced by a fracture. In welding, cracks

can occur after the completion of welding, during the deposition of
subsequent welding runs or at the point of solidification and can affect both
the weld deposit and the parent material.
Cracks are often invisible on radiographs but if detected appear as dark, fine
often branching lines, usually diffuse or discontinuous. The ability of the
radiographic technique to detect a crack is dependent on the cracks
orientation relative to the direction of the radiation. Figure 11.8 shows how
even a slight deviation from the optimum orientation will greatly reduce the
change in section thickness which the radiation experiences due to a planar
defect such as a crack. In the case shown a variation from optimum
incidence of just 1 will reduce the change in penetrated thickness from 10
to 1mm for a planar defect measuring 10mm by 17m.
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Figure 11.8 Detectability of planar defects.
Centreline cracks (also called shrinkage or solidification cracks)

Centreline cracks are caused by excessive restraint or the deposition of too
much weld metal in a single pass, rom excessive amperage or travel speed
too slow and are possible for all arc welding methods. They occur at the
point of solidification when the weld metal has a very low tensile strength
and are the welding equivalent of a hot tear. Centreline are probably the
easiest crack to detect by radiography, as they tend to be much wider than
other types as their detectability is less strongly affected by changes in the
direction of the primary beam.
Transverse and chevron cracks

Any crack that lies across the weld axis is called a transverse crack. There
are two distinct types and usually occur when the compressive strength of
the parent material is significantly greater than the tensile strength of the
weld metal.
A shrinkage or solidification crack which usually occur at 90 to the weld

axis, often affecting the root pass of single sided welds. In nature they are
very similar to centreline cracks, but the source of restraint is different and is
relatively easy to detect by radiography.
The second type is a chevron crack, which occurs at about 45 to the weld
axis, usually after the completion of welding. Chevron cracks are a special
type of hydrogen induced crack; the stress that causes the crack being due
to an excessive amount of dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal. They are
sometimes detected by radiography, but where there is a known problem,
other NDT methods with a higher probability of detection should be used.
Heat affected zone cracks and toe cracks

Various mechanisms can lead to cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of
a weld. HAZ cracks often start at or run to the toe of the weld since there is
always a high stress concentration at this point. In ferrous welds the
hardest, most martensitic, brittlest microstructure is usually found in the
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HAZ. It is this susceptible grain structure that makes the HAZ a prime site
for cracking. HAZ cracks are usually caused by one of two mechanisms.
The first involves dissolved hydrogen. Molten iron has a very high solubility
for hydrogen while solid iron has a very low solubility. Thus as the metal
freezes hydrogen will attempt to leave solution and escape from the weld
pool but this process is slow compared with freezing, therefore most of the
hydrogen becomes trapped in the solidified metal. The trapped hydrogen
then diffuses through the metal crystals and begins to build up an internal
pressure at points of weakness, usually the grain boundaries. In some
cases the internal pressure exceeds the strength of the material and
hydrogen cracking occurs. Hydrogen induced cracking may occur up to 48
hours after welding. Where ferrous materials operate in a hydrogen rich
environment, for example in sour gas service, hydrogen cracking can occur
as an in-service defect. High strength, high carbon equivalent steels are
most prone to hydrogen cracking. The presence of trace elements,
especially sulphur and phosphorus can make hydrogen cracking much more
likely to occur. Hydrogen induced cracks are not likely to be detected by
radiography and other methods such as ultrasonic testing should be used in
any situation where there is a high probability of occurrence.
A second type of cracking that can occur in the HAZ of a weld is sometimes
called weld decay. This can affect stainless steels and is caused by the
precipitation of brittle material (chromium carbide) at the grain boundaries.
All stainless steels contain a small proportion of carbon which is generally
held in solution within the austenitic grains, but the heat from welding can
cause it to combine with the chromium which is present forming chromium
carbide which is an extremely brittle material. Weld decay can be avoided
by reducing the carbon content of the parent material and filler wire.
Cracking caused by weld decay is unlikely to be detected by radiography.
Crater cracks
Occurs when the heat source is removed too suddenly at the end of a weld
run. The cracking mechanism is the same as that for centreline cracking.
The major dimension of a crater crack is usually less than 5mm, are often
star shaped in a radiograph and relatively easy to detect. Many welding
standards will permit this type of cracking provided that it does not exceed a
specified maximum dimension.
Figure 11.9 Typical radiographic appearance of a crack.
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Lack of fusion
Can occur either between the weld deposit and the parent material or
between successive layers of weld material, also due to lack of fill or
penetration.
Lack of fusion is where the solid material immediately adjacent to the molten
weld pool failed to become molten during the welding process leading to a
lack of union between the molten weld material and the adjacent solid
material. The ability of radiographic techniques to successfully detect lack of
fusion is strongly dependent on the orientation of the defect with respect to
the incident beam of radiation, (see Figure 11.10). Given favourable
orientation lack of fusion with the parent material will appear in the
radiograph as a fine dark straight line which may be continuous or
intermittent. Unfavourably orientated lack of fusion with the parent material
may sometimes still be detected due to the presence of associated slag
inclusions or porosity. A slag inclusion with a straight edge normally
indicates lack of fusion and gas escaping from an area lack of fusion during
the deposition of a subsequent welding run may lead to a line of linear
porosity.
Lack of fusion between subsequent layers of weld material will generally not
be detected by radiography unless it is associated with another type of
defect such as slag.
Figure 11.10 Types of lack of fusion.
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Figure 11.11 Lack of fusion in the radiograph.
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Incomplete root penetration

The failure of the weld material to extend into the root of a joint and is a
fusion defect, not to be confused with root concavity.
Incomplete root penetration appears in a radiograph as a dark continuous or

intermittent linear shadow, the edges of which will usually be straight.
Where welds are deposited without a root gap, lack of penetration may
appear as a single continuous or intermittent dark line. It should be noted
that root gaps frequently close during welding so even where there should
have been a root gap lack of penetration may appear in the radiograph as a
single dark line.
Figure 11.12 Lack of root penetration.
Non-metallic inclusions
Usually formed by slag, but occasionally other foreign matter such as wind
blown sand may become entrapped within the molten weld material. Slag
inclusions are irregularly shaped and may be either rounded/isolated or
linear/elongated. Linear slag inclusions with a straight edge often indicate
lack of fusion. Sometimes linear slag will appear on the radiograph as two
parallel lines, often referred to as tram lines or wagon tracks.
Most welding slag and other sources of non-metallic inclusions are

radiographically much less absorbing than the surrounding metallic material;
therefore they appear in the radiograph as dark images.
Although very rarely used, some types of covered welding electrode have a
high barium content in the flux coating and produce a slag radiographically
denser than steel so slag inclusion may appear as a light image.
Metallic inclusions
Dependent upon the nature of the welding process it is possible for foreign
metallic material to become entrapped within the molten weld material.
Associated with the gas tungsten arc welding process, tungsten inclusions
are probably the most commonly encountered form of metallic inclusion.
They are caused by the break-up of the non-consumable tungsten electrode
during welding and since tungsten has a melting point well in excess of
3000C particles of tungsten falling into the weld pool do not become
molten. Tungsten is radiographically extremely dense; therefore tungsten
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inclusions always appear as bright - light images which tend to be angular.

They are usually quite small, typically around 0.5mm.
Copper inclusions can occur particularly with submerged arc or other

welding process where the consumable electrode is fed through a copper
contact. If the copper contact gets too near to touches the weld pool molten
copper (melting point about 900C) will become included in the weld pool.
Copper is radiographically more absorbing than most other materials
including steel so copper inclusions may produce light rounded images with
extremely diffuse edges. Copper inclusions in ferritic steel welds usually
cause severe transverse cracking.
Metallic inclusions are quite common in aluminium welds, where such welds
are not properly segregated from their steel counterparts. Aluminium melts
at around 660C, steel at about 1400oC so particles of steel or iron oxide
falling into the weld pool will not become molten. Contamination can easily
occur if tools such as grinding disks which have been used for steel are
used on aluminium. Steel inclusions in aluminium appear as very bright
angular shapes with sharp edges.
Figure 11.3 Slag inclusions.
Figure 11.4 Tungsten inclusion.
Gas pores: porosity

The solubility for gas of the molten weld material is many times that of the
solid weld material, thus as the material freezes there is a tendency for any
dissolved gases to precipitate from solution causing gas pores or porosity in
the finished weld. Gas pores are extremely easy to detect by radiography
since they are not sensitive to the direction of radiation and the gas which
fills them is many times less radiographically dense than the surrounding
material. Gas pores appear on a radiograph as sharply defined dark circular
spots, and may be isolated, grouped or evenly distributed. Aligned porosity
is usually an indication of lack of fusion. Evenly distributed porosity generally
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indicates that the electrode was faulty and group porosity usually occurs at
restarts and is due to poor welding technique.
Elongated cavities (hollow bead)

These will generally only occur in the root run of welds deposited by manual
metal arc welding. Welds deposited using cellulosic coated electrodes (AWS
E6010, 7010, etc.) are more likely to suffer from this defect than welds
deposited with other types of electrode.
Hollow bead can be caused by holding the arc at too shallow an angle with
respect to the work piece or by a strong draught of air along the inside of the
pipe during welding. On the radiograph it looks very similar to slag - the
radiographic indication usually has rounded ends and it is always situated
along the centre of the root bead.
Wormholes
These are gas pores which have become frozen in the weld pool while
attempting to migrate to the surface of the weld pool. In addition to occurring
due to an excess of dissolved gas in the weld pool, they sometimes occur
due to laminations in the parent material which extend to the weld face.
Lack of fusion contains a small amount of entrapped air and this can cause
wormholes in a similar way.
Wormholes appear on the radiograph as a dark shadow, the shape of which

depends on the orientation of the defect. If the wormhole is end on to the
radiation a very dark rounded shadow is formed. It is side on then the
appearance is somewhat like a tadpole. Where a lamination in the parent
material or a lack of fusion is the source of wormholes they are often
apparent in the radiograph in a herringbone-like array.
Figure 11.5 Wormholes due to a lamination in the parent material.
Crater pipes and cracks

Occur due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run where the source of heat
was removed too suddenly causing the weld pool to freeze too rapidly. It is
quite common when the welding process is gas tungsten arc but it may also
occur with shielded metal arc and other welding processes.
A crater pipe will appear in the radiograph with an image very similar to that
of a wormhole. It can only be distinguished from a wormhole by its position
in the weld. Crater cracks are shrinkage cracks so have a relatively greater
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volume than most other cracks. They often have a star like appearance in a
radiograph and their radiographic image rarely measures more than 3 or
4mm.
11.8 Interpretation of casting radiographs

Five groups of defect images may be seen in radiographs of metal castings:
Voids.
Cracks.
Cold shuts.
Segregation.
Inclusions.
Voids
Voids in castings are formed by gases dissolved in the molten material
precipitating from solution during the solidification process or by shrinkage
caused by inadequate feeding.
Macroshrinkage (piping)
Large cavity formed during the solidification process which occurs due to
lack of sufficient feed material. With good mould design macro-shrinkage
should be confined to the feeder heads.
It appears on the radiograph as a dark continuous or semi-continuous area

of varying film density with diffuse edges.
Filamentary shrinkage (also called sponginess)

Coarse form of shrinkage which has smaller physical dimensions than a
macroshrinkage cavity. These cavities may be extensive and branching in
nature and occur at the point in a casting which freezes last. Theoretically
this should always be he centre of a section but this is not always the case,
sometimes the defect may extend to the surface of the casting.
Filamentary shrinkage has a diffuse branched appearance on the

radiograph of variable film density.
Microporosity/microshrinkage
Very fine form of filamentary shrinkage due to lack of sufficient feed metal,
gas or both, in which a number of cavities occur either round the grain
boundaries or between the dendrite arms (a dendrite is a material crystal
which in the initial stages of growth is tree-like). These cavities tend to link
up in a three dimensional network throughout the material.
In the radiograph the images of these cavities are superimposed and

generally produce a mottled or cloudy effect. In non-ferrous alloys,
particularly magnesium-based alloys, microshrinkage may occur in layers
and produce dark streaks in the radiograph.
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Pinhole porosity
Cavities less than 1.5mm diameter formed due to the evolution of gas from
the molten material. The defect may be evenly distributed throughout the
casting or localised in a particular area. When it is local to the surface of the
casting, due to gas evolved at the mould face, it is known as subcutaneous
pinhole porosity.
The defect appears in the radiograph as an assemblage of small, rounded,

widely distributed dark images, distinguishable from microporosity by the
size and rounded nature of the images which do not show the same
tendency to interconnect. This defect can arise from the accidental injection
of air during pressure die casting.
Gas holes
Discrete cavity greater than about 1.5mm diameter caused by gas evolved
from the material as it freezes. It may also arise from gas evolved from the
core or mould, in which case it is called blowhole.
The radiographic image appears as a dark area of smooth outline which

may be circular or elongated and can be associated with pinhole porosity.
Gas holes occasionally become elongated as they try to rise to the surface
of the molten material during cooling, in this form they are known as
wormholes. The radiographic image of a wormhole may vary from a circular
to an extremely elongated image depending upon the angle of view.
Airlocks (entrapped air)

Cavities formed by air trapped in the mould by the material during pouring.
The defect appears in the radiograph as dark area with an outline which is
generally smooth but which may have irregularities. An airlock cannot
always be distinguished radiographically from a gas hole but a helpful guide
to identification is the shape, size and position in the casting.
In pressure die casting where air may be injected with the material the
defect is usually more severe in the runners and may assume an angular
form. In pressure and gravity die castings this defect may occur in clusters
or as strings of small voids, whereas, in investment casting it may appear as
small rounded voids.
Cracks
Cracks are discontinuities caused by fracture of the material at the point of
solidification or some time thereafter. They appear on the radiograph as one
or more dark lines. The width and form of the indication depends on the type
of crack and radiographic technique used.
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Hot tears
Discontinuities of a decidedly ragged form resulting from stress developed
near the solidification temperature when a material has low mechanical
strength. They usually arise when the natural contraction of the casting is
restrained by the mould or core and occur mainly at or near a change of
section.
The defects are not necessarily continuous, they may exist in groups and
will often terminate at the surface and are sometimes referred to as pulls.
Radiographically hot tears are wavy, ragged dark lines, often discontinuous,
with areas appearing as approximately parallel dark lines which may
possibly be overlapping. Generally, the ends of the indication taper to
become fine.
Stress cracks
Well defined and approximately straight cracks formed after the material has
become completely solid, quite large stresses being required to cause
fracture. Distinctions are sometimes drawn between types depending on the
time at which fracture occurred.
In the radiograph stress cracks are often revealed as clearly defined smooth
dark lines - thus differing from the ragged appearance of hot tears.
Cold shuts
Discontinuities caused by the failure of a stream of molten material to unite
with either a confluent stream, or solid material, such as a chaplet, internal
chill or pouring splash.
In the radiograph these defects usually appear as dark lines and may be
difficult to distinguish from hot tears except by the typical involute
appearance of the end of the defects. The shape of an unfused chaplet or
chill in a radiograph is dependent upon orientation of the beam. A cold shut
resulting from a splash may appear as a dark crescent or circle.
Inclusions
Foreign matter (sand, slag, flux, dross, etc) entrapped in the casting. As an
inclusion may be of greater or lesser opacity then the surrounding material it
may appear radiographically as a light or dark area (eg a sand inclusion will
appear dark in steel and light in aluminium). Slag usually gives a rounded
image whereas material included in the casting as a solid (eg dross and
sand), will give an irregular shape. If dross is trapped as an oxide film it will
often produce a characteristic folded appearance in the radiograph.
Inclusions may in many respects resemble voids in radiographic
appearance but they will generally exhibit a greater variation in density.
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Segregations
Result from local concentrations of any of the constituents of an alloy and
may be classified as general, localised or banded.
Detection of such defects by radiography depends upon the segregating

constituents producing a local variation in the absorption of the radiation.
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Interpretation of radiographs
1 Crimping a film - lead screen combination before exposure typically

causes:
a Dark crescent shaped film marks.

b Light crescent shaped film marks.
c Frilling.
d Air bells.
2 Which of the following weld defects is most reliably detected by

radiography?
a Porosity.
b Lack of inter-run fusion.
c Lack of root fusion.
d Heat affected zone crack.
3 Most specifications judge aligned slag inclusions as a single defect:
a On all occasions, because aligned slag invariably indicates lack of side

fusion.
b When the interval between the individual inclusions in the radiographic
image is shorter than the length of the longest inclusion.
c When the interval between the individual inclusions in the radiographic
image is shorter than the length of the shortest inclusion.
d When the interval between the individual inclusions in the radiographic
image is shorter than the weld throat thickness.
4 Delayed hydrogen cracking can be caused by:
a Insufficient pre-heat.
b Welding with damp electrodes.
c High carbon equivalent parent material.
d All of the above.
a The image of a wire type IQI must appear in every radiograph.

b The image of a step hole type IQI must appear in every radiograph.
c The image of either a wire type or step hole type IQI must appear in
every radiograph.
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6 If detected by radiography lack of side wall fusion appears as a:
a Very thin, continuous or intermittent, straight dark line running parallel

with the edge of the weld cap.
b Broad straight edged image towards the centre of the weld image.
c Dark line of variable width, continuous or intermittent, between the weld
& parent material & following the contour of the edge of the weld cap or
root.
d Dark irregular image, within the weld image, continuous or intermittent,
of variable width and film density running essentially parallel to the weld
axis.
7 An example of a volumetric flaw would be:
a A slag or oxide inclusion.

b A gas pore.
c Hollow bead.
d All of the above are volumetric.
8 The term heat affected zone or HAZ is used in fusion welding to

describe:
a A volume of the parent material each side of the weld, which, although it
does not melt, is metallurgically changed by the heat of welding.
b Everything that becomes molten during the fusion welding process.
c Both (a) and (b) are included in the heat affected zone.
d In welding of carbon steel the HAZ is the entire volume that reaches a
temperature of 100C or more during welding.
9 Reticulation is a film artefact caused by a sudden temperature change. It

appears in the radiographic image as:
a A net like structure something like the appearance of grainy leather.

b Light or dark crescent shaped marks.
c Patches of very low film density.
d A dark image with the shape of forked lightning.
10 The instrument used to measure film density is called a:
a Densitometer.
b Photometer.
c Radiometer.
d Proportional counter.
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Section 12
Localisation
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Localisation
12 Localisation
A radiograph is a two dimensional image of a three dimensional object.
When a flaw is detected using a standard technique there is no certain way
of telling how far below the surface the flaw is. In some cases it might be
desirable to have three dimensional information about the position of a flaw.
A technique called localisation can be used to estimate the through wall
position of a volumetric flaw such as a slag inclusion. It is important to note
that localisation of planar flaws such as cracks or lack of fusion is generally
not possible by radiographic methods.
12.1 90 method
Is the simplest method of localisation, but rather limited in its field of
application. A typical test object, where this method might be useful would
be a small to medium sized casting that has a fairly simple cross section.
Figure 12.1 shows how this method would work on a small cylindrical
casting. Two radiographs are taken with primary beam mutually at 90 to
each other. In an ideal situation the component would be placed on some
kind of turntable so that it could be moved accurately keeping the two
exposures in the same plane relative to the axis of the component. The
apparent defect position in each radiograph can be measured relative to
convenient datum point, the results plotted on a sketch and the defect
position then deduced by triangulation.
12.2 Tube (source) shift method

Figure 12.1 shows how this method could locate a slag inclusion in a butt
weld. To work well a high degree of dimensional accuracy is needed. The
source to object, the object to film distance and the distance that the source
is moved between the successive exposures must all be accurately
measured and controlled. Two half exposures are made from different
source positions using the same radiographic film to produce two flaw
images. The distance between the two images, m is then measured and the
flaw depth calculated as shown. The source shift, which is usually about one
sixth of the source to film distance, has been exaggerated in the figure.
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Localisation
Figure 12.1 The 90 method for a small cylindrical casting.
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Localisation
Source B = distance between source position 1 and Source

position position
1 2
A = source to object distance

d = depth below
Flaw
t
X
S
m
m = apparent movement
of flaw image
Radiograph
Figure 12.2 Tube shift method. Note: Source shift distance exaggerated for clarity.
( A d) ( x s)
Using similar triangles: =
B m
But x = t - d
( A d) t d s)
so: =
B m
Multiply both sides of the equation by Bm:
Am + dm = tB - dB + sB
Add dB and subtract Am both sides:
dB + dm = tB + sB - Am
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Localisation
Which can be written as:
d(B + m) = B(t + s) - Am
divide both sides by (B + m):
B( t s) Am
d=
(B m)
12.3 Tube (source) shift method with lead markers

Placing lead markers on the component source and film side as shown in
Figure 12.3 removes the need for accurate measurement of the source to
object, object to film distances and the distance that the source is moved
between the successive exposures.
Refer to Figure 12.3. The three triangles in the enlarged view will be very
similar as long as the source or focus to film distance is long in relation to
with the thickness.
If the triangles are similar then:
a b c
= =
x y z
CX cy
So it follows that: a = and : b =
Z z
We also know that: c - a = t and: c - b = d
CX cy
Therefore we can write: c - t = and:c - d =
Z z
(Argument continued below Figure 12.3)
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Localisation
Figure 12.3 Tube shift method with lead markers.
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Localisation
CX cy
We have already established that: c - t = and c - d =
Z Z
cy
From this we can see that: d = C -
Z
CX
And: t = c -
Z
Y
So: d = c 1 [1]
Z
X
And: t = c 1 [2]
Z
Now divide Equation [1] by Equation [2] to get:
Y
1
d Z
=
t X
1
Z
t, the thickness of the plate is known and x, y and z can be measured on the
radiograph. Therefore d can be calculated.
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Localisation
Localisation
1 Which method can be used in radiography to determine the through-wall

position of a defect such as a slag inclusion?
a The pinhole camera technique.

b A tube or source shift technique (also called parallax technique).
c Carefully measure of film density using a microdensitometer.
d The through-wall position of such defects cannot be determined by
radiography.
2 What does the tube shift method with lead markers rely on?
a A long exposure time.

b Accurate measurement of the FOD and OFD.
c A long FFD in relation to the component thickness.
d Lead screens to improve image quality below 120KeV.
3 The tube shift method required two shots from differing tube positions.
What adjustment to each exposure time must be carried out to facilitate
this?
a Half.
b Double.
c Equal.
d Quarter.
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Section 13
Units Used in Radiography

Rev 1 January 2010
13 Units Used in Radiography

13.1 Ionisation (exposure)
The quantity of ionising radiation can be measured in terms of its ionising
effect or exposure on air at standard temperature and pressure (STP).
The SI unit of ionising effect is the coulomb per kilogram, the quantity of
ionising radiation that produces a total electric charge of 1 coulomb per
kilogram (Ckg-1) of air at STP.
The centimetre-gram-second (CGS) unit of ionising effect is the roentgen

(R), the quantity of ionising radiation that produces an electric charge of 1
electrostatic unit (ESU), equivalent to 2.08 x 109 ion pairs, per cubic
centimetre of air at STP. One cubic centimetre of air at STP weighs
0.001293g.
One ESU is equal to 3.336 x 10-10 coulomb so:
1R = 2.58 x 10-4 Ckg-1
or
1 Ckg-1 = 3876 R
13.2 Absorbed dose

The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). The gray is defined as the
quantity of ionising radiation which releases 1 Joule of energy per kilogram
of absorber.
The CGS unit of absorbed dose is the roentgen absorbed dose (rad). The
rad is defined as the quantity of ionising radiation which releases 100 ergs
of energy per gram of absorber.
1 Gy = 100 rad
The units of radiation absorbed dose can be approximately related to the

units of ionising effect:
1R = 0.88 rad
1 Ckg-1 = 3411 rad = 34.11 Gy
The conversions above are approximate since the relationship between the
roentgen and the rad or the coulomb per kilogram and the gray varies to
some extent with radiation energy.
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13.3 Man mammal equivalent or radiobiological equivalent

The effect which ionising radiation has on our bodies varies with the type of
radiation and also, to some extent, with radiation energy. In order to
compensate for this a quality factor (QF) is introduced. Quality factors for
several types of ionising radiation are listed in Table 13.16 below.
Table 13.16 Quality factors

Type of radiation Quality factor, QF
X-rays 1.0
Gamma rays 1.0
Beta particles 1.0*
Alpha particles 20
Thermal neutrons** 2
Fast neutrons*** 10
Protons 10
Heavy ions 20
* may in some cases exceed 1.0
** energy < 10keV
*** energy > 10keV
In the CGS system multiplying the dose in rad by the appropriate quality
factor gives the dose in roentgen equivalent man (Rem) where 1Rem is the
amount of ionising radiation which has the same biological effect as 1rad of
X-rays.
In the SI system multiplying the dose in gray by the appropriate quality

factor gives the dose in sievert (Sv) where 1Sv is the amount of ionising
radiation which has the same biological effect as 1Gy of X-rays.
Thus:
1Sv = 100Rem
or
1Rem = 0.01Sv
13.4 Dose rate

Dose rate in the SI system is generally measured in microsieverts per hour
(Sv/h), but may also be measured in millisieverts (mSv) or sieverts (Sv) per
hour. Alternatively dose rate can be expressed in micrograys (Gy),
milligrays (mGy) or grays per hour
In the cgs system dose rate is generally measured in millirem per hour
(mRem/h) but may be measured in Rem per hour (Rem/h).
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1 mRem/h = 10 Sv/h
or
1 mSv/h = 0.1 mRem
13.5 Source strength or activity

For radioactive sources the source strength or activity is the number of
disintegrations occurring each second and is proportional to the number of
active atoms present in the source.
The CGS unit of source strength or activity is the curie (Ci). One curie is
equal to 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second.
The SI unit of source strength or activity is the becquerel (Bq) or the

gigabecquerel (GBq). One becquerel is equal to one disintegration per
second; one gigabecquerel is equal to 109 disintegrations per second.
1Ci = 37GBq
or
1GBq = 0.027Ci
13.6 Specific activity

The specific activity of a radioactive source is equal to the source activity
divided by the weight of the source. In the CGS system it is expressed in
curies per gram (Ci/g) while in the SI system it is expressed in becquerels
per gram (Bq/g) or gigabecquerels per gram (GBq/g).
13.7 Output
The output of a source of ionising radiation is the dose rate per hour at
some fixed distance, usually 1m from the source. For radioactive isotopes it
is useful to state output in grays, sieverts, rads or Rems per hour per curie
at 1m. Table 13.17 gives some examples.
Table 13.17 Output of various radioactive isotopes.

Isotope name Output,
mSv per hour per Ci
Thulium 170 0.026
Ytterbium 169 1.25
Selenium 75 1.8
Iridium 192 4.8
Cobalt 60 13.0
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The output of radiation from a typical 200kV industrial constant potential

X-ray machine is as much as 1,000mSv per milliampere of tube current at a
distance of 1m from the focal spot.
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Units used in radiography
1 The SI unit of absorbed dose is the:
a Becquerel.
b Sievert.
c Gray.
d Roentgen.
2 The output from an ionising radiation sources is:
a The total number of disintegrations during the exposure time of a gamma

shot.
b The dose rate per hour at a fixed distance from the source.
c The strength of the source after 1 half life has elapsed.
d Is generally higher for radioactive isotopes compared to x-ray sets.
3 Dose rate is measured in:
a mSv/h/Ci (millisieverts per hour per Curie).

b Gy (Grays).
c GBq/sec (gigabecqueral per second).
d Sv/h (microsieverts per hour).
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Section 14
Radiation Monitoring Devices

Rev 1 January 2010
14 Radiation Monitoring Devices

Ionising radiation cannot be detected by humans and is extremely harmful to
health therefore it is imperative we have reliable equipment that can
measure the radiation dose. Two basic types of radiation monitoring device
exist: (1) Those which give a read out of the current dose rate and (2)
Devices which measure the accumulated dose over a given period of time.
14.1 Survey meters

Survey meters give a real time measurement of dose rate. There are five
basic types, ionisation chambers, proportional counters, geiger counters,
scintillation counters and solid state devices. Each of these is discussed and
described in the sections below.
14.1.1 Ionisation chambers

An ionisation chamber is part of the family of radiation detectors known as
gaseous detectors. The ionisation chamber can take many forms, but
basically consists of two electrodes separated by a layer of gas. As ionising
radiation interacts with the gas, causing ionisation, it becomes electrically
conductive and pulses of current flow as each photon of ionising radiation is
received. Compared with other types of gaseous detector the ionisation
chamber operates at low electrical voltage, see Figure 14.1. The actual
voltage needed depends on the geometry and size of the ionisation
chamber. Ionisation chambers can detect alpha, beta and gamma or X-ray
radiation but give no information as to the photon energy of the radiation
detected. They are occasionally used in conjunction with an electronic circuit
that counts the current pulses but usually the output is a reading of the
average current flowing across the chamber. The measurement range of
ionisation chamber instruments is comparatively narrow and they tend to be
bulky and fragile compared with the Geiger counter so are seldom seen in
industrial applications.
Figure 14.1 Gaseous detectors, pulse size versus applied voltage.
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Figure 14.2 Simplified layout of an ionisation chamber.
14.1.2 Proportional counters

Neither the Geiger counter, nor the ionisation chamber can give any
information as to the photon energy of the ionising radiation received. The
best that can be achieved with them is to shield the chamber such that
alpha and beta radiation are excluded from the measurement. The gas
chamber used in a proportional counter often contains multiple electrodes.
Proportional counters operate in a voltage range between the ionisation
chamber and the geiger counter. In addition to gauging radiation dose rate
or intensity they are able to give information as to the type and photon
energy of the radiation received and are also able to determine the direction
from which the radiation is coming. They are often used as fixed monitoring
instruments within and around nuclear installations, but are rarely seen in
other workaday industrial applications.
14.1.3 Geiger counters

Geiger counters operate at higher voltages than the proportional counter;
typical operating voltages vary from 400-1000V or more dependent on the
size and geometry of the gas chamber. At such voltages the pulse size is
very large and no amplification is needed. The original 1928 version of the
Geiger tube contained a special self-quenching gas mixture consisting of an
inert gas doped with a small amount of hydrocarbon (eg butane). This was
greatly improved in 1947 when Liebson designed a tube containing inert gas
with a small proportion of halogen (eg bromine). All modern instruments
follow the Liebson design. Geiger tubes can be made very small; a cylinder
of less than 6mm diameter and length 25mm is not untypical and are
extremely durable and reliable. A Geiger tube constructed of a light metal
such as aluminium will detect only X- or gamma rays. Tubes provided with a
window made from thin glass will also detect beta radiation while those
having a window made from mica can detect alpha in addition to beta and
gamma. The measurement range of the instrument can be extended by
shielding the tube. Geiger tube instruments are otherwise insensitive to
changes in photon energy. In general Geiger counters give little information
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as to the direction from which the detected radiation is coming. They may
give a reading in counts per second, but usually the average current flowing
across the tube is measured with the ammeter scale being calibrated to
read microsieverts or millisieverts per hour. As radiation intensity increases
to high levels a geiger counter will become increasingly inaccurate, because
it suffers from a short dead time after a pulsing event has occurred, if
another photon of radiation arrives during the dead time it will not be
detected. Some instruments will cease to function if exposed to a very high
dose rate.
14.1.4 Solid state radiation detectors

Solid state radiation detectors have been available since the 1950s. Various
types of semiconductor are available which begin to conduct electricity
under the influence of ionising radiation. Instruments based on this type of
semiconductor are able to differentiate between different photon energies.
Thus in addition to measuring dose rate they can provide information as to
the spectrum of radiation that is present.
14.1.5 Scintillation counters

Various materials known as phosphors emit flashes of light when placed in a
beam of ionising radiation. Phosphors can be manufactured to respond to
one or more types of ionising radiation. Table 14.18 lists some common
phosphorescent materials, many others exist, including a number of organic
liquids and solids.
Phosphors have been used as radiation detectors since the very early days
of the discovery of ionising radiation; both Roentgen and Becquerel used
them. The amount of light produced can be quite small so phosphors are
always used in conjunction with a light amplification system such as the
photomultiplier tube. Modern instruments use charge coupled devices
(CCDs) in conjunction with a radiation sensitive phosphor. A CCD is at the
heart of any modern digital camera. Those used for radiation detection
measure the intensity of light emitted from the phosphorescent layer under
the influence of ionising radiation. Whichever system is used, scintillation
counters relate the intensity of light produced by the phosphor to the
intensity of the ionising radiation received. Generally they give a reading in
counts per second but occasionally they will be calibrated to read directly in
microsieverts or millisieverts per hour.
Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive and can detect very low levels
of ionising radiation. They are direction sensitive and very useful when
searching for radioactive contamination. They are used in industrial
radiography to check for leakage of fissile material from a sealed source.
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Table 14.18 Common phosphorescent materials.

Phosphor (activator) Sensitive to:
Sodium iodide (thallium) Gamma
Lithium iodide (europium) Gamma and neutrons
Zinc sulphide (silver) Alpha
Bismuth germanate (N/A) Gamma
14.2 Personal monitors

Survey meters, with a few exceptions, give a real time reading of dose rate
but do not integrate this to give a total dose received over a given period of
time. Several types of device exist which integrate the dose received over a
period of time. One convenient use of such a device is for monitoring the
total dose that a person receives during the course of his working day.
When used in this way such devices are referred to as personal monitors.
Four types of personal monitor are commonly used in industrial radiography.
14.2.1 Film badges
Monitoring film
Plastic filter
Copper filters
Open window
Aluminium filters
Plastic filter
Figure 14.3 Film badge.
The principle of a film badge is that when exposed to ionising radiation

followed by developing under tightly controlled conditions the film density
produced can be related to the radiation dose received. Film badges, as
shown in Figure 14.3, can be used to detect X-, gamma and beta radiation.
Coupled with the right type of intensification screen radiographic film can be
used to detect and measure other types of ionising radiation.
The film badge of the type shown in Figure 14.3 contains a section of
carefully manufactured radiographic film having two emulsions, one fast and
one slow. The use of two emulsions extends the measurement range of the
badge. The badge holder is equipped with various filters which extend the
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range of measurement and additionally enable the badge to give some

information as to the type and photon energy of the ionising radiation
received.
The film badge has, in large part, been replaced by the thermoluminescent
dosimeter (TLD) (see below). Table 14.19 gives a comparison of typical film
badge and TLD specifications.
Table 14.19 Film badge and thermoluminescent dosimeter specifications.

Film badges
Radiation type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring range 10keV-7MeV 10keV-7MeV 700keV-3.5MeV
(photon energy)
Measuring range 0.1mSv-10Sv 0.1mSv-400mSv 0.1mSv-10Sv
(dose)
Typical period of 2-4 weeks
use
Thermoluminescent dosimeters
Radiation type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring range 10keV-10MeV 10keV-10MeV 700keV-3.5MeV
(photon energy)
Measuring range 0.05mSv-10Sv 0.05mSv-10Sv 0.05mSv-10Sv
(dose)
Typical period of 4 weeks
use
14.2.2 Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD)

Thermoluminescent dosimeters offer several significant advantages over the
film badge:
Much less easily damaged.

Slightly wider measurement range.
Much less subject to possible errors or failures in processing, the
measurements obtained have a better degree of accuracy.
Can be reused many times.
Absorption characteristics of the TLD more closely resemble those of the
human body, thus dose calculations are simplified.
Most TLD badges contain two or more discs of a thermoluminescent

material, usually lithium fluoride but occasionally other materials are used.
During exposure to ionising radiation lithium fluoride stores energy, when
subsequently heated to a temperature of around 250C the stored energy is
released as flashes of light. The number of flashes can be counted and this
is directly related to the radiation dose received.
TLD badges are worn in specially designed plastic holders similar to those
used for film badges. The addition of plastic or aluminium filters extends the
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measurement range and facilitates the obtaining of information concerning

the photon energy and type of radiation.
14.2.3 The quartz fibre electrometer (personal dosimeter)

These devices are still widely used in the US where in many states they are
mandatory wear for all personnel involved in working with ionising radiation.
In the UK they used to be popular for use inside nuclear power plants but
they have now largely been replaced by more reliable and accurate solid
state devices.
Figure 14.4 Quartz fibre electrometer.
The quartz fibre electrometer (QFE) is a gaseous detector like the ionisation
chamber, proportional counter and Geiger counter described above. When
raised to the light a scale like on the right of Figure 14.4 can be seen
through the lens of the instrument. The vertical line is the quartz fibre. When
a static electrical charge is applied to the instrument the quartz fibre moves
to the zero point of the scale. As the gas inside the QFE becomes ionised
the static charge is gradually dissipated and the fibre begins to move to the
right. The corresponding total dose received can be read on the upper
scale.
The QFE has quite a narrow measuring range, typically 0-50mSv or less.
The example shown above has a measurement range of 0-200mRem,
equivalent to 0-2mSv. The QFE is sensitive to X- and gamma radiation in
the photon energy range 45keV-3.5MeV and is a very convenient means for
checking how radiation doses are accumulating during a working day but it
suffers from fragility and is very easily damaged.
14.2.4 Solid state integrating dosimeters

The QFE has largely been replaced by solid state integrating dosimeters
which are extremely shock-proof and have a wider measuring range. They
are typically combined with an audible warning device which bleeps if the
wearer enters a high radiation area.
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Radiation monitoring devices
1 Geiger tubes required to detect beta radiation as well as x and gamma

will have a window made from which material?
a Beryllium.
b Aluminium.
c Mica.
d Glass.
2 To detect very low levels of radiation, the best device is:
a An ionisation chamber.
b A Geiger counter.
c A Thermoluminescent doseimeter.
d A Scintillation counter.
3 How many basic types of survey meter are available for use in industrial
radiography?
a 3.
b 4.
c 5.
d 6.
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Section 15
Radiation Safety
Rev 1 January 2010
Radiation Safety
15 Radiation Safety
All personnel working with ionising radiation should be aware that it is
injurious to the human body, or any other biological tissue. Anyone working
where radiography is carried out should make themselves fully aware of the
safety procedures and regulations in force and take care to observe all
warning barriers. Ionising radiation cannot be detected by the five human
senses and has cumulative effects upon the human metabolism and causes
genetic damage to the human body, the full effects of which may not be
apparent until 15-35 years after the initial exposure. Regardless of any
nominal safe limits it is always prudent to avoid exposure to radiation
whenever possible.
Note: Where industrial radiography is concerned there is little or no danger

from contamination because all gamma sources in use are of the sealed
variety. X- or gamma-rays are not capable of producing any residual
radioactivity in the items subjected to exposure.
15.1 Precautions
15.1.1 Exposure booths
At locations where a large volume of industrial radiography is carried out
exposure booths of various shapes and sizes will generally be available,
which usually consist of enclosures having lead lined walls. Some exposure
booths have walls filled with spent casting sand or other radiation absorbing
material.
Such exposure booths should be regularly monitored to ensure that the

radiation dose rate is within safe limits in the areas outside the booth where
personnel can move freely.
Safety switches are usually fitted to doors of exposure booths to prevent the
operation of X-ray sets or gamma ray equipment whilst the door is open.
Where overhead cranes might have to pass over an open topped exposure
booth similar safety switches are normally installed o trip out the X-ray set,
or wind back the gamma ray source, should the crane encroach upon the
irradiated area during exposure.
In many countries, including Britain, it is a legal requirement that an audible

warning is given before any exposure takes place.
Exposure booths should be equipped with switches inside the X-ray

compound which can be operated to prevent the operation of the X- or
gamma ray equipment should any personnel be accidentally trapped inside.
Radiation detectors should be installed inside the exposure booth to indicate

when gamma ray sources are being used.
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Radiation Safety
15.1.2 Site work

A demarcation barrier is required showing the zone where radiation is in
excess of the legally permitted limit (in Britain this is 7.5Sv/h). The barrier
usually consists of brightly coloured rope or tape suspended at about 1m
above the ground, with warning signs at 5m intervals.
Areas which will be irradiated at greater than the legal limit must be cleared
of all non-classified personnel prior to any exposure. Audible and visible
warnings must be given before any exposure takes place.
The barrier should be monitored with an efficient radiation detector and

should be guarded by classified personnel during exposure.
15.1.3 Scatter
Personnel should be aware that radiation can be scattered by structures,
apparently safe locations may be subject to stray scattered radiation.
15.2 Exposure limits for radiation workers

In Britain classified workers are allowed to receive an accumulated dose of
20 millisieverts (20mSv) per year from the age of 18-65 years. A formal
investigation is required if a classified worker receives a dose of 15mSv or
more within any single calendar year. The investigation has to establish the
source of the dose and may include a thorough medical check for the
person receiving the dose. These requirements are typical for all countries
within the European Union, but requirements in other countries may differ
widely.
15.2.1 Dosimeters
For work in radioactive environments (ie nuclear reactors) personnel must
be equipped with direct reading dosimeters which will display immediately
the accumulated dose received. Personnel working in these locations must
take particular care to avoid ingesting radioactive particles. Tightly fitting
breathing masks are required and protective clothing should be worn.
15.3 Permitted levels

The figures given below relate to Statutory Instrument 1999 Number 3232,
Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999. These regulations exclude radiation
doses received due to medical reasons.
15.3.1 Classified workers

The maximum permitted dose rate for personnel equipped with film badges
(or TLDs) is 20mSv per year, approximately equivalent to a constant dose
rate of 10Sv/hr for a 40 hour working week if a 48 working week year is
assumed.
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Radiation Safety
15.3.2 Unclassified personnel, controlled and supervised areas

Controlled area
Unclassified personnel must be excluded from any area where radiation
dose is deemed likely to exceed three tenths of the annual allowable dose
for a classified worker (6mSv). The maximum permissible dose rate at the
boundary of a controlled area is 7.5Sv/hr.
Supervised area
Defined as an area where the annual dose is expected to equal or exceed
1mSv. Such areas should be clearly signed; unclassified persons are
permitted to pass through such areas but must not remain in them for
extended periods. Where possible verbal warnings should be given by the
radiographer.
15.4 Safe working distances

The dose rate from a source of ionising radiation reduces in proportion to
the reciprocal of the square of the distance from the source.
For any source of ionising radiation:
Dose rate =
Dose rate at one metre
Dis tan ce in metres 2
If the source of ionising radiation is X-ray then it will not be possible to
calculate the dose rate at 1m although the dose rate will be proportional to
the tube current. Halving the tube current at a given tube voltage will halve
the radiation dose rate. If the source is gamma ray then the dose rate at 1m
can be calculated if the source strength (curies or gigabecquerels) and
output of the source are known. Output for any given isotope is the dose
rate per curie or gigabecquerel at 1m from the source.
Thus:
Dose rate at one metre - (source strength) x (output).
Output for the various radioactive isotopes used in industrial radiography is

tabulated below:
If we take 7.5Sv/hr to be the safe dose rate then we can calculate the safe
distance using the formula below:
Safe distance in metres =

Output ) x (Source strength x(1,000)
7 .5
The previous formula can be simplified to:
Safe distance in metres x C x Source strength in curies
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Radiation Safety
C is a constant for each isotope, for thulium 170 C = 1.86, ytterbium 169 C =
12.91, selenium 75 C = 15.49, iridium 192 C = 25.30 and for cobalt 60 C =
41.63.
15.4.1 Shielding
If shielding is introduced then the reduction in the minimum safe working
distance can be calculated if the magnitude of the half or tenth value layer of
the shielding material is known. The half value layer for any material is the
thickness of material that will reduce the radiation dose rate, for a given
radiation energy, by a factor of two. The tenth value layer is similarly the
thickness of material that will reduce the dose rate by a factor of ten. For
example the half value layer of lead for cobalt 60 is about 12.5mm while for
iridium 192 it is about 4.8mm. The tenth value layer of lead for cobalt 60 is
about 41.5mm while for iridium 192 it is about 16mm. If the shielding
thickness is an exact multiple of the half or tenth value layer then the dose
rate after shielding can be found simply by dividing the unshielded rate by
two for each half value layer or by ten for each tenth value layer. Where this
is not the case the formulae given below can be used.
RU RU
RS = or RS =
2 t / hvl 10 t / tvl
Where:
Ru = unshielded dose rate.
Rs = shielded dose rate.
t = thickness of shielding material.
hvl = half value layer.
tvl = tenth value layer.
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Radiation Safety
Self-Assessment Questions
Radiation Safety
1 Calculate the safe distance from an unshielded 50Ci Iridium 192 source:
(given that: (i) the "safe" dose rate = 7.5Sv/h; (ii) the output of Iridium
192 is 4.8mSv/h/Ci at 1 metre).
a 167m.
b 136m.
c 77.4m.
d 179m.
2 The output of Iridium 192 is 4.8mSv/h/Ci at 1 metre, thus the dose rate at
1 centimetre from a 1Ci source will be:
a 48 mSv/h.
b 48 Sv/h.
c 48000 Sv/h.
d 480 Sv/h.
3 As gamma radiation passes through an absorber there is a reduction in

radiation intensity. The mathematical relationship between absorber
thickness and transmitted intensity is:
a Exponential.
b Parabolic.
c Linear.
d Sinusoidal.
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
End Assessment: 60 questions Time allowed: 2 hours
Instructions
Try and carry out this End Assessment under your own exam conditions
putting your answers on the sheet at the end of this section. When you are
finished, compare your answers to the correct ones (in the back of book)
and re-read the relevant sections in the notes if required.
1 Electromagnetic radiation with photon energy of 5keV and above will

cause:
a Ionisation of a gas.
b Nuclear disintegration.
c Nuclear fusion.
d Alpha emission.
2 Iridium 192 has:
a 192 protons in the nucleus.

b 192 neutrons in the nucleus.
c A combined total of 192 protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
d 192 alpha particles in the nucleus.
3 Monochromatic x-rays are used in x-ray crystallography. These are best

described as:
a X-rays with a spectrum that is flat across a broad range of wavelengths.

b X-ray radiation that has only one specific wavelength.
c X-ray radiation that causes calcium tungstate to fluoresce at a specific
wavelength.
d Highly penetrating x-rays used in ballistics for in motion radiography of
high speed projectiles.
4 Some medical x-ray equipment is fitted with a rotating anode. This

enables:
a The focus size to be minimised.

b The output of radiation to be increased.
c Both a and b.
d Focussing of the x-ray beam.
5 A Greinacher circuit is used in:
a Self-rectified x-ray equipment.

b Rod anode x-ray equipment.
c Panoramic x-ray equipment.
d Constant potential x-ray equipment.
15-7
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
6 The part of a conventional x-ray tube that is usually made from tungsten
where deceleration of high velocity electrons takes place is called the:
a Anode.
b Cathode.
c Target.
d Filament.
7 The supply of electrons from the x-ray tube filament is customarily

increased by:
a Decreasing the tube voltage.

b Supplying less coolant to the cathode.
c Increasing the filament current.
d Reducing gas pressure inside the tube.
8 Desirable properties for the target material in a conventional x-ray tube

include:
a High atomic number.

b High density.
c High melting point.
d All of the above.
9 At the same tube voltage the radiation produced by a constant potential

x-ray unit compared with that produced by a similar self-rectified unit is:
a Softer.
b Essentially the same.
c Exactly double the intensity.
d Harder.
10 The property of a gamma ray source that is measured in curies per gram
is its:
a Self-absorption coefficient.
b Specific activity.
c Strength or activity.
d Penetrating power.
11 Iridium 192 gamma rays are:
a Less penetrating than 200kV x-rays.

b Suitable for the radiography of welds in steel in the range 12-60mm
thick.
c Subject to a reduction in penetrating power as the source decays.
d More penetrating than cobalt 60 gamma rays.
15-8
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
12 How many neutrons are there in a helium nucleus?
a 1.
b 2.
c 3.
d 4.
13 When a particle is emitted the atomic number changes by:
a Plus 1.
b Minus 1.
c Zero.
d Minus 2.
14 When an particle is emitted the atomic number changes by:
a Plus 2.
b Zero.
c Minus 4.
d Minus 2.
15 The half life of iridium 192 is about:
a 74 days.
b 5.3 years.
c 74 weeks.
d 128 days.
16 If in good condition the sealed sources used in industrial radiography

present a health hazard due to:
a Alpha radiation.
b Beta radiation.
c Gamma radiation.
d All of the above.
17 To make cobalt 59 radioactive, bombard it with:
a Alpha particles.
b Beta particles.
c Neutrons.
d Hand grenades.
18 The isotopes Ir 189, Ir 190, Ir 191 & Ir 192 all have the same:
a Atomic number (otherwise they wouldnt all be Ir).

b Same atomic weight.
c Same number of neutrons.
d Same gamma ray emissions.
15-9
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
19 In the unsealed condition all common sources of gamma rays for

industrial radiography (including Ir 192, Co 60, Yb 169 and Tm 170) all
emit:
a Gamma rays and beta particles.

b Gamma rays and alpha particles.
c Either a or b.
d Gamma rays, alpha particles and beta particles.
20 When a particle is emitted the atomic mass changes by:
a Zero.
b Plus 1.
c Minus 1.
d Minus 2.
21 The shielding material in most modern gamma ray source containers is:
a Lead.
b Tungsten.
c Ferro-concrete.
d Uranium.
22 The output of a gamma ray isotope is the:
a Total amount of radiation emitted in ten half lives.

b Dose rate per curie at one metre from the source.
c Dose rate at one metre from the source.
d Total amount of radiation emitted in one half life.
23 Fixing time should be:
a 4 minutes.
b Twice the clearing time.
c 2 minutes.
d Equal to development time.
24 The main active ingredient in the fixer bath is:
a Acetic acid.
b Potassium ferrocyanide.
c Silver bromide.
d Sodium or ammonium thiosulphate.
15-10
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
25 Scratches on a lead screen will produce:
a Dark images on a radiograph.

b Light images on a radiograph.
c No image on a radiograph.
d Usually (a), sometimes (b).
26 In order to produce a good quality radiograph using Iridium 192 lead

screens need to be:
a At least 0.125 mm thick.

b Resin coated.
c In intimate contact with the film.
d All of the above.
27 Calcium tungstate crystals are used in:
a Fluorometallic intensifying screens.

b Scintillation counters.
c Thermo-luminescent dosimeters.
d Radiographic film emulsion.
28 One problem with the use of salt or fluorometallic screens is that:
a Compared with lead screens exposure times are generally longer.

b Film contrast becomes excessive.
c They do not respond to gamma rays.
d The reciprocity law fails (an exposure of 2mA for 2 minutes does not
produce the same film density as an exposure of 4mA for 1 minute).
29 The average grain size in a fine grain film is about:
e 100m.
f 10m.
g 1m.
h 0.1m.
30 The main active ingredient of developer is:
a An oxidising agent.
b A reducing agent.
c An acid.
15-11
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
31 The pinhole camera method, which involves the use of a sheet of lead
containing a small hole, is a technique used in industrial radiography to:
a Produce very high quality radiographs of thin materials.

b Achieve enlargement of a radiographic image.
c Measure the focal spot of an x-ray source.
d Make copies of existing radiographs.
32 If the transmitted light intensity through part of a radiograph that has a

density of 2.0 is 90 candela per square metre (cd/m2) how much light will
be transmitted at a location where the film density is 3.0 if all other
factors remain the same?
a 30cd/m2.
b 9cd/m2.
c 0.9cd/m2.
d 60cd/m2.
33 Penumbra is used in radiography as a direct alternative to:
a Geometric unsharpness.
b Inherent unsharpness.
c Film unsharpness.
d Undercut.
34 The 2 factors that most affect the sensitivity of a radiograph are:
a Density and unsharpness.

b Latitude and grain size.
c Density and latitude.
d Contrast and definition.
35 The gradient of the H&D curve is a measure of:
a Subject contrast.
b Radiographic contrast.
c Film speed.
d Film contrast.
36 The major cause of scatter at radiation energies exceeding about 6MeV

is:
a The photoelectric effect.

b Compton (incoherent) scattering.
c Rayleigh (coherent) scattering.
d Pair production.
15-12
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
37 In the photoelectric effect the x-ray photon:
a Transfers part of its energy to an orbital electron, with the remainder

continuing as a lower energy x-ray photon.
b Transfers all of its energy to an orbital electron.
c Transfers all of its energy to an atomic nucleus causing the emission of a
beta particle.
d Converts to an electron - positron pair.
38 A good radiograph is produced at a tube current of 4mA with an

exposure time of 2 minutes. If all other factors remain the same, what
tube current will be required to produce a similar radiograph if the
exposure time is reduced to 1 minute 20 seconds?
a 6.0mA.
b 7.5mA.
c 9.0mA.
d 10.66mA.
39 The factors most affected by a change in SFD are:
a Contrast and definition.

b Development time and temperature.
c Exposure time and geometric unsharpness.
d Penetrating power and inherent unsharpness.
40 Inherent unsharpness will increase if:
a A fine grain instead of an ultrafine grain film is used.

b The radiation source is changed from Iridium 192 to Cobalt 60.
c The effective physical size to the radiation source is increased.
d Both a and b.
41 Characteristic curves are available for three types of radiographic film.

The film that has the characteristic curve which is to the left of the other
two is the:
a Fastest film.
b Slowest film.
c Film with the finest grain size.
d Film with the shortest development time.
42 Film contrast depends on:
a The type of film, the film density, the type of developer, the development
time and the development temperature.
b The x-ray kilovoltage.
c The material which is being radiographed.
d All of the above.
15-13
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
43 Subject contrast is not affected by:
a X-ray kilovoltage.
b The type of material.
c Scatter.
d The type of film.
44 In radiography a copper filter is used to:
a Reduce the effects of scatter in x-ray techniques.

b Reduce the effects of scatter in gamma ray techniques.
c Reduce exposure time in x-ray techniques.
d Improve definition in x-ray techniques.
45 Relative movement, exposure geometry, type of film, type of intensifying

screens, screen contact and film development all have an affect on:
a Definition.
b Contrast.
c Both a and b.
d Exposure time.
46 When developing a new radiographic technique an exposure of 4mA,

140 kV, 1.25 minutes produces a film density of 1.5; a film density of 2.0
is required. Which exposure listed below would probably achieve this?
a 4mA : 150kV : 1.25 minutes.

b 4mA : 130kV : 5.00 minutes.
c 4mA : 140kV : 1.00 minutes.
d 4mA : 140kV : 1.80 minutes.
47 A radiographic film that produces a transmitted light intensity which is 1%

of the incident light intensity has a film density of:
a 1.0.
b 2.0.
c 3.0.
d 4.0.
48 The first three wires in the EN 462-1 series are:
a 3.0, 2.5 and 2.0mm diameter.

b 3.6, 3.0 and 2.4mm diameter.
c 4.0, 3.0 and 2.0mm diameter.
d 3.2, 2.5 and 2.0mm diameter.
15-14
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
49 BS EN 462-1 specifies wire type IQIs each consisting of 7 wires taken

from a list of:
a 21 wires.
b 20 wires.
c 19 wires.
d 18 wires.
50 A welded plate 30mm thick is radiographed using a BS EN 462-1 IQI.

Wire 9 - 0.50mm diameter can be seen. What sensitivity has been
achieved?
a 2.00%.
b 1.66%.
c 2.66%.
d 1.90%.
51 In x-ray radiography which of the following factors does not affect half
value thickness?
a Kilovoltage (tube voltage).

b Type of material.
c Milliamperage (tube current).
52 There are four metals used for IQIs. They are:
a Brass, titanium, copper and steel.

b Aluminium, steel, copper and titanium.
c Copper, aluminium brass and steel.
d Steel, titanium aluminium and brass.
53 When using a DWDI technique to radiograph a butt weld in small bore

pipe the OFD used to calculate penumbra should be the:
a Single wall thickness of the pipe.

b Double wall thickness of the pipe.
c Outside diameter of the pipe.
d Inside diameter of the pipe.
54 The minimum number of exposures required for the DWDI superimposed

technique is usually:
a 2.
b 3.
c 4.
d 5.
15-15
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
55 Frilling is a radiographic artefact that may be caused by:
a Oxidised developer.
b Lack of agitation during development.
c Exposure to light during development.
d Fixing film for too long at too high a temperature.
56 In fusion welds when solidification cracks occur they are usually to be

found:
a In the heat affected zone.

b At the weld centreline.
c In the parent material outside the heat affected zone.
d At the fusion line.
57 Which of the following weld defects is least reliably detected by

radiography?
a Porosity.
b Slag inclusion.
c Lack of penetration.
d Heat affected zone crack.
58 One way to control root penetration in a single sided butt weld is to:
a Weld in an overhead position to take advantage of gravity.

b Double the welding current for the root run.
c Use more backing gas in the TIG process.
d Use a temporary backing bar.
59 If detected by radiography undercut appears as a:
a Very thin, continuous or intermittent, straight dark line running parallel

with the edge of the weld cap.
b Broad straight edged image towards the centre of the weld image.
c Dark line of variable width, continuous or intermittent, between the weld
and parent material & following the contour of the edge of the weld cap
or root.
d Dark irregular image, within the weld image, continuous or intermittent,
of variable width and film density running essentially parallel to the weld
axis.
60 Dichroic fog is a film artefact caused by:
a Light exposure during development.

b Fixer that has been contaminated with developer.
c Drying the film at too high a temperature.
d Storage of radiographic film for long periods at high ambient
temperature.
15-16
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Rev 1 January 2010
End Assessment
End assessment Answer Sheet

Q A Q A
1 31
2 32
3 33
4 34
5 35
6 36
7 37
8 38
9 39
10 40
11 41
12 42
13 43
14 44
15 45
16 46
17 47
18 48
19 49
20 50
21 51
22 52
23 53
24 54
25 55
26 56
27 57
28 58
29 59
30 60
15-17
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Rev 1 January 2010
Answers to Self Assessment Questions
Answers to Self Assessment questions
Section 1 Properties of penetrating radiation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B B A
Section 2 The electromagnetic spectrum
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D A C B
Section 3 Simple atomic theory
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A D A C B C
Section 4 Ionising radiation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B C
Section 5 X-rays or Bremsstrahlung
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C C B D B C B A D A
Section 6 Gamma rays
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A C B C C A D B A B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B D
Section 7 Methods of producing a radiographic image
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B C D D D C D D D
Section 8 Production of a radiograph (Film radiography)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B D C A C D B A D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
D B B A C C B
Section 9 Sensitivity
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Rev 1 January 2010
Answers to Self Assessment Questions
C D B A C C A
Section 10 Radiographic techniques (for welds in plate and pipe)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D C A B B A D D A C
Section 11 Interpretation of radiographs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A B D D A D A A A
Section 12 Localisation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B C A
Section 13 Units used in radiography
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B D
Section 14 Radiation monitoring devices
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D D C
Section 15 Radiation safety
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B A
End Assessment Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A C B C D C C D D B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B B AA D A C C A A A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D B B D D C A D C B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
C B A D D D B A C D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A A D A A D B D C B
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
C B C B D B D D C B
15-19
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Rev 4 October 2010
Record Sheet
Self Study Record Sheet

Section 1 Properties of penetrating radiation
Study Time hours Self Assessment Score
Section 2 The electromagnetic spectrum
Section 3 Simple atomic theory
Section 4 Ionising radiation
Section 5 X-rays or Bremsstrahlung
Section 6 Gamma rays
Section 7 Methods of producing a radiographic image
Section 8 Production of a radiograph (Film radiography)
Section 9 Sensitivity
Section 10 Radiographic techniques (for welds in plate and pipe)
15-20
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Rev 4 October 2010
Record Sheet
Section 11 Interpretation of radiographs
Section 12 Localisation
Section 13 Units used in radiography
Section 14 Radiation monitoring devices
Section 15 Radiation safety
End Assessment
Exam Time 2 hours End Assessment Score / 60
15-21
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RTI - Rev.2010 (NDT2A 2B Course Notes)

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Radiographic Interpretation

Preparation Course Radiographic Theory

Training & Examination Services

1 Properties of Penetrating Radiation

2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

3 Simple Atomic Theory

7 Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image

8 Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography)

10 Radiographic Techniques (for welds in plate and pipe)

13 Units Used in Radiography

14 Radiation Monitoring Devices

Standards and Associated Reading

BS EN ISO 1330-2 Non Destructive Testing Terminology

BS EN ISO 1330-3 Non Destructive Testing Terminology

BS EN 444 Non-destructive testing General principles for radiographic

BS EN 462-1 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

BS EN 462-2 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

BS EN 462-3 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

BS EN 462-4 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

BS EN 462-5 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

BS EN 584-1 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

BS EN 584-2 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

BS EN 1435 Non-destructive testing of welds Radiographic testing of

BS EN 4094-1 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

BS EN 4094-2 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

BS EN 12517-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 1: Evaluation of welded

BS EN 12681 Founding Radiographic examination

BS EN 25580 Minimum requirements for industrial radiographic illuminators

BS M 34 Method of preparation and use of radiographic techniques

BS M 38 Guide to compilation of instructions and reports for the in-

BS EN 473 Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of NDT

BS EN 4719 Aerospace series. Qualification and approval of personnel for

ISO 9712 Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of

NDT Ed.org Introduction to radiographic testing

Mathematics and Formulae in NDT. Edited by Dr. R Halmshaw.

Hazard data sheets

The trade name of the product; eg Magnaglo, Ardrox, etc.

EH40 Occupational exposure limits

Breathing fume, dust, gas or mist.

Introduction to Non Destructive Testing

Visual Testing (VT)

History of penetrant testing

A different (though related) method was introduced in

Many of these early developments were carried out by

Magnetic Particle Inspection

History of magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) discovered the connection between electricity

Eddy Current Inspection

History of eddy current testing

Microcomputer chips abound, from giving lift-off suppression in simple crack

History of ultrasonic testing (UT)

In 1929 a Russian physicist, Sokolov, experimented with through transmission

History of radiographic testing

Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another

While working in France at the time of

William D Coolidge's name is inseparably linked with the

Although the theories and practices have changed very

In addition to conventional film radiography Digital Radiographic systems are now

Properties of Penetrating Radiation

1 Properties of Penetrating Radiation

Within the field of radiography, we utilise 3 properties; penetration,

Penetrating radiation can be used in non-destructive examination (NDE)

1 It travels in a straight line.

Thickness of the absorber.