Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Transactional Analysis
Tony Tilney
Tony Tilney
Thanet Centre for Psychotherapeutic Studies
Birmingham
W
Whurr Publishers Ltd
London
1998 Whurr Publishers
Acknowledgements vi
Introduction vii
The dictionary 1
References 147
v
Acknowledgements
I should like to thank Adrienne Lee for giving me access to previously unpublished
material and pre-publication access to her chapter on process in Contracts in
Counselling (Lee, 1997), Ian Stewart for giving me pre-publication access to his chap-
ter on the history of transactional analysis in Developments in Psychotherapy,
Historical Perspectives (Stewart, 1996a), Mairi Evans and Andy Fookes for the entry on
Gestalt therapy, Andy Fookes for the entry on person-centred therapy, Paul Richards
for the entry on NLP and to Ann Smith for her ideas on the drowning person dia-
gram. I am also grateful to Mairi Evans for constructive criticism and helpful advice.
My thanks also go to Chris Davidson who did an outstanding job in creating the dia-
grams.
I am grateful to the copyright holders for permission to reproduce the following mate-
rial which forms part of this book.
The Institute of Transactional Analysis, the European Association for Transactional
Analysis and the International Transactional Analysis Association for the use of their codes
of ethics.
From the Transactional Analysis Journal (TAJ) and the Transactional Analysis Bulletin
(TAB).
vi
Introduction
vii
Introduction
Berne, Eric
ego-states
transactions
games
script
methodology of transactional analysis
language of transactional analysis
theoretical stance of transactional analysis
philosophy of transactional analysis
history of transactional analysis
message format
schools of transactional analysis
literature of transactional analysis
viii
Introduction
ed after TA split off in the 1960s, namely object relations and self psychology. A significant
point was when Carlo Moiso was given the Eric Berne Memorial Scientific Award in 1987
for his article on Ego-states and transference (Moiso, 1985), integrating TA and psychoan-
alytic concepts. This was followed by an increasing number of articles written from an
integrative standpoint (such as Clark, 1991). There was another obvious change: before
1985 TA tended to look inwards and articles were almost exclusively referenced to other
TA articles. Now, looking through the Transactional Analysis Journal, many of the refer-
ences are to sources outside TA. Ian Stewart (1996a) has called this process the psycho-
analytic renaissance. It has sometimes generated tensions among transactional analysts,
some of whom fear that TA may lose its crispness and objectivity if it veers too far towards
psychoanalysis, whereas others believe that too close an adherence to past patterns may
impede growth. A dictionary of TA must reflect the field as a whole. I have therefore
included the major concepts of TA but have also provided resources needed to read a con-
temporary advanced article by one of the major integrative writers such as Richard Ersk-
ine. This involved including a substantial number of non-TA words. The criterion I have
used for selecting these words is to include:
Words used by Eric Berne (who trained as a psychoanalyst) and which are therefore
essential to understanding the core literature of TA. An example is ego-dystonic.
Words borrowed by transactional analysts and in widespread use and therefore
essential if the dictionary is to enable a reader to make sense of the current literature
e.g. Gestalt, attachment, holding, containment.
Words from other disciplines relating to ideas that have been, or are being, integrated
into transactional analysis (e.g. depressive position, projective identification). The
non-TA origin of all these words is clearly indicated.
ix
This page intentionally left blank
A
A Laymans Guide to Psychiatry and
Psychoanalysis Eric Bernes first
book, originally published under the
title THE MIND IN ACTION in 1947 and so
predating the emergence of transac-
tional analysis as a separate discipline.
transactional analysts in the UK may
apply for professional membership of
the Institute of Transactional Analysis.
As the ITA is a member organisation
of the United Kingdom Council for
Psychotherapy (the major governing
This looked mainly at classical (DRIVE body for psychotherapy in the UK),
THEORY) PSYCHOANALYSIS but is enlivened transactional analysts with clinical spe-
by Bernes lucid, friendly and humor- ciality become UKCP registered psy-
ous style. Revised editions incorporat- chotherapists. Most national and
ing some transactional analysis were regional transactional analysis associa-
published under the title The tions are linked by a system of agree-
Laymans Guide to Psychiatry and ments with the International Trans-
Psychoanalysis in 1957 and 1967, the actional Analysis Association ( ITAA )
latter edition also incorporating con- and as a result there is mutual recog-
tributions from other transactional nition of qualifications worldwide.
analysts.
acting out expressing unresolved psy-
abreaction a release of emotion occur- chological issues through behaviour.
ring (usually) in the course of therapy This brings some relief from psycho-
or counselling as a result of contact- logical pain by providing a channel for
ing Child ego-state experiences. repressed feelings but maintains the
denial so the issues remain unre-
accreditation recognition by a profes- solved. Acting out often involves the
sional organisation. For transactional expression of RACKET feelings and is
analysts in the UK this body is the central to GAMES.
Institute of Transactional Analysis
( ITA ), which is affiliated to the activities one of the six modes of TIME
European Association for Transactional STRUCTURING (Berne, 1964) that are used
Analysis (EATA). Accredited transaction- to satisfy STRUCTURE HUNGER, the others
al analysts are known as certified being withdrawal, rituals, pastimes,
transactional analysts ( CTA ). games and intimacy in order of increas-
Certification may be obtained in differ- ing potentialities for stroking and also
ent specialities (clinical, organisational, of increasing risk of rejection. Unlike
educational, counselling). Certified the other forms of time structuring,
1
adaptation
2
almost II script
iours. It occurs when there has been a Be Perfect Youre good enough as
build-up of undischarged tension you are
because of failure to act to have needs Please Others Please Yourself
met. This is a passive behaviour
because the energy is discharged in a Be Strong Be open and express
way that is not directed to solving the your wants
problem. An example would be fidget- Hurry Up Take your time
ing because a lecturer is inaudible
instead of directing the energy into Try Hard Do it.
asking him to speak up. Drivers form part of the COUNTERSCRIPT,
which is mainly responsible for how
alcoholism addiction to, abuse of, alco- people behave while the SCRIPT PROPER
hol. This is regarded by some as a dis- holds the major damage in the form of
ease, the view taken by Alcoholics the INJUNCTIONS. Drivers therefore form
Anonymous. Transactional analysis a very obvious part of peoples prob-
regards alcoholism and other forms of lems and it might seem that getting rid
SUBSTANCE ABUSE as involving the ACTING of the drivers will solve them.
OUT (playing GAMES) of underlying psy- However drivers also have a defensive
chological problems. These may function: they are a way of getting an
involve unresolved SYMBIOSIS , an OK feeling to counter the negative
attempt by the person to become effect of the injunctions. In therapy it
looked after as he or she was (or is better to leave the drivers in place
sought to be) as a child. See Steiner until there is sufficient PROTECTION to
(1971). See also CODEPENDENCY. counter the negative effect of injunc-
tions when they are removed. The
alliance a therapeutic technique in DROWNING PERSON DIAGRAM illustrates the
which the therapist or a projection of protective function of drivers. The
some figure from the clients past removal of a driver message by decid-
experience acts as the Childs ally in ing to act differently constitutes the
dealing with a persecuting Parent. This resolution of a type 1 impasse. See
may be done using GUIDED FANTASY in REDECISION SCHOOL, IMPASSE.
which the client is invited to remem-
ber an incident from his or her past almost I script a PROCESS SCRIPT (Berne,
and bring in the ally or by CUSHION 1970, 1972) type in which success is
WORK in which the client is invited to almost achieved but is sabotaged at the
project parts of himself or herself, e.g. last moment (e.g. work hard to achieve
the child of a certain age that he or she promotion and then mess up the inter-
once was, incorporated or introjected view). The almost I script may also be
figures (people they carry inside expressed in unfinished projects. The
themselves) on to cushions and characteristic driver pattern is Please
become each of them in turn by sitting Others + Try Hard.
on the cushion. See also ADVOCACY.
The positive relationship between almost II script a PROCESS SCRIPT (Berne,
the client and therapist which is the pre- 1970, 1972) type in which success is
requisite of therapy is known as the achieved but never satisfies, so a higher
THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE. goal is immediately substituted for the
previous one (e.g. decide you want
allowers these are the opposites (anti- a degree, work hard to get it, decide
dotes) to DRIVER messages (Kahler and that a first degree does not count and
Capers, 1974). They are: enrol for a PhD, climb the ladder in a
3
always script
based needs and feelings, a kinesthet- Autonomic arousal refers to this prepa-
ic and emotional sensing of the other ration of the body for action.
but also requires the therapist to
remain aware of the boundary autonomy the ability to act in response
between him- or herself and the to here-and-now reality and the indi-
client. Erskine regards this as a key viduals own needs, wishes and view of
factor in effective therapy. See also reality and not to be controlled by
EMPATHY, ITHOU, INTERSUBJECTIVITY. script beliefs, the demands of an inter-
nal Parent ego-state or the views of
authentic feeling a feeling that is felt others. Autonomous behaviour is char-
spontaneously and without internal acterised by an awareness of self, oth-
censoring and so is congruent with ers and the world, spontaneous behav-
experience and helpful in dealing with iour, open expression of AUTHENTIC FEEL-
reality. See FOUR AUTHENTIC FEELINGS. INGS and a willingness to enter into
INTIMACY by forming respectful real:real
authority diagram see CONTRACT, THREE- relationships with others. Autonomy is
CORNERED. a central concept in transactional
analysis since the achievement of
autonomic arousal (psychology) the autonomy indicates release from
autonomic nervous system deals with SCRIPT. Treatment CONTRACTS aim to pro-
fight/flight responses to danger. It has mote autonomy-related goals.
two branches, the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic. The sympathetic pre- awareness the terms conscious, uncon-
pares the body for flight or fight, scious, preconscious and subconscious
adrenaline enters the blood, digestion are little used in transactional analysis.
is inhibited so that more blood is avail- Instead the distinction is made
able to the muscles, the heartbeat is between what is in or out of awareness
speeded up and the blood vessels that at a given time without postulating the
supply the muscles are dilated. The existence of specific zones of the mind
parasympathic reverses this process. as in Freudian and Jungian theory.
6
B
BAC British Association for Counselling.
The major organisation governing
counselling in the UK. It operates an
ACCREDITATION scheme that is eclectic
directs that OKness can be achieved
only by getting everything right; c.f. BE
STRONG, TRY HARD, PLEASE, HURRY UP.
and is based on the evaluation of expe- Be Strong one of the five DRIVERS (Kahler
rience, practice and training. This and Capers, 1974), defensive behav-
scheme is therefore open to transac- iour patterns which relate to DRIVER MES-
tional analysts who have completed SAGES. These are recipes for pleasing
their training. parents, devised in childhood and
used in adult life to obtain positive
banal script in Steiners (1974) classifica- feelings and to counter the negative
tion of scripts it is a negative script effects of INJUNCTIONS. The drivers form
(Mindless, Loveless or Joyless) that an important component of the COUN-
does not proceed to a dramatically bad TERSCRIPT . The Be Strong driver
outcome. Unlike tragic scripts, banal involves the person distancing himself
scripts usually go unnoticed because or herself from feeling (which his or
the banality of everyday life is so com- her parents had not wanted to deal
mon. These are scripts of lost opportu- with). Expression of feeling is avoided,
nity. Banal scripts have first or second statements about the self are gener-
degree PAYOFFS. Those who have banal alised (e.g. it is cold rather than I feel
scripts will be unhappy and unfulfilled cold) and feelings are disowned e.g.
but apparently living normal lives. you made me angry rather than I felt
See also HAMARTIC SCRIPT. angry when you said that; c.f. BE PER-
FECT, TRY HARD, PLEASE, HURRY UP.
basic life positions the existential posi-
tions most often taken in relation to behavioural diagnosis of ego-states the
the value of the self and others. See ego-state is an internal (intrapsychic)
LIFE POSITIONS. structure but gives external signs of its
presence and activity. Eric Berne
Be Perfect one of the five DRIVERS (Kahler (1961) described four major ways in
and Capers, 1974). This driver is char- which ego-states can be diagnosed:
acterised by a group of behaviours behavioural (what does the person
including extreme precision of speech, do?), social (what responses do they
looking upward and counting points evoke?), historical (does their behav-
on the fingers. The DRIVER MESSAGE iour correspond to some aspect of
7
behaviourism
their personal history?) and phenome- beliefs about self, others and the world
nological (what is their experience?). are an important part of the FRAME OF
For a reliable diagnosis several of these REFERENCE (Schiff et al., 1975), the total
are needed, but behavioural cues are pattern of meanings that we use to
highly indicative of ego-state and can interpret our experience. The SCRIPT is
be monitored from moment-to- the distorted part of this pattern of
moment, making behavioural diagnosis meanings and so includes script
a very valuable technique. Observations beliefs, beliefs that were perhaps once
can be made of words, tone and speed true for the child we were in the family
of speech, gestures, postures, facial we were in then, or more likely were
expressions etc. A level tone, a steady never true but were the best sense we
rate of speech, well-chosen words and could make of our world then.
relaxed facial muscles would indicate Associated with these beliefs will be
Adult. However, all the cues may not DECISIONS about how we must behave if
be congruent. Adult speech patterns these beliefs are true. The terms belief
with an awkward body posture or a and decision are used extensively in
fixed smile would probably indicate transactional analysis. These are cogni-
adapted Child. A diagnosis that is pure- tive terms easily expressed in words;
ly behavioural will be of the FUNCTIONAL however, the script does not consist
EGO-STATE (the ego-state as it shows itself purely of words and thoughts, it is also
externally). held in behaviours, feelings and the
body (see BODY SCRIPTING and BODY-
behaviourism a system of psychology, WORK). The earlier the script element
and a therapeutic technique based on was acquired, the larger the non-verbal
it, which concentrates on behaviour element it will contain. Transactional
rather than intrapsychic states. analysts are now giving more emphasis
Classical behaviourism treated the to the early acquisition of script than
mind as a black box whose internal did Eric Berne (they are shifting from a
processes do not need to be consid- mainly Freudian position to a more
ered as long as we understand the Kleinian position).
relationship between input and out-
put. Modern behaviourism does take Berne, Eric, founder of transactional
some account of mental states, and analysis. He was born in Montreal,
classical behaviourism has given way Canada in 1910, the son of a doctor.
to a cognitive-behavioural approach. After qualifying as a doctor in 1935, he
Behaviourism had significant influ- moved to the US where he qualified in
ence on the development of transac- psychiatry. As well as practising psychi-
tional analysis. Its strength lay in its atry he began training as a psychoana-
concern with what could be directly lyst in 1941 with Paul Federn, who was
observed, which gave it an objectivity developing the concept of ego-states.
that psychoanalysis lacked. Classical World War II soon interrupted his
behaviourism discounted the impor- training and in 1943 Eric Berne, who
tance of intrapsychic processes, how- by then had become an American citi-
ever. Through the concept of EGO- zen, joined the US Army Medical
STATES transactional analysis links Corps. Army service exposed him to a
observable behaviours with intrapsy- very different culture to his psychoana-
chic processes and is therefore able to lytic training. Psychoanalysis is a very
integrate both concepts. See CONDI- slow process involving hundreds of
TIONED REFLEX, UNCONDITIONED REFLEX, hours of contact with each client. In
REINFORCEMENT. the army he had to make judgements
8
Berne, Eric
about men in little more than a professional journals. These set out on a
minute. He discovered how much highly innovative path. From the early
could be found out, even by such brief 1950s he conducted regular evening
contact, through the use of intuition. seminars that brought together a group
He became interested in intuition and of professionals interested in social psy-
published a series of papers on it in chiatry (looking at psychological distur-
professional journals. What he had dis- bances not purely as an individual but
covered was that there are many cues, also as a social issue). These provided an
including body posture, tone of voice, ideal medium for developing and refin-
movements, etc. that could be read to ing the emerging theories of the new
infer mental state. Psychoanalysis, with approach that was to become transac-
its lack of face-to-face contact and its tional analysis. Meanwhile, he contin-
emphasis on words, missed these. This ued to practise as a psychiatrist and to
connection between the directly pursue his training as a psychoanalyst.
observable and the internal mental In 1956 he applied for accreditation by
state was to form the basis of transac- the American Psychoanalytic Institute
tional analysis. Bernes psychiatric but was refused. He was invited to con-
experience had enabled him to make tinue with his training and reapply for
these connections but at this stage membership of the Institute but decid-
they were not yet fully available to him ed instead to set off on a new course, to
as conscious knowledge that could be develop a new system of psychotherapy,
passed on verbally. In 1947, just after free from what he saw as the shortcom-
the end of the war, Berne resumed his ings of psychoanalysis. By 1958 he had
training in psychoanalysis, this time published articles setting out all the
working with Erik Erikson. Like his major transactional analysis concepts
previous training analyst Paul Federn, that were to be the basis of his subse-
Erikson was an ego psychologist, that quent work, but it was not until 1961
is he belonged to a school of psycho- that he published his major work on the
analysis that stressed the importance subject, Transactional Analysis in Psy-
of the way in which the client related chotherapy. This remains one of the
to the outside world through the ego. most important works in the literature
DRIVE THEORY psychoanalysis, which pre- of transactional analysis, giving a lucid
ceded ego psychology, had laid greater and comprehensive account of the sys-
emphasis on internal conflicts. Erikson tem, its theory, its terminology, its prac-
was particularly interested in the tice and its roots in psychoanalytic
development of the individual, which theory. In his subsequent writing Berne
he saw as a lifelong process, and the opened up important new areas but did
societal framework in which this takes not continue to set out his theory with
place. These were ideas he was to such thoroughness. Unfortunately, it is
bring together in his major work through his later writings that he is best
Childhood and Society (1950). known, so in the absence of the theoret-
Berne began to combine these ideas, ical base and the perspective that Trans-
intuition, ego-states, behavioural clues actional Analysis in Psychotherapy
to internal states and Eriksons develop- could supply, these have often been
mental and social perspectives, into a misinterpreted.
system that was soon to become transac- In his next book, The Structure and
tional analysis. He also read very widely Dynamics of Organizations and
and as the system developed in his mind Groups (1963), he moved away from
he incorporated ideas from many transactional analysis to a review of the-
sources. He wrote a series of papers for oretical frameworks for understanding
9
bioenergetics
12
C
catharsis a release of emotion. The term change a movement from one state to
comes from the Greek meaning to
purge and carries the implication that
the process has a healthful, cleansing
function. Such emotional releases may
occur spontaneously during therapy or
another. Clients come into counselling
or psychotherapy seeking change but
they are often unclear about what
changes are possible or might be help-
ful. Transactional analysis is a contrac-
may be actively sought as in ANGER tual process in which client and thera-
WORK . They often signify important pist work together with mutual respect
points in therapy although transaction- and agreement. In the early stages con-
al analysis warns against stroking dis- tracts may refer mainly to a joint
plays of RACKET FEELINGS and thereby process of exploration through which
reinforcing SCRIPT. See also ABREACTION. an understanding of the clients dilem-
ma is developed. This then makes con-
cathect to invest an intrapsychic struc- tracts for change possible that can be
ture e.g. an ego-state, with psychologi- clearly specified in terms of outcomes.
cal energy. See CONTRACT.
cathexis see PSYCHIC ENERGY, SCHIFFIAN Child When written with a capital this
THEORY. indicates the Child ego-state. When
written with a lower case c it indi-
Cathexis School the school of transac- cates a real child.
tional analysis developed by Jacqui Lee
Schiff and her co-workers. This cen- child development transactional analy-
tred around the therapeutic use of sis contains many developmental con-
REPARENTING. Other important concepts cepts (the second and third order
developed within the Cathexis School structural analysis of ego-states, the
include DISCOUNTING , the DISCOUNT concept of the developing symbiotic
MATRIX, REDEFINING, SYMBIOSIS, the FRAME OF relationship with the parents, etc.) but
REFERENCE and the FOUR PASSIVE BEHAV- it has produced only one comprehen-
IOURS. sive theory of development, that of
PAMELA LEVIN (1982, 1988). Devel-
chairwork see CUSHION WORK. opmental issues are profoundly rele-
vant to the ego-state model and the
character disorder see ANTISOCIAL PERSON- script concept. The Child ego-state is
ALITY ADAPTATION. not a unitary structure but an accumu-
13
Child ego-state
in the form of body sensations or clinical one of the four SPECIAL FIELDS of
moods that correspond to early experi- transactional analysis. Clinical transac-
ences but are not accompanied by visu- tional analysts work psychotherapeuti-
al or auditory memories. The obsessive cally with clients who present with
search for childhood memories without emotional, psychological, behavioural
a clear therapeutic objective constitutes or relationship difficulties.
the game of ARCHEOLOGY.
Certified Transactional Analyst see CTA.
child sexual abuse (sometimes abbrevi-
ated to CSA) the exposure of chil- COC see COMMISSION OF CERTIFICATION.
dren to sexual experiences that are, or
might be, damaging to their normal code of ethics and practice a document
psychological development, usually for prepared by a professional body such as
the gratification of an adult. This may the Institute of Transactional Analysis
extend from incest to exposure to that specifies standards of clinical and
pornographic material. Child sexual professional practice. Reported breaches
abuse may (and often does) have pro-
of the code can result in the implemen-
found and complex psychological
tation of a complaints procedure. A
effects. It has implications for develop-
clear and demanding code and effective
ment and for relationships and may
complaints procedure are important for
leave the Child ego-state deeply con-
the protection of the client. Like every
fused and set up powerful script
client of a professional, the client of a
INJUNCTIONS, in particular Dont Exist.
psychotherapist needs to be able to rely
Clarke, Jean Illesley transactional ana- on the therapists expertise, skills and
lyst. Won an Eric Berne Memorial integrity; however, the psychothera-
Award in 1996 for her contributions to pists client often contacts him or her at
applying transactional analysis to par- a time of particular vulnerability. An
ent education. See Clarke (1978). exacting code is also of importance to
the professional for maintaining public
Classical School the work of Eric Berne confidence. For examples of transac-
and his close associates. It also tional analysis codes of ethics (ITA, EATA
includes later work developed from or and ITAA) see Appendix 3.
closely related to this work. This
includes many of the major concepts codependency a situation in which a part-
of transactional analysis e.g. EGO-STATES, ner, consciously or, more often, out of
SCRIPT, GAMES, STROKING and RACKETS. awareness, supports a dysfunctional
behaviour (e.g. alcohol dependence) in
client the name now preferred for some-
the other. By doing this they maintain
one who seeks the help of a counsellor
the relationship in a dysfunctional way
or psychotherapist. Eric Berne used the
to satisfy their own dependency needs.
medical term patient but transactional
analysts along with counsellors and This is characteristic of the GAMES played
many psychotherapists in other disci- by alcoholics (Steiner, 1971). Both part-
plines feel that this does not reflect ners in a codependent relationship are
accurately the balanced and mutually attempting to maintain SYMBIOSIS.
respectful therapeutic relationship that
Berne did so much to promote. cognitive-behavioural therapy thera-
peutic approaches derived from cogni-
client-centred therapy or counselling a tive therapy and behavioural therapy.
name formerly used for Rogerian They stress the close relation between
Therapy. See PERSON-CENTRED COUN- beliefs and behaviour and hold that by
SELLING AND THERAPY. changing irrational beliefs it is possible
15
cold pricklies
specific stimulus that is the result of their thinking and behaviour, using
previous experience in which the information previously obtained in
response was reinforced (e.g. a pigeon therapy. According to Berne (1966)
being trained to operate a lever by this throws the psyche off balance and
being given food whenever it does so). causes a redistribution of cathexis. He
This concept influenced the develop- warns that this may strengthen the
ment of the transactional analysis con- inappropriate ego-state if the confronta-
cept of STROKING. tion is ill timed or inappropriately
worded. A heavy handed confrontation
confidentiality an agreement that the of a client, especially if there is insuffi-
content of therapy is private and will cient HOLDING, is likely to push the client
not be disclosed. Such an agreement is in the direction of not-OK adapted
a prerequisite of the trust between Child. There was a vogue for a highly
counsellor or therapist and client that confrontative style in transactional
is essential for the creation of a THERA- analysis in certain quarters during the
PEUTIC ALLIANCE. The boundaries of con- 1970s. This was possibly because of
fidentiality need to be clearly estab- two factors; the rise in the COMMUNICA-
lished in the CONTRACT that is made TION theory approach to transactional
with the client. The client should be analysis, with a consequent neglect of
informed that the counsellor or thera- intrapsychic processes, and the success
pist might need to disclose certain the Schiffs claimed using high con-
matters in the course of SUPERVISION and frontation methods with seriously dis-
appropriate boundaries placed around turbed clients in therapeutic commu-
that process. There may be other nities. The latter discounted important
exceptions but these must be clearly aspects of the Schiffs work e.g. that it
specified and agreed. If the coun- had been designed specifically for seri-
selling or therapy is conducted on ously disturbed clients who had little
behalf of an agency a THREE-CORNERED available Adult ego-state and that it
CONTRACT may be needed in which each was delivered in an exceptionally sup-
of the three relationships: client portive environment.
counsellor, counsellor agency and
agency client is contracted for. confusion model a model of psychologi-
cal disturbance in terms of confusion
conflict model a model of the psyche in at some level within the psyche. The
which different parts are seen as in concept of confusion of the Child ego-
conflict with each other. It is one of state is central to transactional analysis
the most influential approaches to theory. Confusion about the nature of
understanding psychological problems reality also occurs because of CONTAMI-
and is inherent in much transactional NATION of the Adult ego-state. See
analysis thinking e.g. INTERNAL DIALOGUE, Clarkson (1992), also MODELS, REDECI-
IMPASSES (see Clarkson, 1992). Freuds SION, STAGES OF THERAPY.
original PSYCHIC ORGAN model in which
the ego had to mediate between the confusion racket a RACKET in which con-
conflicting demands of the ID , the fusion is experienced substituting for a
SUPEREGO and the outside world is a feeling that the individual does not
conflict model. See also MODELS. have a PERMISSION to feel.
18
contract
(a) Child contamination of Adult e.g. Child belief spiders are scary contaminates Adult to cause
spider phobia. (b) Parent contamination of Adult e.g. Parent belief all Scotsmen are mean
contaminates Adult to cause prejudice. (c) Double contamination of Adult e.g. Parent belief
you are a rotten kid, plus Child belief I am a rotten kid.
content the material brought by the and the client are travelling together in
client to the psychotherapy or coun- an agreed direction (Lee, 1997). The
selling session. What is talked about in therapist does not have to accept the
the session. This may be clearly rele- contract requested by the client; clients
vant but it also may be defensive, serv- commonly request contracts to rein-
ing to obscure important issues and force defences such as DRIVER BEHAVIOURS.
create diversion. It is important to take However, the contract finally arrived at
account also of the PROCESS, i.e. what needs to be agreed by both parties
happens in the session. without the client experiencing pres-
sure to change in ways which the thera-
contract a negotiated agreement between pist believes to be right. It is legitimate
the client and the therapist or counsel- for the therapist to set rules that are not
lor. This may refer to business (e.g. negotiable (e.g. no violence). These set
fees, times of sessions), process (how the boundaries within which the thera-
the work is to be carried out) or out- py will take place and need to be clear
comes (what the client seeks from the and specific and not just assumed. The
therapy). Transactional analysis is a client agrees to them or does not con-
contractual method; it stresses the tract to work with the therapist.
importance of openness, clear commu- Transactional analysis stresses the
nication and mutual respect. This is importance of outcome contracts in
only possible if hidden agendas on the imparting clarity to the contracting
part of the client and the therapist are process and of specifying observable cri-
brought out and addressed. Con- teria by which the achievement of the
tracting may be undertaken formally contract may be assessed. The most spe-
with time set aside in the session to cific criteria will be behavioural so,
arrive at a contract. It may also take where possible, the OUTCOME CONTRACT
place moment by moment in the specifies behaviours that will indicate
process. This involves the therapist the achievement of the agreed objec-
making frequent checks that he or she tives. See also OUTCOME FANTASIES.
19
contract, three-cornered
Steiner (1974) pointed out the simi- core conditions (person-centred coun-
larities between the therapeutic process selling) those qualities expressed
of contracting and legal concepts of con- within the counsellorclient relation-
tract. Contracts require mutual consent, ship that are necessary for effective
valid consideration (both parties bene- work. Rogers (1951), within the per-
fit) and competency (not only for the son-centred school of counselling,
therapist who needs to be suitably identified three main core conditions
trained and experienced, but also the which he termed, empathy, uncondi-
client needs to have enough available tional positive regard and congru-
Adult to participate actively in the ence. Transactional analysis stresses
change process). Also the contract must the Im OK: Youre OK position and
have a lawful object (it must not have as a authenticity which closely correspond
goal anything that contravenes the law to Rogers unconditional positive
or the accepted ethical principles gov- regard and congruence. See CONGRU-
erning the practice of psychotherapy). ENCE, THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE, PERSON-CEN-
See COVERT AGENDA. TRED COUNSELLING.
at its face value but may represent a creative dreamer alternative term for
significant stage in therapy in that the the schizoid PERSONALITY ADAPTATION.
client may cease destructive behav-
iours and become open to the good critical Parent (often written Critical
thinking of the therapist. See also PAS- Parent) the Parent ego-state function-
SIVE BEHAVIOURS. ing in a critical mode. This is now
regarded as the negative aspect of the
countertransference originally the ther- controlling Parent ego-state (CP). See
apists reaction to the TRANSFERENCE of FUNCTIONAL EGO-STATES.
the client (e.g. if the client is project-
ing his or her father on to the thera- crossed transaction see TRANSACTION,
pist he or she will elicit a response in CROSSED.
the therapist to the psychological
manoeuvres he or she has carried for- Crossman, Pat received the Eric Berne
ward from the original situation). Memorial Scientific Award in 1976 for
Awareness of countertransference her work on PERMISSION and PROTECTION.
yields important insights (e.g. social
diagnosis of ego-states). If it is missed crossup see FORMULA G.
by the therapist then the client and
therapist can be drawn into a replay of crying expressing emotion through the
the original situation with the parent or release of tears, often with sobbing.
other projected figure. This is often the This may be expressive of sadness,
cause of therapy becoming stuck and is pain or sometimes joy. Transactional
an issue addressed in SUPERVISION . analysts believe that the expression of
Clarkson (1992) refers to this as reac- AUTHENTIC FEELINGS is always helpful and
tive countertransference. The term should be supported. However, crying,
countertransference is also used to along with other forms of emotional
describe the therapists transference on expression, may represent the expres-
to the client (i.e. the projection on to sion of RACKET FEELINGS . Clients will
the client of a significant figure from sometimes move through the racket
the therapists past). Clarkson calls this feelings into authentic feeling, but the
pro-active countertransference. STROKING of a prolonged or habitual
release of racket feelings is counter-
Courtroom a GAME in which two parties therapeutic.
competitively seek to secure a third
person (often the therapist) as an ally crystallisation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
against the other. Often played when
couples are being counselled. CTA certified transactional analyst. A pro-
fessional qualification entitling the per-
covert agenda beliefs about desired or son holding it to practise transactional
necessary outcomes that are held by analysis awarded by the relevant pro-
either the client or the therapist and fessional body (in Europe this is EATA,
not made explicit. If not dealt with the European Association for
these will give rise to ULTERIOR TRANSAC- Transactional Analysis). The CTA can
TIONS in which divergent messages are be awarded in four SPECIAL FIELDS: clini-
given simultaneously at the social cal, organisational, educational or
(ostensible) and psychological (real) counselling. In the UK the award of
levels. A major function of the CONTRACT- CTA clinical leads to registration as a
ING process is to make these agendas psychotherapist by the UK Council for
open and specific. Psychotherapy (UKCP).
22
cyclothymic
cure restoration to a state of health. This social control, in which the client takes
has a clear meaning in medical settings control from Adult even though the con-
but in psychology is more problematic. tent of the Parent and Child ego-states
An intervention to reinstate defensive may remain unchanged. This may be
systems may enable the client to achieved at an early stage of therapy.
resume previous levels of functioning symptomatic relief, in which changes
but not be in that clients long-term have begun to occur in the Child and/or
interests as defensive systems are limit- Parent ego-states so there is less internal
ing. A better outcome may be to help pressure to engage in scripty behaviours.
the client to function without the need transference cure A stage in which the
for the defences. Berne (1971) therapist has been introjected as a good
stressed the importance of cure and Parent. This will remain stable only if the
the need to focus on the key issue and client can maintain the introject (keep
deal with it without being distracted by the therapist in his or her head). While it
peripheral consequences of the lasts this can give considerable relief
pathology (he compared this to with- from SCRIPT. REDECISION therapy encour-
drawing a splinter in the toe as ages the client to stay out of TRANSFERENCE.
opposed to dealing with the limp that script cure was originally called psycho-
resulted from it). The concept of cure analytic cure by Berne (1961). This
may be seen to run counter to the involves a fundamental change in the
humanistic approach, which assumes Child ego-state with Adult support so
an innate tendency to develop in the that script issues can finally be resolved.
way that is uniquely appropriate for See REDECISION.
the individual. This humanistic per-
curse term sometimes used for the PAYOFF
spective is also part of the philosophi- of the script.
cal position of transactional analysis. If
cure is a return to (or movement cushion work a clinical technique in
towards) normality, who decides which the client agrees to project an
what is normal? The transactional internal structure such as an INTROJECT
analysis answer is the client. In the or an EGO-STATE on to a cushion so that
process of CONTRACTING, client and ther- the internal process can be exter-
apist agree positive outcomes for the nalised. Alternatively, an empty chair
therapy and the ways in which these may be used in which case the term
can be verified. These have to be freely chair work is used. See PROJECTION,
agreed between them. The therapist REDECISION, STUNTZ MULTIPLE CHAIR WORK.
does not seek to impose his or her
view on the client but may decline to cyclothymic subject to mood swings
work towards an outcome that he or between elation and depression but
she believes would not be in the not of such a magnitude as to lead to a
clients interests. See also PHYSIS. diagnosis of MANIC DEPRESSIVE . The
underlying ego-state structure is prob-
cure, four phases of Berne (1961, 1972) ably similar. For a transactional analy-
proposed that there are four phases of sis therapeutic approach, see Loomis
cure. and Landsman (1980).
23
D
Dashiel, Sharon awarded the Eric Berne
Memorial Award in Transactional
Analysis in 1994 for her work on the
Parent resolution process (Dashiel,
1978). (Joint award.)
states so that the Adult is free from
intrusive Child or Parent material and
consequently is freed from a distorted
view of current reality. See THERAPEUTIC
OPERATIONS.
24
depressive position
Figure 5 Discount matrix (Mellor and Sigmund., 1975). Discounting can occur in three areas
self, others and the world. A discount matrix diagram relates only to one area.
28
drive theory
modes of psychotherapy. For this rea- chological processes, which sees them
son it is usual to include a DSM-IV diag- in terms of the interplay of internal
nosis in the case study submitted as forces on the EGO (which is also
part of the examination for Certified exposed to pressures from the exter-
Transactional Analyst. nal world).
32
E
early life decision a decision taken dur-
ing early childhood about the self,
other people or the world that is not
subsequently revised in the light of
growing understanding and so
becomes a basis for script formation.
binge eating followed by vomiting or
purging. Eating disorders are more
common in women. For transactional
analysis approaches to treatment, see
individual entries.
The word decision does not imply eclectic therapy a therapy that draws on
that a high level of thinking went into a number of theoretical models. The
the process; rather, the child needed term INTEGRATIVE THERAPY is now often
to make choices about how to under- preferred since the term eclectic does
stand and deal with their world and not exclude approaches made of ran-
did this with whatever mental faculties dom selections without an overall the-
were available. Children can make ory governing selection and use.
decisions from the moment of birth Transactional analysis is an integrative
and perhaps before. If early experi- approach drawing on many sources
ences are stressful there is less likeli- but placing them within an overall
hood that decisions will be revised coherent theory.
since it often feels better to have a
decision that is working badly but ego a term used in psychoanalysis for
seems to enable one to survive than to that part of the PSYCHE or total person-
risk discarding it. Berne placed the key ality which deals with the outside
age of script formation at around five world and endeavours to find compro-
to seven years, following Freuds view. mises between the demands of the ID
Many transactional analysts now agree (the source of instinctual drives such
with Melanie Kleins stress on the sig- as sex), the strictures of the SUPEREGO
nificance of processes of personality (laying down what must and must not
formation that are occurring in the be done) and what is possible in the
first year of life. social world in which the individual
finds him or herself. Classical Freudian
eating disorder a psychological disorder psychoanalysis stresses instinctual
in which there is a disturbance to nor- drives. The psychoanalysts with whom
mal eating patterns. Eating disorders Eric Berne trained, Erik Erikson and
include ANOREXIA NERVOSA , in which Paul Federn, were ego psychologists,
there is obsession with avoiding that is they focused on ego function-
weight gain leading to gross undernu- ing. Berne was also influenced by the
trition, and BULIMIA, in which there is British Object Relations School, espe-
33
ego dystonic
Parent ego-state
Adult ego-state
Child ego-state
CP controlling Parent NP nurturing Parent
A Adult FC free Child (or natural Child)
AC adapted Child
Figure 9 PAC (first-order structural analysis of
Figure 8 Egogram (Dusay, 1972). ego-states) (Berne, 1961).
34
ego-state second-order analysis
Father introject
Mother introject
together these constitute the Parent ego state P
2
Adult ego-state
35
ego-state functional analysis
been introjected. Each of these is shown own mental state). See also FUNCTIONAL
separately. Moreover, each one was a MODEL OF EGO-STATES.
complete person with Parent, Adult and
Child ego-states. These are also shown ego syntonic a thought, feeling or behav-
separately. The Child is subdivided to iour is ego syntonic if it is experienced
indicate early developmental stages that as consistent with ones conception of
have contributed to its structure. It had oneself and therefore feels comfort-
fantasies about parental behaviour and able.
how to have needs met by parents (cor-
responding to early Parent), intuitive, electrode name used in some earlier TA
but not yet logical problem solving skills literature for the Parent in Child (P1)
(early Adult) and basic child needs and since internal messages from this usu-
wants (early Child). ally produce a strong reaction.
psychological energy. Free energy is Erskine, Richard received the Eric Berne
energy that can be consciously and wil- Memorial Scientific Award in 1982
fully directed to any chosen ego-state. jointly with MARILYN ZALCMAN for their
Each ego-state also has its own poten- work on the RACKET SYSTEM and racket
tial or bound energy. This energy can- analysis. Richard Erskine has also
not be used until it is unbound. The worked extensively on integrating
ego-state with the most available energy transactional analysis with other thera-
will be in executive (i.e. be in charge of peutic modalities, in particular self
behaviour). This can be a mixture of psychology and object relations psy-
free and unbound energy but the ego- choanalysis and also Gestalt therapy.
state that is experienced as real self will See Erskine and Moursund (1988) and
have the most free energy (i.e. you will Erskine and Trautmann (1993).
have chosen to give it the most energy).
escape hatch the Childs three options if
English, Fanita transactional analyst. She things get bad enough I can always/kill
received the Eric Berne Memorial myself/blame someone else and kill
Scientific Award in 1978 for her work them/go crazy are called the three
on RACKETS, real feelings and the substi- escape hatches (Holloway, 1973;
tution factor (English, 1971, 1972). Cowles-Boyd, 1980). While these
remain open there is the risk that the
episcript a negative script message that script will lead to a tragic outcome at
the parent passes on to the child seek- some crisis point. While energy
ing by doing so to release themselves remains invested in them they are also
from the influence of the message a major obstacle to script change since
e.g. a Dont Exist injunction is passed they represent a mechanism for evad-
on to the child by a parent. Such trans- ing responsibility for making life
mission can cascade down several gen- changes (at the back of the mind there
erations. Also called a hot potato is the thought if things get bad enough
(English, 1969). This can be considered I could always . . .). Psychotherapy
a form of PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION. involves the dismantling of defensive
structures such as COUNTERINJUNCTIONS
Eric Berne Memorial Awards the Eric or INJUNCTIONS that form part of a COM-
Berne Memorial Scientific Award was POUND DECISION. This may expose dam-
established in 1971 in memory of Eric aging early decisions such as I have no
Berne who had died the previous year. right to exist and increase the risk of
It was given annually to the originator tragic outcomes. Transactional analysts
of a new scientific concept in transac- therefore consider it essential to close
tional analysis. In 1990 the title and escape hatches before doing major
scope of the award was changed. It is change work such as REDECISION .
now known as the Eric Berne Closure involves the client deciding
Memorial Award in Transactional from Adult to give up the escape hatch
Analysis and is awarded annually for options with the therapist acting as a
published contributions to transaction- witness. Promising to close escape
al analysis theory or practice, or the hatches is an adapted closure that is
integration or comparison of transac- unlikely to hold under stress. Escape-
tional analysis theory or practice with hatch closure is an important way in
other therapeutic modalities. which clients are given PROTECTION .
Sometimes clients are unwilling to
Ernst, Franklin received the Eric Berne close escape hatches but are able to
Memorial Scientific Award in 1981 for decide to do so for a limited period.
his work on the OK CORRAL (Ernst, 1971) This may be sufficient for essential
37
ethics
work to be done safely. Time limited executive the ego-state, which is able to
closure of escape hatches is sometimes determine a persons actions is said to
referred to as soft closure. be in the executive. In Bernes (1961)
ENERGY theory the ego-state that has
ethics the philosophy of moral behav- the largest total of unbound and free
iour. The system of principles and energy is in the executive. However,
rules that specify what constitutes the sense of self rests with the ego-
good behaviour and what does not. A state which has the largest amount of
rule is specific and therefore easier to free energy; therefore people some-
apply but may prove narrow and rigid. times behave in ways that they per-
Principles are more general and closer ceive as EGO DYSTONIC.
to underlying philosophy but are more
difficult to apply in specific cases. experiential memory a memory that
Professional bodies such as the manifests itself through body states,
Institute of Transactional Analysis for- emotional experiences or moods with-
mulate codes of ethics and profession- out visual or auditory components
al practice to guide their practitioners necessarily being involved. See
which contain a balanced mixture of UNTHOUGHT KNOWN.
rules and principles. See the examples
of codes of major transactional analysis explanation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
organisations in Appendix 3.
exteropsyche in Bernes (1961) theory
euhemerus a figure from the past who of ego-states the PSYCHIC ORGAN that
has acquired a particular positive sig- manifests itself phenomenologically as
nificance for a group (Berne, 1963). the Parent ego-state. See also ARCHEO-
Berne has this role in transactional PSYCHE, NEOPSYCHE.
analysis.
extrovert (Jungian analytic psychology) A
exclusion a situation in which one ego- personality type characterised by a ten-
state (Parent, Adult or Child) constantly dency to direct energies outwards to
dominates, resulting in a stereotyped, the physical and social environments.
predictable attitude, which is main- People with this type of personality are
tained as long as possible in any threat- often described as lively and outgoing.
ening situation (Berne, 1961). The See also INTROVERT. In Paul Wares per-
dominant ego-state is referred to as sonality theory the extrovert is likely to
excluding Parent, etc. This may be seen be placed in the HISTRIONIC PERSONALITY
in terms of DISSOCIATION or of concentra- ADAPTATION.
tion of CATHEXIS in a single ego-state and
has a defensive function.
38
F
facilitator someone who enables a
process to occur more readily. Often
used in preference to therapist for
the person taking the active role in a
group or workshop where the objec-
tive is personal development rather
tain the script (see SCRIPT SYSTEM) e.g. by
being used to elicit RACKET FEELINGS
without involvement with here-and-
now reality. All plans for the future are
fantasies and our ability to fantasise is
enormously valuable. Positive fan-
than intrapsychic change. tasies, e.g. of feeling and behaving dif-
ferently, are useful aids for change. See
Fairbairn, Ronald Scottish psychoanalyst also AFFIRMATIONS, PHANTASY.
of the Object Relations school. His
work was known to Berne and proba- father the male parent or anyone who
bly influenced him. takes the paternal role (who may not
be biologically related to the child, or
false self (psychoanalysis object even not male). Although, like the
relations) term used by Winnicott mother, this is a nurturing role
(1971) to describe a situation where a towards the child, the father has an
child does not grow to acknowledge important role in supporting the
and respond to his or her own feel- mother as she takes the major role in
ings. Because the mother has failed to caring for the child. In the past, in
respond to them the child has had to Western society, the father was often
shift from being centred on his or her seen as the parent with the strongest
own being and needs to be concerned links into society outside the family.
for the mother from whom help is The object relations theorist Donald
needed. This creates a flaw in the Winnicott used the term NURSING TRIAD
structure of the self and a false self that for the system of father, mother and
is centred on the needs and expecta- child. Failure to create this supportive
tions of others. This closely resembles system can result in the mother turn-
the transactional analysis concept of ing to the child for emotional support,
the ADAPTED CHILD; however, this is a thus setting up SECOND-ORDER SYMBIOSIS.
functional concept (i.e. it relates to
observable behaviours and not neces- fear one of the FOUR AUTHENTIC FEELINGS
sarily to intrapsychic structure). See recognised by transactional analysis
also SECOND-ORDER SYMBIOSIS, PLEASE DRIVER. (an authentic feeling is one that moti-
vates the individual to deal with cur-
fantasy internal imagery and story rent life problems). Fear is a feeling
telling. Fantasies may be used to main- that motivates the individual to avoid
39
Federn, Paul
danger. Unlike anxiety, fear is valuable. therapist in which each gives some-
It differs in being focused on to specif- thing of value to the other. See CON-
ic dangers, thus motivating present TRACT.
action to avoid future harm. Anxiety is
an unfocused state of arousal that Ferenczi, Sandor psychoanalyst.
seeks unspecified threats. Appropriate Although close to Freud he advocated
arousal in dangerous environments is a much more involved style of working
useful but anxiety is often disabling which took account of the fact that the
and may not relate to current dangers. therapy situation is a two-person sys-
By focusing on specific dangers, fear tem in which both TRANSFERENCE and
leads to problem solving but anxiety COUNTERTRANSFERENCE are significant. He
does not. believed that the client reacted to the
real personality of the analyst
Federn, Paul American psychoanalyst (Freudian psychoanalysis advocated
with whom Berne trained from 1941 that the analyst be distant and serve as
to 1943. Both he and Erik Erikson, the a blank screen to receive projec-
training analyst with whom Berne tions). He saw therapy as giving the
worked subsequently, adopted an ego client the opportunity to relive his or
psychology approach that stressed the her experiences in a more permissive
function of the ego in dealing with the and supportive atmosphere. As
outside world over the internal struggle Melanie Kleins analyst he influenced
with instinctual drives which was cen- the OBJECT RELATIONS SCHOOL and he may
tral to classical DRIVE THEORY psycho- have been an influence on Berne as
analysis. Both the ego psychology transactional analysis is one of the few
approach and Federns concept of the two-person approaches to psychother-
ego-state were important influences apy and is practised in an involved and
on Berne. supportive style.
feeling also called emotion or affect. first-order diagram a diagram of the ego
Transactional analysis distinguishes that shows it divided into Parent, Adult
between AUTHENTIC FEELINGS, which lead and Child ego-states but is not further
to engagement with current life issues, subdivided. It is sometimes called the
and RACKET FEELINGS , which involve PAC diagram.
replaying past issues and adaptations.
It recognises FOUR AUTHENTIC FEELINGS.
refined his definition of a game. As the negative Parent message and an adapt-
concept became more clearly speci- ed Child response:
fied, behaviour patterns previously (NP) I can make you feel good by
classified as games were excluded. doing your thinking for you.
Many of the games described in Games (AC) You can make me feel good by
People Play are in this category. doing my thinking for me.
Formula G was Bernes final definition (CP) I can make you feel bad by what I
of a game and appears in his last book, say to you.
What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (AC) You can make me feel bad by
(Berne, 1972). Formula G states that in what you say to me.
a game the following sequence of
events will be observable: When we get into drivers and rack-
ets while communicating we are
CON + GIMMICK = RESPONSE replaying these internally.
SWITCH CROSSUP PAYOFF
or expressed as a formula four passive behaviours Schiff et al.
(1971) describe four passive behav-
C+G=RSXP iours. Each involves avoiding problem
solving in the here-and-now (although
The con is the invitation given by the energy may be discharged inappropri-
person who makes the first move. The ately). They DISCOUNT the individuals
gimmick is the aspect of the other ability to act positively to have their
party that makes him or her vulnera- needs met. The four passive behav-
ble to the con. The response is the iours are:
social process that ensues, most of doing nothing
which is ostensibly Adult although
involving ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS . This overadaptation (this involves com-
may continue for seconds, hours, days plying with a Child belief about
or years but if the sequence is a true what the other person wants with-
game at some stage there will be a out checking)
series of rapid changes. At the switch agitation (purposeless, repetitive
each player (there may be more than behaviour to discharge tension)
two) changes ego-state and drama tri-
angle position, e.g. the Rescuer may incapacitation or violence (energy
start to persecute, there will be a is turned inward against the self or
moment of confusion (the crossup) outwards against others instead of
and each participant will experience being put into problem solving).
RACKET FEELINGS (the payoff). The last
three stages may be, in effect, simulta- When working with passive clients,
neous. inviting them into overadaptation may
offer a route forward in that the client
formula S a formula suggested by Berne becomes actively responsive to the
to outline the main features of SCRIPT. therapist who can then invite them
It has been largely superseded by later into authentic behaviour.
developments in script theory.
four authentic feelings sadness, anger,
four myths Taibi Kahler (1978) suggest- happiness and fear (sad, mad, glad,
ed that four myths underlie DRIVERS and scared) are feelings which, if
RACKETS. These comprise two pairs of a expressed in a healthy and supportive
42
Freud, Sigmund
43
frogs into princes (and princesses)
44
functional (model of) ego-states
45
gallows see GALLOWS LAUGH.
G
gallows laugh laughing when making a
statement about something unpleasant.
The laugh is incongruent with the con-
tent of the words and invites the listen-
How does it start?
What happens next?
And then what happens?
How does it end?
And how do you feel after it ends?
Exploration of each of these issues leads
er to reinforce a script belief by joining
to identification of DRAMA TRIANGLE switch-
in the laugh. For example a person who
es and FORMULA G stages of the game.
tells the story of a mistake he or she
made and ends by saying with a laugh
games Repetitive patterns of social behav-
thats just like me, I never get things
iour which are characterised by ULTERIOR
right. He or she is inviting the listeners
TRANSACTIONS (transactions operating at
to join in the amusement and confirm
two levels, an acknowledged social
his or her script belief: I cant think.
level and an unacknowledged psycho-
Also gallows smile and gallows trans-
logical level) and ending with the par-
action. These terms are often abbreviat-
ties feeling bad (i.e. experiencing RACK-
ed to gallows. Gallows is indicative of
ET FEELINGS) (Berne, 1964). In psychody-
DISCOUNTING. The origin of the term is
namic terms they involve TRANSFERENCE
the highwayman who dies laughing at
and the ACTING OUT of unresolved archa-
his own misfortune and is in effect say-
ic issues. The concept of games evolved
ing internally: Well, mother, you pre-
over time and this is reflected in a vari-
dicted I would end up on the gallows
ety of definitions in the literature
and here I am! See also LAUGHTER.
although all fall within the criteria given
above. In Bernes writings the defini-
game formula a formula that sets out
tion increased in detail and precision so
the characteristic sequence of events in
that his final definition (a sequence that
a GAME. See FORMULA G.
includes all the stages of FORMULA G)
excludes many of the patterns labelled
game plan a systematic procedure for
as games in Games People Play. Some
elucidating games developed by John
contemporary transactional analysts
James (1973). In outline it consists in
prefer a more general definition of
finding answers to the following ques-
games than this version; however,
tions:
Bernes early definition did not include
What keeps happening over and the switch and therefore failed to distin-
over again? guish game playing from RACKETEERING.
46
games, advantages of (reasons for playing)
Although games involve the manipu- childhood that negative strokes are
lation of others through unauthentic the easiest to get and learn to seek
behaviour and feeling, they are not oper- them to avoid stroke deprivation.
ated from a position of awareness. Con- 6. Existential advantage: games gener-
scious manipulation of others is not a ate experiences that can be used to
game in the sense that the word is used in reinforce the LIFE POSITION. As with
transactional analysis. Although when advantages 1 and 2, this helps to
viewed from the outside games appear to maintain a familiar world view and
be highly negative, they do bring social reassures the Child. This is done par-
and psychological advantages (see ADVAN- ticularly through the PAYOFF, the
TAGES OF GAMES). Game playing is based on release of racket feelings at the end
responding to early beliefs about avail- of the game.
able ways of getting needs met and about
In terms of Schiffian (Cathexis school)
self, others and the world i.e. they form
theory, games represent an attempt to
part of the FRAME OF REFERENCE. Games also
maintain SYMBIOSIS (to hang on to unre-
help to meet STROKING and TIME STRUCTUR-
solved symbiotic relationships by re-
ING needs (although in a very unsatisfac-
enacting them). In order to do this
tory way). Unless these aspects are taken
they have to DISCOUNT many aspects of
into consideration direct confrontation
current reality. Both the con and the
of a game is likely to be ineffective.
gimmick that initiate the game involve
discounts, and further discounting
games, advantages of (reasons for play-
occurs as the game proceeds. In the
ing) Berne (1964) listed six advan-
process of the game each participant
tages of games:
takes up a symbiotic role. This can be
1. The internal psychological advan- related to the DRAMA TRIANGLE .
tage: games help to maintain script Persecutors and Rescuers take up a
beliefs. Although script beliefs are in Parent position and Victims a Child
reality archaic and unhelpful, to the position. At the crossup the positions
Child they represent ways of under- are exchanged.
standing and dealing with the world. In terms of classical psychoanalytic
If they remain unchallenged the theory, games represent ACTING OUT of
world remains predictable. unresolved unconscious conflicts and
2. External psychological advantage: involve a transferential replay of earlier
they enable situations that would be situations. See REPETITION COMPULSION.
difficult to deal with (that would In terms of Kleinian psychoanalytic
challenge the FRAME OF REFERENCE) to theory games may be understood in
be avoided. terms of PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION, the con
3. Internal social advantage: Berne being the mechanism of projection and
(1964) wrote [games] offer a frame- the gimmick that aspect of the person
work for pseudo-intimate socialising who is drawn into the game that makes
indoors or in privacy, that is they them vulnerable to the projection. The
result in people becoming closely switch occurs when the projection is dis-
involved with each other but in an owned. This would suggest that the con
unauthentic way involving ulterior may at times be very subtle and not a
transactions. clearly identifiable behaviour pattern.
4. External social advantage: gaming The withdrawal of the projective identifi-
gives us something to talk about. cation will leave the initiator of the game
5. Biological advantage: gaming yields with a major issue undefended, thus the
strokes, even though most of them move into RACKETS and often the immedi-
are negative. Many people find in ate initiation of another game. At this
47
games, bilateral nature of
stage there may be the maximum level that games that were expressed in sig-
of escalation in an attempt to force the nificantly different behavioural pat-
other back into interaction. The limits terns were given different names. This
set by the participants to escalation resulted in the naming of a large
determine the DEGREE (level of manifest number of games. Emphasis has shift-
pathology) of the game. In this view, ed to underlying processes and the
successful confrontation of games will identification of a relatively small
depend on there being sufficient CON- number of game patterns that are
TAINMENT for the issue that was being given the name of a typical member
defended by the projective identifica- (e.g. NIGYYSOB is a typical Persecutor
tion. RACKETEERING can similarly be game). The names chosen have been
understood as ongoing projective iden- colloquial and humorous, often vividly
tification. and simply portraying the process of
the game. This has made them easy to
games, bilateral nature of Hine (1990) remember and use. The names can
pointed out that game analysis in also sound disparaging. The word
terms of FORMULA G is focused on the game itself can also be heard in this
initiator of the game. Although Berne way with its associations with con-
(1964) defined games as an ongoing scious manipulation (although it is
series of complementary transactions not used in this sense in transactional
this one-sided view of games has analysis).
sometimes obscured the fact that both
participants are playing a game and Games People Play Eric Bernes second
these are different and complemen- book on transactional analysis first
tary games. For example, if one is published in 1964. It followed his
gaming from a Persecutor position, at major work Transactional Analysis in
the same time the other must be gam- Psychotherapy and contains a brief
ing from a Victim position. Hine for- account of transactional analysis fol-
mulated an alternative version of for- lowed by an exposition of the then
mula G to represent this. She also pro- newly developing field of game theory.
posed that the discharge of negative It was designed to enlighten (and
energy that occurs in the payoff is amuse) a small group of professionals,
likely to initiate fresh gaming so that but thanks to Bernes lucid, accessible
the gaming process is both bilateral and engaging style it had an extraordi-
and ongoing. nary success, achieving best-seller sta-
tus in many countries. This brought
games, degrees of games are classified transactional analysis to the attention
as first, second or third degree accord- of a very wide public. Regrettably, it is
ing to level of social damage involved often the only book on transactional
in the payoff. A first degree game will analysis that many people know, but as
cause social embarrassment, a second it contains only a brief exposition of
degree game will have major conse- general theory and games theory has
quences such as the loss of ones job developed extensively since it was
whereas a third degree game will written, its success has brought both
result in such consequences as major fame and misunderstanding to transac-
violence, hospitalisation or imprison- tional analysis.
ment.
games, relation to script games involve
games, naming of in the early develop- the reinforcement of many aspects of
ment of games theory there was an script e.g. script beliefs, life position,
emphasis on behavioural analysis so drivers, rackets, patterns of discount-
48
gimmick
ing, frame of reference etc. They form become aware of the wet socks. It is
a large part of the interactions through this ability to adjust dynamically and
which the script is maintained and spontaneously in the here-and-now that
moved forwards. is equated with health by Gestalt thera-
pists. When demands are not dealt
genogram a diagram representing family with, energy can remain tied up with
relationships often extending over sev- unfinished business from the past.
eral generations. It is valuable in trans- Energy is then unavailable for here-and-
actional analysis to trace the handing now demands. Energy tied up in one
down of script elements such as beliefs part of the self can also be in opposi-
and INJUNCTIONS (see also HOT POTATO). tion to other parts of the self. The
It serves also to access feelings over important Gestalt technique of TWO
family relationships and is of particular CHAIR WORK facilitates dialogue between
value in couples and family therapy. these parts. This technique has been
adopted by transactional analysis and is
Gestalt (plural Gestalten), complete a central to the REDECISION SCHOOL
complete pattern of thoughts, feelings (Goulding and Goulding 1979). One of
and responses, for example where a the major methodologies in Gestalt is
need has been recognised and focusing on bodily, emotional, cogni-
expressed and has received an appro- tive and other processes in order to
priate response. This Gestalt therapy increase awareness. Another involves
term is widely used in transactional experimenting with new and different
analysis. courses of action. New awarenesses
lead to new actions, and new actions
Gestalt therapy Gestalt is an holistic/ lead to new awarenesses. With full
humanistic psychotherapy founded by awareness we can choose our course of
Frederick (Fritz) and Laura Perls on the action. This is where Gestalts roots in
1940s. They named their approach after the phenomenological approach is evi-
the German word meaning whole or dent. The quality of contact between
complete pattern. Kurt Lewins field therapist and client is also important.
theory was an important influence. Martin Buber (1970) wrote of the I-
Taking account of the persons percep- Thou, a meeting in which two or more
tual field (internal and external) a cer- self-responsible human beings retain a
tain stimulus or group of stimuli will respectful attitude and relate authenti-
stand out and become the focus of cally with each-other without pretence.
attention (in Gestalt terminology this is It is this attitude which Gestalt thera-
the figure). This may be outside or pists aim to maintain with clients,
inside oneself. The rest of the stimuli believing that contact of this kind is
will recede into the background and healing in itself. Gestalt therapy has had
become what is known in Gestalt as the important influences on transactional
ground. Once the demand represented analysis. In addition to its major influ-
by the figure stimuli is dealt with then ence on the REDECISION SCHOOL it has also
energy is free to deal with the next had an extensive influence on Richard
demand. For example on returning Erskines INTEGRATIVE approach and has
from a walk in the country you may be influenced the way in which transac-
cold, hungry and have wet socks. Cold tional analysis is practised. (See also
may first become figure and be dealt TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS, SCHOOLS OF and
with by sitting near the fire. Hunger PHENOMENOLOGY).
then moves out of ground and becomes
figure and you get something to eat. gimmick the aspect of a person who gets
This demand having been met you then drawn into a GAME that makes them
49
good child syndrome
leadership slot
Group
Leader
and may change over time. It may cor- standing group process. Group therapy
respond closely to the public structure remains important in transactional
(the way the group is presented exter- analysis although the emphasis has now
nally) but often does not. As the group shifted towards individual therapy.
develops, certain members will become There tend to be two major styles of
significant and so be clearly differentiat- working in transactional analysis
ed while others are likely to be lumped groups:
together as those others until the
Interactions are mainly between a
process of differentiation is complete.
client and the group leader with the
From the beginning the group leader
group acting as a support. This was
will have a special place in the group
the model favoured by the Gould-
imago. Bernes group imago diagram is
ings for their redecision therapy.
often referred to as the submarine. A
Therapy is carried out within the
partially differentiated group imago
group process with most interac-
would be represented as shown above.
tions being between members, with
See Berne (1963) and Clarkson (1992).
the leader or therapist mainly inter-
vening to control and shape the
group therapy one or sometimes two
process. Many transactional analysts
therapists working with a group of
favour a mixture of the Goulding
clients. Groups provide an environ-
and process styles.
ment which, if well managed, can be
both supportive and challenging and groups, stages of development Eric
generate a social environment in Berne (1963, 1966) advanced a theory
which issues relating to the family of of group development. Outside of
origin can be addressed. Clients can transactional analysis, Tuckman and
benefit from each others work and colleagues (1965, 1977) were also
this may enable them to gain insights active in this field, identifying four
or may trigger issues for them. stages of development occurring in
Transactional analysis was usually small groups and calling them FORMING,
practised as a group therapy in its STORMING, NORMING and PERFORMING .
early days (Berne, 1964) and with its Lacousiere (1980) had suggested that
emphasis on understanding interac- there is a final stage which he called
tions ( TRANSACTIONS ) it provides an MOURNING and Tuckman and Jensen
excellent theoretical model for under- (1977) proposed the alternative name
51
guided fantasy (imagery)
52
H
hallucination experiencing a perception
(e.g. something heard or seen) in the
absence of the appropriate stimulus.
This indicates that the Adult ego-state
now is the province of the Adult ego-
state.
53
history of transactional analysis
54
hypnosis
55
hypomania
little interest in the therapeutic use of Its use in these circumstances is likely
hypnosis by transactional analysts to be counter-therapeutic.
although it can have a positive role in
facilitating the achievement of autono- hypomania an energised psychological
my. There is currently increasing inter- state resembling mania but less
est among transactional analysts in intense.
integrating NLP techniques. Hypnosis is
sometimes sought by clients who seek hysteric personality adaptation term
change without addressing the issues formerly used for the HISTRIONIC ADAPTA-
of personal responsibility for actions. TION.
56
I
I statements by reformulating state-
ments in terms of I . . . a client is
encouraged to take responsibility for
his or her own thoughts, feelings and
actions, for example I am feeling
angry with you rather than you make
The id is characterised by PRIMARY
PROCESS THINKING . The functioning of
the id cannot be observed directly but
must be inferred, for example, from
neurotic symptoms or dreams. There
are major differences between this
me angry. This is therefore a method concept and the transactional analysis
of confronting DISCOUNTING. concept of the Child ego-state. The
contents of the Child are developed
I-Thou Martin Bubers (1923, 1970) term over a long period and its functioning
for the authentic encounter of equals. can be inferred directly from behav-
See IM OK, YOURE OK, GESTALT THERAPY, iours. Its thinking, although often out
HUMANISTIC THERAPY. of awareness, can become conscious
and is not restricted to PRIMARY PROCESS,
ICD-10 International Classification of for example the Child contains deci-
Diseases, tenth edition. A document sions. In psychoanalytic terms the
prepared by international cooperation Child is part of the ego although
under the auspices of the World Health responsive to early influences and
Organisation. Chapter 5 contains sys- drives (c.f. Fairbairns concept of the
tems for classifying psychiatric illnesses libidinal ego). The transactional analy-
and diagnostic criteria for the various sis concept that is closest to the id is
categories. Like the DSM-IV this provides C0, the early Child.
a system through which mental health
professionals who have been trained in identification (psychoanalysis) this term
different systems can communicate by is used to describe a number of
providing a common system of diagno- processes, all of which involve confu-
sis. Knowledge of such a system is a sion regarding ones own identity and
requirement for qualification as a that of another person. Identity may be:
Certified Transactional Analyst.
extended into the other, making
id (psychoanalysis) an unconscious, them an extension of the self;
unorganised and primitive part of the borrowed from the other so the
psyche, present from birth. Here are self is identified with them;
instincts arising out of the structure fused or confused with the other so
and functioning of the body which there is no clear sense of self and
predate all other psychic functions. other.
57
identity
Primary identification occurs in infants aspects of their issues that they may
who do not yet have a sense of the find difficult to verbalise. OUTCOME
other; secondary identification occurs FANTASIES are valuable in CONTRACTING.
as a defence and the identity confusion GUIDED FANTASY is a therapeutic tech-
is with someone who has been per- nique to elicit such imagery. It facili-
ceived as an other. Transactional analy- tates contact with the Child ego-state,
sis has not developed a unique vocab- is particularly valuable when working
ulary in this area and may employ psy- with the SCHIZOID PERSONALITY ADAPTATION
choanalytic terms. See also PROJECTIVE and also offers the opportunity to
IDENTIFICATION. make interventions in the imagery
mode (e.g. by inviting the client to
identity the unique character of the indi- imagine an image that represents or
vidual. Establishing an identity is an symbolises a changed life situation).
important developmental task. The RAP-
PROCHEMENT CRISIS is a significant stage impasse an experience of being blocked
in this process. Both the OBSESSIVE- or faced with an unresolvable dilemma.
COMPULSIVE and PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE PERSON- According to the Gouldings (Goulding
ALITY ADAPTATIONS are associated with and Goulding, 1979) this can take
failures at this stage. three forms which are now termed
type 1, type 2 and type 3 impasses (the
If It Werent For You a GAME, initiated early literature uses the term degree
from the Victim position, which involves in place of type). Each conflict involves
blaming someone else for failure (per- an internal conflict between ego-states
secuting from a Victim position). in which Child rebels against Parent
but feels unable to resolve the conflict.
illustration see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
Resolution is ultimately achieved with
the intervention of the Adult so
Im OK, Youre OK the healthy position
Goulding redecision work involves
in the OK CORRAL. A statement of the
contacting the Child while maintaining
basic philosophical position of
contact with the Adult. Mellor (1986)
Transactional Analysis I accept myself
reformulated the Gouldings work in
as I am and I accept you as you are.
This does not necessarily imply terms of a developmental theory, type
approval of the other persons behav- 1 representing the latest type and type
iour or of all aspects of oneself. It is 3 the earliest. In terms of the SCRIPT APPA-
RATUS a type 1 impasse involves coun-
about unconditional acceptance and
valuing of oneself and the other per- terinjunctions and a type 2 involves
son. This closely corresponds to Carl injunctions. The Gouldings originally
Rogers UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD formulated type 3 impasses in terms of
and Martin Bubers (1923, 1970) con- a conflict between free (natural) Child
cept of the I:THOU relationship. and adapted Child; however, this
involves using functional language to
Im Only Trying To Help You a GAME describe an intrapsychic process.
initiated from the Rescuer position. Mellor formulates type 3 in terms of a
This involves DISCOUNTING the abilities conflict between early Parent P0 and
of the person being helped; it is driven early Child C0. (See Figure 16.) Since
by the Rescuers need to Rescue rather type 3 corresponds to an issue that
than a measured response to the emerged before the child had mastery
Victims need for help. of language it is often presented sym-
bolically and reflected in body states.
imagery the mental pictures that clients Impasse resolution is central to the
describe symbolically represent approach of the REDECISION SCHOOL.
58
injunction
Dont Do Anything (it will be wrong or inner child. She derived her concept
dangerous) of the inner child from the transac-
Some transactional analysts add Dont tional analysis concept of the Child
Enjoy and Dont Trust as additional ego-state and also drew on the work
injunctions. of John Bowlby and Karen Horney.
Verbal labels such as Dont Be Close See ADVOCACY.
are convenient to use and give a vivid
sense of the essence of the injunction insight the ability to be aware of ones
but it should not be concluded that own inner processes. A major aim of
injunctions are held only as verbal (cog- psychotherapy is to promote the devel-
nitive) messages within the personality; opment of insight in order to facilitate
they also involve patterns of feeling and change. Transactional analysis sees
behaving and body states. The verbal insight as an Adult (A 2 ) function
labels serve only to designate types of although intuition from early Adult
message; each individual will have her (A1) is also involved. The process of
or his own version. See MESSAGE FORMAT. DECONTAMINATION by establishing
However, the use of the message format boundaries between what is currently
does make one point clear. Injunctions the case and what is archaic is impor-
are messages not decisions. For the tant in this process.
injunction to become directly active in
the script the decision must be made to Institute of Transactional Analysis the
comply with it. British transactional analysis organisa-
Steiner (1974) in his SCRIPT MATRIX dia- tion.
gram shows the injunction as being sent
directly from the Child ego-state of the intake interview a first meeting between
parent to the Child ego-state of the child. the client and a counsellor or psycho-
This probably describes accurately the therapist to establish the nature of the
situation in parental abuse, in which clients problems and the suitability of
there is a gross inequality of power. In the service offered to deal with them.
more normal parenting situations the Two important aspects to be addressed
injunction arises out of the interactions are the clients willingness to commit
between the parent and the child and it energy to the change process and
arises out of the meanings that the child whether he or she has sufficient avail-
gives to the parents behaviours. For able Adult ego-state to support change.
example, the unavailability of a parent at
a crucial stage in the childs development
integrated Adult Bernes concept
may give rise to a Dont Exist injunction (Berne, 1961) of the final stage in the
but the reality that the child did not development of the Adult in which all
understand might have been the parents that is of value in the Parent and Child
illness. The parent did not in fact send ego-states has been assimilated and
the injunction. Although the injunction integrated within the Adult to form a
is primary pathology rather than defence, single ego-state. He divides the integrat-
injunctions can be linked in defensive ed Adult into two parts: ethos, which
combinations so that one injunction contains the values and patterns of the
defends against the other. This is called aParent ego-state, pathos, which holds
COMPOUND DECISION (for example, I can the Child ego-states experience, and a
exist as long as I dont feel). central zone that he did not name.
Richard Erskine has proposed the name
inner child advocacy (psychoanalysis technos for this part, which deals cre-
Alice Miller) Alice Miller saw the role atively with here-and-now issues. The
of the therapist as the advocate of the term logos is also used.
60
internalisation (psychoanalysis)
introject (verb) to create an internal rep- mind and places it in A1, the early Adult
resentation of another person. This or Adult in Child. Because of its ability
process occurs out of awareness and to suss things out this ego-state is
without conscious intent. The person often referred to as the LITTLE PROFESSOR.
introjected will be of particular signifi- The therapists intuition is very impor-
cance, such as a parent. tant, particularly in establishing
EMPATHY, because of its ability to move
introvert a personality type in which quickly ahead of the known. Intuition is
there is a tendency to direct attention not always reliable, however, and needs
inward. It is often characterised by to be followed up with clear thinking
introspection, withdrawal and a ten- from the Adult ego-state A2.
dency to become depressed. Its posi-
tive aspects include intuitiveness, Intuition and ego-states much of Eric
creativity and performing better at Bernes earlier writings on transaction-
tasks that require vigilance than extro- al analysis appeared originally in the
verts. In Paul Wares (1983) theory of professional journals of psychiatry and
PERSONALITY ADAPTATIONS introverts are psychoanalysis. In 1977, seven years
likely to have the SCHIZOID or some- after his death, a collection of these
times the OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE ADAPTA- writings was published under the
TION. See also EXTROVERT above title.
intuition perceiving the truth of some- ITA INSTITUTE OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS. The
thing without reasoning or analysis. UK transactional analysis organisation.
Acquiring knowledge or insight with-
out being aware of how it has been ITAA INTERNATIONAL TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
acquired. Transactional analysis regards ASSOCIATION. The international body of
intuition as an early function of the transactional analysis.
63
J
Jacobs, Alan transactional analyst. Given
the Eric Berne Memorial Award in
1995 for his contributions to the theory
of social applications of transactional
GAME in transactional analysis is unlike
the everyday concept of a game.
Also the use of familiar words in
place of technicalities sometimes
analysis (see Jacobs, 1991). (Joint leads to transactional analysis being
award.) misperceived as theoretically light-
weight. See LANGUAGE OF TRANSACTIONAL
James, Muriel transactional analyst. ANALYSIS.
Awarded the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award for developing SELF Joines, Vann received the Eric Berne
REPARENTING (James, 1974) and co- Memorial Award in Transactional
authored with Dorothy Jongeward one Analysis (joint award) in 1994 for
of the most successful introductions to his work on using redecision therapy
transactional analysis, Born to Win with different personality adaptations
(James and Jongeward, 1971). (Joines, 1986) and diagnosis and treat-
ment planning using a transactional
jargon a derogatory term for specialised analysis framework (Joines, 1988). He
language. By implication, jargon is joint author (with Ian Stewart) of a
serves to mystify and exclude those popular introduction to transactional
outside a small group from under- analysis (TA Today, Stewart and Joines,
standing what is being discussed. 1987).
However, every speciality has unique
language needs. In the development Jung, Carl analyst. Jung was at first closely
of transactional analysis the aim has associated with Freud but later left psy-
been to create an open language sys- choanalysis to found his own school
tem that can be widely shared i.e. to which he called analytical psychology.
avoid creating jargon. Most of its ter- Jungs thought ranged widely and he
minology draws on everyday and was deeply interested in myth and
even colloquial expressions. To a symbolism. He aimed to create a sys-
large extent the aim of an open lan- tem that was more open and broader
guage system has been achieved but than Freuds psychoanalysis but his
there has been a cost. Inappropriate approach lacks Freuds clarity and
meanings are carried over from the consistency. Eric Berne trained as a
everyday use of words; for example, a psychoanalyst so the underlying
64
Jung, Carl
65
K
Kahler, Taibi transactional analyst who
has made major contributions to
theory. He received the Eric Berne
Memorial Scientific Award in 1977 for
his work on the MINISCRIPT and the five
DRIVERS (Kahler and Capers, 1974).
This reinforces the initiators belief
that he or she is no good but also
enables the Victim to get negative
strokes and thus know that he or she
exists.
Taibi Kahler has also developed Paul Klein, Melanie Austrian-born psychoana-
Wares concept of PERSONALITY ADAPTA- lyst. She came to England from Berlin
TION in his process therapy approach. (where she had been analysed by
FERENCZI) in 1927 and became the cen-
Karpman, Stephen transactional analyst. tre of the British School out of which
He was awarded the Eric Berne grew the OBJECT RELATIONS approach.
Memorial Scientific Award twice, in She worked mainly with children and
1972, for his work on the DRAMA TRIANGLE developed a highly original theoretical
(Karpman, 1968 the drama triangle is approach stressing the importance of
sometimes referred to as the Karpman very early experiences and conflicts.
Triangle), and again in 1979 for his Some of her ideas have been influen-
work on OPTIONS (Karpman, 1971). tial in the development of transaction-
al analysis (e.g. she originated the con-
Kick Me game initiated from the Victim cept of the LIFE POSITION).
position and inviting persecution.
66
L
language of transactional analysis
transactional analysis has developed its
own distinctive language. As one of the
aims of the discipline is maximum acces-
sibility this largely uses everyday words
although it gives them a distinctive
2.
mother or the ogre father) leading
someone into derision and defeat.
The Adults chuckle of rueful humour
at achieving a limited insight into his
or her self-destructive behaviour
from which he or she has yet to
meaning. This makes the language less release him- or herself. This is the GAL-
threatening but the technical meaning, LOWS LAUGH.
although it may resemble the everyday 3. The Childs laugh when he is about
one, is never the same (for example a to pull a fast one (but is likely to end
Bernian game differs profoundly from up a Victim). This is the gamy laugh.
football). This problem is not confined 4. The Parents laugh at the Childs
to transactional analysis: physicists give struggle to succeed. This is essentially
the word energy a meaning which benevolent and helpful but also may
resembles but differs significantly from be patronising. This is the grandad
everyday usage. However the decision or Santa Claus laugh.
of transactional analysis to draw most of 5. A laugh that is much more hearty and
its vocabulary from everyday speech has meaningful and signifies full insight
brought disadvantages. In addition to by the Adult into how she or he has
the differences in meaning and usage, been conned by his or her own Par-
the use of commonplace terms or even ent and Child. This is the laugh of
slang (e.g. racket, gimmick) to express insight.
technical meanings may lead to transac- 6. The Childs laugh of sheer fun and
tional analysis being misperceived as enjoyment. This is the spontaneous
light weight. See JARGON. laugh of healthy people.
Levin, Pamela transactional analyst.
Laymans Guide to Psychiatry and
Received the Eric Berne Memorial
Psychoanalysis Eric Bernes first
Scientific Award in 1984 for her work
book. See A Laymans Guide.
on developmental cycles (Levin, 1982,
1988). She offers the most complete
laughter Berne (1972) identified six
account of child development within
types of laughter of which three are
transactional analysis theory, drawing
SCRIPT SIGNS and three healthy.
on Freud, Mahler, Erikson and her
1. The scripty laugh from negative Par- own research. She draws attention to
ent in Child (P1, often called the witch the transferential reactivation of devel-
67
leadership hunger
opmental issues by life events, for life positions also known as existential
example activation of oral (first year) positions or basic positions (Berne,
issues often follows a new beginning. 1962, 1966, 1972). Each represents an
She also suggests that recycling though outlook on life that has a profound
all the stages of child development effect on the way the world is con-
continue throughout the life cycle and strued and life is lived. There are four
she identifies ages at which specific life positions:
stage issues are likely to become
1. Im OK, youre OK (I+U+). I
salient.
accept myself unconditionally as I
am and I accept you unconditionally
leadership hunger Berne (1966) the
as you are. This is the healthy posi-
need of a group for a leader to provide
tion enabling the person to be
time structuring. This is a derivative of
autonomous and to form relation-
STRUCTURE HUNGER.
ships that are balanced and reward-
ing. Youre OK does not mean that I
libido (psychoanalysis) originally a
approve of everything that you do
form of mental energy deriving from
but that I unconditionally accept
the ID (from the instinctual level of the
your value as a person. c.f. UNCONDI-
psyche) and associated with sexuality.
TIONAL POSITIVE REGARD.
Later Freud used it as a more general
2. Im not OK, youre OK (IU+).
term for mental energy, for example
Individuals in this position constant-
the EGO was assumed to possess ego-
ly look to others for approval, under-
libido. In later psychoanalytic instinct
value themselves and are subject to
theory libido is the energy of the life
depression.
instinct (love). Berne uses the term
3. Im OK, youre not OK (I+U). The
cathexis or energy but postulates that
person in this position is critical and
it can exist in three states; bound,
mistrustful of others but lacks
unbound and free. See ENERGY . The
insight into what they are doing.
opposite of libido, the energy of the
This is characteristic of paranoid dis-
death instinct (Thanatos) is a concept
orders although many people enter
which is little used. However it has
this state from time to time.
been given the name Mortido. An alter-
4. Im not OK, youre not OK (IU).
native name which is sometimes used
This is a despairing position that
is Destrudo.
often underlies serious psychologi-
cal disorders.
life events the individuals life will
have been shaped by life events, each All four positions occur from time to
of which may have encouraged or time in relatively healthy (normal)
reinforced script beliefs and led to people but they are quickly able to
early decisions. The early stages of move back into the healthy position. It
therapy usually include exploration of is fixedness in one of the unhealthy
significant past life events. These positions that constitutes a problem
may be both the cause and the result The concept was originated by Melanie
of scripting since, as script is formed, KLEIN. See also OK CORRAL, DEPRESSIVE POSI-
it influences subsequent events. TION, PARANOID-SCHIZOID POSITION.
Events occurring during therapy
are often closely related to script life script the unconscious life plan
issues being addressed and may consti- derived from early experiences that
tute manifestations of GAMES or ACTING governs the way life is lived out.
OUT. Usually referred to simply as SCRIPT.
68
low self-esteem
literature of transactional analysis the Little Professor the Adult in Child A1. In
main journal of transactional analysis this subdivision of the Child ego-state
is the Transactional Analysis Journal we find early, non-logical intuitive
( TAJ) published by the International thinking patterns that enable the indi-
Transactional Analysis Association. vidual to get answers quickly with min-
This was preceded by an earlier publi- imum background information to be
cation, the Transactional Analysis smart rather than intelligent. This
Bulletin ( TAB ). In addition, most type of thinking is very valuable pro-
national associations publish their own vided logical (A2) thinking is also used
journals. That of the British organisa- alongside it to provide checks.
tion (the Institute of Transactional
Analysis) is the ITA News. Because of loss the object relations theorist John
the wide area of application of transac- Bowlby (1969) drew attention to the
tional analysis and the variety of levels importance of attachments to other
at which it can be addressed, books on people, stemming from the attachment
transactional analysis cover a wide of a child to her or his parents. This
range, from popularisation to techni- attachment extends to attachment to
cally advanced works. Some books material objects, places, activities etc.
attempt to cover this wide range. Loss of something to which one is
Bernes last book, What Do You Say attached, be it a friend or a toy, brings
After You Say Hello? might be seen as grief and initiates a process of mourn-
doing this. Games People Play became ing. Issues of loss are often the precipi-
a best seller by accident and was not tating factors bringing people into
designed as a popular book. His therapy. Often a loss will activate unre-
Principles of Group Practice is solved grief remaining from earlier
unequivocally technical. The best expo- losses. Therapy itself may re-enact loss
sition of transactional analysis theory is (for example, when the therapist goes
also the first, Bernes Transactional away or when the therapy comes to an
Analysis in Psychotherapy. Some pop- end). See MOURNING.
ularisations do a good job of conveying
the basics of the approach but others low self-esteem the person with low
are at times inaccurate, or oversimpli- self-esteem is in the Im not OK,
fied and have contributed to the mis- youre OK LIFE POSITION. Early experi-
understanding (and perhaps misuse) of ences will have led to negative script
transactional analysis ideas. A brief beliefs and INJUNCTIONS such as Dont
reading list is included in Appendix 1 Exist, Dont Be You and Dont Be
to provide some guidance to anyone Important are likely to be present.
making his or her first contact with the Among transactional analysts, Jean
literature. In order to keep it brief it Illesley Clarke (1978) has worked
was necessary to leave out many meri- extensively on the issue of self-esteem.
torious books, so the omission of any
book does not indicate criticism.
69
ego-state. See P1.
M
magical Parent the Parent in the Child
meaning the significance given to experi- tal illness but may be an obstacle to
ence in the mind, the way it is related therapy by making thoughts and feel-
to other experiences, value systems, ings less available to the client (for
beliefs, etc. According to transactional example, they may make the Child less
analysis, each individual creates a accessible and the Adult less active).
FRAME OF REFERENCE ( FOR) that incorpo-
rates his or her system of meanings at Mellor, Ken Australian transactional ana-
all levels, not just conscious knowl- lyst. Worked for a time within the
edge and beliefs (Schiff et al., 1975). Cathexis movement and is one of the
All incoming experience is processed authors of the Cathexis reader (Schiff
using the FOR. Since early decisions et al., 1975). With Eric Sigmund, was
and beliefs that have not been updated jointly awarded an Eric Berne
will be incorporated in the FOR it is the Memorial Scientific Award in 1980 for
repository of SCRIPT. Whenever an early his work on discounting and redefin-
decision or belief that is no longer ing (Mellor and Sigmund, 1975). Made
valid is used to process current experi- a contribution to redecision theory by
ence, this can be done only if some proposing a developmental model of
aspects of current reality are DISCOUNT- the three impasses (see REDECISION ).
ED (because if they were accounted the With his wife, Elizabeth, he became
belief or decision would have to be deeply interested in eastern mysticism
changed). Responding within script and has developed an original system
therefore always involves discounting. of therapy incorporating meditation.
Stewart and Joines (1987) define script
as that part of the FOR that involves dis- memory memories can be of many kinds,
counting. for example memories of facts, memo-
ries of feelings, memories of experi-
medical model the term medical model ences, memories of sequences of
was used by Eric Berne (1971) to signi- events. Ego-states are made up of total
fy a model of psychological treatment memories of past life experiences.
that stresses dealing with causes rather These memories include ways of think-
than symptoms and aims to bring ing, feeling and behaving and experi-
about CURE . Berne (1971) made the encing. For example, the Child ego-
analogy with a patient with a splinter state contains many such memories of
in his toe; this would lead to all sorts childhood; it is more accurate to talk
of secondary problems e.g postural about Child ego-states than the Child
problems, but dealing with these ego-state, although that is common
would not effect CURE. The cure could usage. When Child is contacted it is
only be effected by identifying that the usually at a particular point it is one
problems stemmed from the splinter phase of childhood that is being con-
and removing it. The term medical tacted. The Parent ego-state is likewise
model is frequently used today to made up of memories of significant
describe the approach in psychiatry others, the parents and other people
that sees psychological problems as who were significant in childhood.
mainly deriving from disturbances in
brain biochemistry and consequently mental health health is to be seen posi-
lays heavy stress on the use of drugs. tively, it is not just the absence of dis-
ease. In Eric Bernes (1961) original
medication the use of drugs that affect formulation it would involve the
feelings and thought processes (psy- achievement of INTEGRATED ADULT func-
chotropic drugs). Medication is impor- tioning in which the Adult has been
tant in the management of acute men- able to integrate and have available for
71
mental illness
use the valuable material from the while the client remains in this situa-
Child and Parent ego-states but is no tion. This raises complex ethical issues
longer influenced by the negative for the therapist. These gave rise to the
material. This would mean that the controversy regarding the Schiffs work
individual would be truly autonomous. with schizophrenics. See also CURE.
Berne (1957, 1972) writes of a drive
towards wholeness and fulfilment that mental organs see PSYCHIC ORGANS.
he calls PHYSIS and represents by an
upward arrow passing through all message format transactional analysts
three ego-states (thus formulating the frequently refer to messages influenc-
principles of humanistic therapy in ing the client and may use imagery
drive terms). Health must also involve such as the Parent whispering in the
the free flow of physis. Childs ear or Parent tapes playing in
the head. Verbal labels in message for-
mental illness a state of prolonged psy- mat such as a Dont Be Close injunc-
chological distress or a state in which tion or a Try Hard driver are conve-
the community does not accept behav- nient to use and give a vivid sense of
iours. Thomas Szasz (1961) pointed the essence of the concept and how it
out the very large social component in functions intrapsychically, but it should
mental illness. The term isolates the not be concluded that they imply that
problem within the client but it exists the intrapsychic features which they
not only within the client but also name exist solely as verbal messages
within his or her relationships, includ- held within the personality. Powerful
ing those with the external society. injunctions (such as Dont Exist) are
Pressures of the society or the family often received before the child is
or group in which the client lives may capable of speech. The injunction and
make it very difficult for them not to other script elements involve cognitive
experience distress or behave in ways (thoughts), affective (feelings), behav-
that are not acceptable to others. ioural and physical (body states) com-
Transactional analysis starts from the ponents. The message format for repre-
position Im OK, Youre OK, that is I senting intrapsychic elements is charac-
accept you as you are and I accept teristic of the metaphor used in transac-
myself as I am, although I may not tional analysis; it is one of the features
accept what you are doing. Trans- that give it its vividness, accessibility,
actional analysts do not tell people precision and brevity. However, when
what is wrong with them but invite not understood it can lead to transac-
them to make a contract for change; tional analysis being misperceived as a
this contract must be acceptable to simplistic approach. By contrast, the
both the client and the therapist. To object relations theorist Wilfred Bion
make such a contract the client must aimed to create a terminology that
have functional Adult available. opened up a space into which the indi-
Transactional analysis takes the posi- viduals own, experientially derived
tion that most people including chil- meaning might enter. He wrote: the
dren have this and that it is important advantage of employing a sign . . . is
to empower clients to use their Adult that it at least indicates that the readers
resources and not to rescue them when comprehension of my meaning should
this would be inappropriate because contain an element that will remain
they have the resources to help them- unsatisfied until he meets the appropri-
selves. In some cases, such as psy- ate realisation. There is the risk that
chosis, Adult is not available and a con- the metaphor of transactional analysis
tractual approach is not appropriate leads to the meaning being perceived as
72
mirroring
clearer than it really is; however, the moves into one of three positions:
ability to identify and specify injunc-
1. Stopper. Here the LIFE POSITION is
tions, for example, opens up possibili- IU+ and the person is responding
ties for treatment planning that would to the negative message of an INJUNC-
not be available without the insights of TION from adapted Child and experi-
transactional analysis and the preci- encing RACKET FEELINGS such as guilt,
sion of its language. hurt, worry, embarrassment or con-
fusion.
methodology of transactional analysis 2. Blamer. Here the life position is I+U
transactional analysis seeks links and rackets such as blameful, trium-
between observable behaviours and phant, spiteful, blameless or furious
intrapsychic states. It is thus able to are operated from a spiteful adapted
maintain a position that is simultane- Child or negative controlling Parent
ously behaviourist and intrapsychically position.
analytic. This dual stance is particularly 3. Despairer. Here the life position is
valuable in dealing with interactions IU, the ego-state is negative adapt-
( TRANSACTIONS ) between individuals. ed Child and typical rackets are
The person is thus studied both as an worthless, unwanted, hopeless, cor-
individual and as a social unit in com- nered, unloved, futile.
munication with others, yielding a
two-person perspective on psychology. Movement can occur between these
positions (a common sequence is stop-
miniscript a process in which a section per, despairer, blamer). Eventually
of script process is played though in a there is a return to a driver and a new
short period of time (seconds or min- sequence begins. There is a similarity
utes). The process involves responding between the concepts of miniscript
to an external or internal stressor by and GAMES, which both include time-
going into DRIVER BEHAVIOUR from an limited sequences involving rackets
ADAPTED CHILD position. The driver is a that advance the script.
defensive manoeuvre so no emotion is
felt while it functions. When it fails to mirroring showing in ones behaviour
maintain equilibrium the person awareness and responsiveness to the
3. Blamer
rackets e.g. spiteful
triumphant, furious
ego-states AC or CP
2. Stopper
4. Despairer life position I + U
in touch with injunction
rackets e.g. worthless, e.g. dont exist rackets
hopeless, unloved ego-state e.g. guilty embarrassed
AC life position I U ego-state AC life position
I U
client and his or her experiences so Moiso, Carlo received the Eric Berne
that they are able to become aware of Memorial Award in Transactional
themselves through the therapist. This Analysis in 1987 for his work on ego-
is a way of giving PERMISSIONS, to exist, states and transference (Moiso, 1985).
to feel and to be oneself.
mortido (psychoanalysis) the energy
missed sessions the business contract associated with the death instinct; c.f.
(see CONTRACT) needs to deal with what LIBIDO referred to by Berne (1957).
will happen if the Client misses a ses- There is no corresponding concept in
sion. Missing or being late for sessions transactional analysis ENERGY theory
is a common way in which Clients show although the concept of the script PAY-
resistance to therapy and is very often a OFF bears some resemblance to Freuds
move to invite the therapist into a GAME. thinking about the death instinct.
MPD multiple personality disorder. A dis- OK, Youre OK position, being open
sociative disorder in which the person- (transactional analysis talking MART-
ality is split into a number of distinctive IAN; Rogers being congruent) and
sub-personalities that manifest more or being insightful and empathic. The
less independently. See DISSOCIATION. counsellor or therapist needs to offer
mutuality and create an environment
mutuality a mode of interaction between where it is safe; the client may need
two people in which there is mutual time to check this out. Sometimes the
respect and each takes account of the achievement of full mutuality is an
others unique view of the world. It indicator that therapy is complete. See
will involve each maintaining an Im INTERSUBJECTIVITY.
75
N
narcissism investment of psychological
energy (cathexis) in the self. This may
be positive and helpful (for example,
healthy self-respect). Over-valuation of
the self is a defence, often against the
trauma of early loss of relationship.
constrained by adaptation to the
(assumed) needs and wishes of others
as it had been in childhood to the par-
ents. This is a functional concept, i.e. it
describes the outward (behavioural)
manifestation of an ego-state. See FUNC-
Psychoanalysts distinguish between TIONAL EGO-STATES.
primary narcissism, the babys love of
self that precedes loving others, and need something that is necessary for nor-
secondary narcissism that involves mal healthy functioning. This includes
INTROJECTING and identifying with an not only physical needs such as food
OBJECT . The child needs positive and warmth but also psychological
responses to nurture and sustain the needs. Transactional analysis stresses
self; these can be termed narcissistic the importance of RECOGNITION HUNGER,
needs and might be represented in which is satisfied through STROKING ,
transactional analysis terms as ade- and STRUCTURE HUNGER, which signifies a
quate and appropriate STROKES . need for TIME STRUCTURING.
Rejecting and abusive behaviour
towards the child inflicts a narcissistic negative stroke a STROKE is an act of
wound and would be likely to result in recognition from another person.
a Dont Exist INJUNCTION. Stroking is required to maintain psy-
chological health. Berne (1964)
natural Child (also written Natural described strokes as units of social
Child) when someone reacts from a action. Strokes can take many forms,
spontaneous and open Child position, verbal and non-verbal, negative and
in touch with emotions and reacting to positive. A negative stroke is hostile,
the moment with enthusiasm and rejecting, undermining or critical, for
energy, we describe him or her as example a disparaging remark.
being in the natural Child ego-state. However, the verbal or non-verbal act
Although such a person will be respon- is directed towards the person and
sive to others he or she will be in therefore involves recognising their
touch with his or her own needs and existence. Negative strokes are some-
wants and will seek openly to satisfy times sought for this reason. Many
them. This is to be contrasted with the children find that negative strokes are
adapted Child in which behaviour is easier to elicit from their parents than
76
NIGYYSOB
78
nurturing Parent
norming the establishment of norms and healthy SYMBIOSIS diagram it can be rep-
standards. Tuckman (1965) recognised resented as in Figure 18.
a number of distinct stages in the An analogous relationship may
forming of a group and Clarkson exist between client, therapist and
(1992) has integrated his ideas with supervisor.
Bernes (1963) theories. In Tuckmans
norming stage the group becomes pre- nurturing Parent (often written
occupied with establishing how things Nurturing Parent) When someone is
should be done. See GROUPS, STAGES OF behaving in a caring and supportive
DEVELOPMENT. way towards others from a Parent posi-
tion, we describe them as being in the
nursing triad a term originated by the nurturant Parent ego-state. This is a
object relations theorist Donald functional concept, that is, it describes
Winnicott for the child being cared for the outward (behavioural) manifesta-
by the mother who in her turn is cared tion of an ego-state. See FUNCTIONAL
for by the father. Using the Schiff EGO- STATES.
79
O
object (psychoanalysis) this word has a object relations school (psychoanaly-
meaning that is different from its every-
day usage. It means not a material
thing but something to which a subject
relates. In practice this usually means a
sis) a therapeutic approach that
stresses the psychological importance
of relationship to both external and
internal OBJECTS. This contrasts with
person, a part of a person (e.g. the classical Freudian drive theory, which
mothers breast) or something that rep- focused on the need to reduce internal
resents a person. See also TRANSITIONAL tension caused by instinctual demands
OBJECT, TRANSFORMATIONAL OBJECT. emerging from the ID. Object relations
theory was an influence on transac-
object constancy (Kleinian psycho- tional analysis; the Parent ego-state is
analysis) the ability to accept the in essence a group of internal objects
ambivalence of others (the childs (introjected parent figures). Recent
ability to recognise at the deepest level developments in transactional analysis
that the mother who frustrates is also have been characterised by a renewed
the mother who nurtures). See also interest in psychoanalysis, in particular
PARANOID-SCHIZOID POSITION, OBJECT PERMA- object relations and self psychology.
NENCE. Stewart (1996a) refers to this as the
psychoanalytic renaissance.
object, internal (psychoanalysis) an
internal representation of an external obsessive-compulsive personality adap-
object (e.g. person) that one relates to tation an adaptation (that is a charac-
as if it were an external object. The rep- teristic way of reacting compatible
resentations of the parents within the with normal life) which shows some of
Parent ego-state can be regarded as the features of obsessive-compulsive
internal objects. This concept is central disorder (Ware, 1983). It is charac-
to the thinking of the OBJECT RELATIONS terised by a methodical and orderly
SCHOOL , which has had a significant approach and a need to get things
influence on transactional analysis. right and gain approval. The person
has a need for information and seeks
object permanence (Piaget) the stage in to stay in control by understanding
child development where the child and thinking and has difficulty access-
shows signs of recognising the contin- ing feeling. He or she also has difficul-
uing existence of an object when it is ty in making decisions and changing
not visible. behaviour patterns. The underlying
80
OK corral
You are OK
I U+ I+ U+
Social Operation: Social Operation:
Get-away-from Get-on-with
I am
Im not I U I+ U
OK
OK
Social Operation: Social Operation:
Get-nowhere-with Get-rid-of
quadrant also has a name for the state In a few situations openness involves
that it represents. The Im not OK, risks that must be balanced against
Youre not OK is the futility (also called potential gains; the aim is to remain
despairing or schizoid) position. We all open while keeping oneself safe.
visit all the quadrants from time to time Openness or genuineness (in TA termi-
but everyone has a favoured life posi- nology, being in the OK:OK position, in
tion in which they spend most of their Rogers language being congruent or
time. We move through the quadrants real) involves authenticity, self-aware-
over the short term as our mood ness and awareness of the other and of
changes and over the long term as we the process in which both are involved
change because of life experience or from a non-judgemental and accepting
therapy. It is not possible to move position. This awareness needs to be
directly from the paranoid to the shared but openness is compatible with
healthy position. This change involves maintaining some boundaries.
visiting the depressive (IU+) and per-
haps also the futility (IU) positions. operationalise to put into action. In
This corresponds to Melanie Kleins transactional analysis there are usually
view of the depressive position as rep- close links between theoretical con-
resenting an advance in functioning cepts and therapeutic behaviours. This
over the paranoid-schizoid position derives from the clarity of its theory
(achievement of OBJECT CONSTANCY). See and its incorporation of a behavioural
LIFE POSITIONS, PARANOID-SCHIZOID POSITION, perspective. It is therefore a system
DEPRESSIVE POSITION. that can readily be operationalised.
OKness the state of being in an Im OK, options alternatives that may be chosen.
Youre OK LIFE POSITION . See IM OK, When clients become stuck they may
YOURE OK, OK CORRAL, OPENNESS. be unaware of options or they may be
DISCOUNTING options. See DISCOUNT
omnipotence belief in being all-power- MATRIX.
ful. This is probably normal in early
infancy but the child learns the limits options (Karpmans) Karpman (1971)
of his or her powers through repeated suggested that there are wide choices
experiences of frustration. In the available in the way we TRANSACT with
adult, the belief that events conform, others. If we wish to challenge the way
or should conform, to their wishes is the other person is behaving classical
dysfunctional. Belief in the omnipo- theory tells us that we can cross his or
tence of thought (that thought can her TRANSACTION by replying from an ego-
directly affect others or the external state other than the one that was
world) underlies MAGICAL THINKING and addressed. Karpman highlighted the
may explain why wishes can evoke as rich possibilities that arise if we make
much guilt as actions. use of all the available FUNCTIONAL EGO-
STATES. Very different options result, for
openness the state of being direct, non- example, from responding from the
defensive and transparent with others rebellious adapted Child, the Adult or
and maintaining no secrecy (in Bernes the controlling Parent where a response
imagery speaking Martian). In an ideal from compliant adapted Child is expect-
situation where there is caring, trust ed. If we choose an ego-state, we make
and mutual respect, openness greatly that choice in the Adult so there will be
facilitates social relations and the an element of as if in our transacting,
achievement of INTIMACY and is the atti- although the Adult will be able to shift
tude endorsed by transactional analysis. cathexis into the chosen ego-state.
82
over-reactor
83
P
P1 the Parent in the Child ego-state. This is
an early ego-state that is formed in
response to the rules given to the child
by a parent figure. The child is not yet
able to evaluate these rules but incor-
in P1: Witch Parent, Ogre, Pig Parent.
Grandiose positive versions of P1 are
also contacted, which are referred to as
the Fairy Godmother, Good Fairy or
Santa Claus. These also reflect the MAGI-
porates his or her understanding (or CAL THINKING through which the child
misunderstanding) of them rigidly. The seeks to gain control over his or her
child does not understand the conse- world. The term Magical Parent
quences of disobeying the rules but includes both positive and negative
fears that it may be very frightening aspects of P 1 . Bernes term, the
(their world may become unsafe). As a Electrode, refers to the way the Child
result, a harsh, frightening figure is responds almost compulsively to the
often created in P1 by the child to fright- rewards and punishments of P1.
en himself or herself into conformity. A Melanie Klein describes a similar
number of negative names for P1 reflect phenomenon but offers a somewhat
the harsh, negative content often found different explanation. See SPLITTING.
Father introject
Mother introject
together these constitute the Parent ego-state P
2
Adult ego-state
P2 the Parent ego-state proper. This con- lel process is a powerful resource in
tains behaviours, thought and feeling effective supervision.
patterns of parent figures experienced
in the past in the form of INTROJECTS of paranoid personality adaptation a per-
these individuals. sonality pattern occurring in individu-
als who are able to function reasonably
P3 sometimes used for one of the Parent well, but who show some features of
ego-states within the Parent ego-state paranoid personality disorder. There is
(i.e. the Parent of an introject). The excessive suspiciousness of others and
content is introjected material from a often a tendency to become isolated. It
grandparent. is characterised by a Be Perfect DRIVER.
It can take two forms (Zeichnich,
palimpsest literally a parchment on 1968). With the Child form of the dri-
which old writing has been erased to ver I have to be perfect for you others
make way for new. Sometimes the ear- are seen as threatening and critical and
lier writing would show through later. withdrawn from (Victim position on
In transactional analysis the palimpsest the DRAMA TRIANGLE). With the Parent
is a later version of the script. This is form of the driver You have to be per-
developed in later childhood as the fect for me the individual seeks to
child draws on new potentialities. dominate and control others and may
be extremely demanding and critical
parallel process it is often observed that (Persecutor position on the Drama
when a counsellor or psychotherapist Triangle). People with this adaptation
has SUPERVISION , the PROCESS of the often seek positions of authority. See
supervision shows remarkable similari- also PERSONALITY ADAPTATION, WARE
ties to the process of the therapy that SEQUENCE.
is being brought to supervision. For
example, if the client has succeeded in paranoid-schizoid position (Kleinian
setting up a game of DO ME SOMETHING psychoanalysis) according to
with the therapist then the therapist Melanie Klein, the small baby feels very
may try to set up a similar game with vulnerable and exposed to potential
the supervisor (I really do not know annihilation. He or she is unable to
what to do with this client, you must cope with the negative aspects of the
help me). The supervision process parent (when the parent has failed to
parallels the therapy process. The meet the childs needs) as part of the
issue brought by the supervisee to total reality of that parent so splits off
supervision will usually be one in the negative from the positive. Melanie
which he or she feels stuck. This Klein referred to these as the good
stuckness results from the internalisa- breast and the bad breast as she
tion by the therapist or counsellor of believed that at this stage the baby
the clients issues, for example by PRO- relates to the mother more as a breast
JECTIVE IDENTIFICATION by the client, or (part object) than as a total person.
the issue may be one that the super- The baby projects her anger with the
visee has not resolved and he or she is bad breast on to the breast so that it
therefore caught in proactive COUNTER- seems to be attacking her. She
TRANSFERENCE (Clarkson, 1992) with the responds to this from a withdrawn
client. The supervisee then takes these (schizoid) or angry attacking (para-
issues through into the supervision as noid) position. Ultimately the child
if they were his or her own. This is a realises that both aspects are part of
complex process and other factors may the same person. As now love and hate
be involved. Identification of the paral- are directed to the same person, love
85
Parent ego state
can mitigate hate (the mother is loved Parent resolution a therapeutic tech-
even when the child experiences her nique developed by Dashiel (1978) in
behaviour as frustrating). The child has which, after making an Adult:Adult
achieved OBJECT CONSTANCY (understand- contract with the client the therapist
ing that the mother is one OBJECT and uses Gestalt technique (see CUSHION
not two) and entered the DEPRESSIVE POSI- WORK ) to separate ego-states. The
TION. The child now understands that Parent is then opened up and given
his or her hate has been directed to the new information, PERMISSIONS and
loved mother and feels remorse and the opportunities or resolutions.
desire to make reparation. The resolu-
tion of the paranoid-schizoid position passive-aggressive personality adapta-
may not be completed in infancy so tion a personality pattern charac-
that it may contribute to later patholo- terised by rebelliousness coupled with
gy. McDevitt and Mahler (1980) place a reluctance to initiate. The rebellious-
this resolution as usually occurring at ness is usually expressed covertly by
age three (associated with the individu- stubborn, resentful or manipulative
ation-separation crisis) although other behaviour. People with this pattern
Kleinians believe it can occur much ear- have not found it safe to ask openly
lier. Klein influenced Bernes thinking and directly for their needs and wants
about life positions and offers an expla- as children. See PERSONALITY ADAPTATIONS,
nation of the observation that clients in WARE SEQUENCE.
therapy do not move directly from
either the I+U (paranoid) or IU passive behaviours four behaviours
(schizoid) life positions to the healthy identified by the Cathexis School
position I+U+ without visiting the (Schiff et al., 1975) as often resorted to
IU+ (depressive) life position. See LIFE under stress but not leading to prob-
POSITIONS, OK CORRAL. lem resolution because of the DIS-
COUNTING of important aspects of reali-
Parent ego-state usually written Parent. ty. See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS.
The ego-state that contains behaviours,
thoughts and feeling patterns of par- passivity unassertiveness, responding to
ent figures experienced in the past in a challenge by behaviours that do not
the form of INTROJECTS of these individ- give rise to problem solving because of
uals. In the PAC diagram it is shown by DISCOUNTING of important aspects of
a circle containing the letter P. In sec- reality. For example, in doing nothing
ond-order analysis of ego-states this the individuals power to effect change
main Parent ego-state is designated P2. is being discounted probably together
with other aspects of the situation
Parent interview a therapeutic tech- (such as availability of options or
nique developed by McNeel (1976). resources). See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS
The client is invited to project a Parent and DISCOUNT MATRIX.
figure (introject) on to a chair. The
client then sits on the chair and pastimes a form of TIME STRUCTURING in
becomes the introject, which is inter- which there is talk about a topic but
viewed by the therapist. What happens no action is taken concerning it.
is that, in effect, the therapist gives Pastimes are not rigid, like RITUALS, but
therapy to the introject. This has give considerable freedom without
proved to be a very powerful tech- having to undertake the commitment
nique that, in skilled hands, can facili- to action involved in an ACTIVITY or the
tate profound changes. See also REPAR- emotional involvement of GAMES. They
ENTING THE PARENT. constitute a large part of social activity
86
permission
89
personality disorder
personality disorder (also character dis- it looks like to an observer (the charac-
order). A psychological disorder in teristic position of the scientific
which the client lacks insight and approach). Phenomenology derives
tends to attribute his or her problems from the work of the German philoso-
to others and to external circum- pher Edmund Husserl (18591938)
stances and adopts maladaptive pat- who advocated the study of immediate
terns of relating to his or her social experience as the basis of psychology.
environment. More generally, a class The emphasis is on how events are
of behavioural disorders other than perceived and experienced rather than
psychoses (in which there is discon- on the events in the external world
nection from reality generally and not that generate these perceptions and
just social reality) and neuroses (in experiences. Transactional analysis is a
which there is insight into the owner- two-person psychology. To achieve
ship of the problem) in which the this it has to combine an external
whole personality is involved and objective view (as in observing transac-
there is often relatively little anxiety or tions) with an insight into the internal
distress. (phenomenological) perspective of the
individual. This synthesis is achieved
personality theory any theory that via ego-state theory. In diagnosing ego-
claims to explain individual character- states Berne specified four criteria,
istics, differences and different pat- one of which is phenomenological.
terns of reacting to the environment. See EGO-STATE DIAGNOSIS.
There are many such theories within
the diverse schools of psychology. phenomenological diagnosis of ego-
Transactional analysis, through its use states diagnosis on the basis of the
of the ego-state model, is a theory of clients report of his or her internal
personality as well as a theory of inter- states (what he or she is thinking and
personal interaction. feeling) and their resemblance to pre-
vious internal states (is this how it felt
phallic stage (psychoanalysis) the stage when you were five?).
in Freuds theory of psychosexual
development in which the child shows philosophy of transactional analysis
great interest in his penis or her cli- central to the philosophy of transac-
toris. This follows the ANAL STAGE and tional analysis is the concept of the
precedes the OEDIPAL STAGE (i.e. at about healthy life position: Im OK, Youre
three). Freuds stage terminology is OK. This means that I have accepted
sometimes used by transactional ana- myself as I am as intrinsically valuable
lysts e.g. Levin (1974). and I accept you similarly as you are.
This does not mean that I consider
phantasy (Kleinian psychoanalysis) every aspect of you or myself as entirely
unconscious images generated from satisfactory, it is an evaluation of the
the infants own feelings and percep- whole self. This corresponds closely to
tions and not necessarily having any Rogers concept of unconditional posi-
correlate in the external world (in con- tive regard. The second key concept is
trast to fantasy, which consists of rep- autonomy, being in charge of ones
resentations of the real world). own life, interacting respectfully, car-
ingly and contactfully with others but
phenomenology the phenomenological making ones own choices without
approach consists in looking at the being restrained by other people,
world from the inside (what it feels whether present in the here-and-now
like to the individual) rather than what or through internalised INTROJECTS .
90
placement
Everyone is able to think for himself or physis a drive towards wholeness and
herself and should be allowed to do health that Berne (1957, 1972) symbol-
so. Children should be encouraged to ised by a vertical arrow passing through
think and decide for themselves as far all three ego-states. This closely corre-
as they are able. Autonomy requires sponds to the self-actualising principle
clear and open communication, which of humanistic theory, implying both the
transactional analysis seeks to promote possibility of personal growth and a nat-
through its analysis of communication ural tendency to pursue it. The concept
patterns. Eric Berne wrote about derives from the ancient Greek philoso-
speaking and understanding Martian. pher Heraclitus and originally meant
Martians represent people who have change or growth that comes from the
not been initiated into the social pat- spirit within the person (Liddell and
terns of our civilisation so that they see Scott, 1935). For a discussion of this
interactions as they really are. They say concept see Clarkson (1992).
exactly what they mean as they see no
reason to do otherwise. To listen for
the Martian is to read the true message
under its social presentation. The
transactional analysis autonomy con-
cept has much in common with
Rogers congruence. Associated with
autonomy is the concept of PHYSIS, an
inner drive to wholeness that moves
the person to his or her own personal
fulfilment, which cannot be chosen for
them by anyone else. Rogers third
core condition, empathy, is not specifi-
cally addressed in the early literature
of transactional analysis although it is
implicit in it. It has always been a fea-
ture of the way most transactional ana- Figure 21 Physis illustrated as the aspiration
lysts work, and follows from the arrow.
humanistic viewpoint that underlies
the discipline. It is perhaps this gap in Piaget, Jean Swiss psychologist noted for
the literature that made it possible for his work on the cognitive development
an intrusive, over-confrontational and of children. See OBJECT PERMANENCE.
non-empathic style of doing transac-
tional analysis to flourish for a time Pig Parent a derogatory term for the neg-
among a few therapists in the 1970s. ative aspect of the Magical Parent, the
For recent work on empathy see Clark Parent in the Child ego-state. See P1
(1991). See also CORE CONDITIONS, CON-
FRONTATION. placement a period of practical, super-
vised work undertaken by a psy-
phobia an irrational fear of some object, chotherapy or counselling trainee in
creature or situation, such as a fear of an agency other than his or her train-
spiders (which in the UK are harm- ing base. Transactional analysis psy-
less) or open spaces. A phobia arises chotherapy trainees are required to
from Child CONTAMINATION of Adult. serve a placement in a psychiatric hos-
The fear in the Child ego-state is then pital or comparable institution before
experienced as if it related to current they can proceed to the Certified
reality. Transactional Analysis examination.
91
plastic strokes
sis is rooted in humanistic values. In however, rapid speech may have been
Eric Bernes symbolism, even if we are learned socially and may not be an
frogs we are capable of becoming indicator of a psychological problem.
princes and princesses. It is the
function of the transactional analysis primal wound there are four major types
therapist to facilitate this change. The of psychological damage that are likely
transactional analysis concept of PHYSIS to result from inappropriate or abusive
refers to a drive to fulfil potential. parenting. Adrienne Lee (1988b) calls
these the four primal wounds, basing
power the achievement of personal the concept on an idea of Mary
power (the ability to effect change) is Goulding. In all cases of serious psy-
essential if the client is to achieve chological disturbance one or more
AUTONOMY, which is a major aim of TA primal wounds will be identifiable in
therapy. Counsellors and psychothera- the history. The four primal wounds
pists seek to empower their clients. are:
Power in this sense is centred in the
Abandonment where the child has
person, unlike political power, which
been left unsupported because of
is centred in groups and organisations
the physical absence of the parent.
and may seek to restrict autonomy.
Non-involvement where the par-
ent was physically present but did
preconscious (psychoanalysis) the part
not make contact with the child,
of the mind that contains material
leaving him or her emotionally
which can readily become conscious
abandoned.
although it is not currently so (as
Engulfment where the parent was
opposed to the UNCONSCIOUS , whose
intrusive and did not give the child
content is very difficult to contact).
space to be himself or herself and
This term is preferred by Freudians to
to individuate. This may take many
SUBCONSCIOUS although the meaning is
forms, some clearly abusive (such
essentially the same. In transactional
as physical abuse or domineering
analysis these terms are usually avoid-
behaviour) while others at first
ed and out of awareness used
sight may appear benign (such as
instead. This does not go beyond what
over-nurturance). See SECOND-ORDER
can be observed and does not imply
SYMBIOSIS.
the existence of specific zones (pre-
Hurt which is actively abusive
conscious, unconscious) in the mind.
behaviour (physical, emotional or
sexual abuse). Often what is hap-
prejudice a judgement or opinion formed
pening is that the parent deals with
beforehand without consideration of
his or her own emotional conflicts
the facts. Prejudice is due to Parent
by PROJECTING on to the child (blam-
CONTAMINATION of the Adult ego-state. A
ing). PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION (pro-
belief in the Parent ego-state deriving
jecting into so that the other owns
from an authority figure (usually in
the projection) may also be occur-
childhood) is misperceived as valid in
ring. Other primal wounds are likely
current reality. See CONTAMINATION.
to be found with hurt (for example,
engulfment and non-involvement).
pressure of speech excessively fast
speech in which the words seem to Early identification of primal wound
tumble over each other. This probably helps the therapist or counsellor to
indicates a HURRY UP DRIVER. If severe it match his or her style to the clients
may be a sign of HYPOMANIA and there- needs and avoid re-enacting the
fore indicate MANIC-DEPRESSIVE disorder; clients major issues in the therapy.
93
primary process thinking
For example, a cool and detached style process script the characteristic process
may re-enact non-involvement while a through which the script is expressed in
very involving style may be perceived action. This is shaped by the DRIVER MES-
as threatening by a client with engulf- SAGES. These are essentially messages
ment issues. See also MODELS. about how to please the parents in
childhood which are used to generate
primary process thinking (psychoanaly- phoney (spurious) OKness in adult life
sis) Freuds concept of unconscious to counteract the negative effect of
mental activity associated with the ID. It INJUNCTIONS. Because the driver messages
is characterised by the pleasure prin- (counterinjunctions) specify behaviours
ciple (a pursuit of pleasure and avoid- that are supposed to elicit the approval
ance of pain without regard for the lim- of others (and more importantly of the
itations of reality), a disregard for space internal Parent) it is these that shape the
and time and a tendency to combine outward form of the script although the
thoughts and images (condensation) significant content of the script, which is
and to displace feelings from one per- responsible for most of the damage it
son to another. These features are causes, lies in the injunctions. As a
observable in the content of dreams. result, people with very different pathol-
This concept is useful in understand- ogy may express their scripts in similar
ing the sometimes bizarre nature of ways (employ similar defences).
Child ego-state thinking. See SECONDARY However, the underlying pathology of
PROCESS. the injunctions will affect the DEGREE of
the script (the level of damage to self
Principles of Group Treatment one of and others that occurs).
the major texts of transactional analy- Each script process type can be char-
sis. This book by Eric Berne, first pub- acterised by a Greek myth and a slogan
lished in 1966, is a major source of (Berne, 1970, 1972; Kahler, 1978). For
information on Bernes ideas about example, the process script type which
professional practice using transaction- has the Be Perfect driver message is an
al analysis, particularly as applied to Until script. People with this type of
group therapy. It also contains some scripting respond to the internal message
development of the thinking about you cant get your needs met until you
group processes, which he began in have done everything perfectly. For
THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF ORGANISA- example, they will not sit down to watch
TIONS AND GROUPS (1963). the TV until they have washed and dried
the dishes and tidied the kitchen. The cor-
process what happens in counselling or responding Greek myth is of Hercules,
psychotherapy, as opposed to what is who had to perform a long series of
discussed, which is the CONTENT . incredibly difficult tasks before he was
Usually the process is the more psy- allowed to become immortal. The seven
chologically significant. This is the process scripts are listed below with their
meaning of Bernes THIRD RULE OF COM- slogans and characteristic driver patterns.
MUNICATION.
always (why does this always happen
process model an integrative theory to me?). Try Hard.
bringing together many aspects of until (I cant do X until I have fin-
transactional analysis. It was devel- ished Y). Be Perfect.
oped by Taibi Kahler and makes use of never (I never get what I most want).
Paul Wares concept of PERSONALITY ADAP- Be Strong.
TATIONS. For a summary of his approach after (after the good times will come
see Stewart (1996b). the bad). Please.
94
Provisional Teaching and Supervising Transactional Analyst
95
psyche
98
racket also rackety
R (adjective.)
Unauthentic and manipulative. See
RACKET BEHAVIOUR and RACKET FEELING.
his or her own separate identity from that we share with others on the basis
the mother while maintaining the rela- of shared experience of the world.
tionship. According to OBJECT RELATIONS
theory this calls for a new type of rela- reality, internal (personal) our personal
tionship (relationship to the mother as experience of existence. This is no less
OBJECT ), which brings together the real than consensual reality; in fact it
childs opposing wishes for merger feels more so. My pain, my fear are
and autonomy. This is also associated uniquely part of my experience, others
with the achievement of libidinal may sympathise but they cannot feel
OBJECT CONSTANCY (the frustrating and them. In order to deal with others and
nurturant aspects of the mother are the world effectively I must be able to
recognised as derived from one per- distinguish between personal reality
son so love is able to mitigate hate). and CONSENSUAL REALITY. Failure to do so
This stage is often stormy and reach- (if I believe others can feel my pain or
es its height at age two to three, so is think my thoughts or vice versa)
often referred to as the terrible results in PSYCHOSIS.
twos. Levin (1974) identifies this
stage with the emergence of the Adult reality testing checking beliefs against
ego-state. Problems at this stage are our own perceptions and those of
associated with the establishment of others (that the world is the way we
the PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE and OBSESSIVE- think it is). This is one of the major
COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY ADAPTATIONS functions of the Adult ego-state. PSY-
(Joines, 1986). CHOSIS involves a major breakdown in
reality testing so that the clients INTER-
rationalisation a process in which a NAL REALITY is confused with CONSENSUAL
reason is found for an action after it REALITY. See Schiff et al. (1975).
has been decided on, thus justifying it
and concealing its true motivation. rebel this term is often preferred to
describe the PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY
reaction formation (psychoanalysis) ADAPTATION.
a defence in which an unacceptable
impulse is controlled by exaggerating rebellious Child a functional manifesta-
its opposite. For example, impulses tion of the Child ego-state. Usually
to behave in violent and cruel ways regarded as an aspect of the adapted
may be controlled by manifesting an Child. The rebellious Childs responses
exaggerated gentleness and solici- are determined by the parents
tude. although in a negative way i.e. the
child does the opposite of what he or
real self that part of the personality expe- she believes the parent wants him or
rienced as me. This may not be the her to do. The child has learned that
same as the part that is in control of the most effective way of obtaining
behaviour, which is known as the exec- STROKES from their parents is to oppose
utive. According to Berne (1961) the them. Often written Rebellious Child.
real self is that part of the personality See FUNCTIONAL Ego-stateS.
that has the most free energy, whereas
in the executive the sum of free energy rebirthing a therapeutic technique some-
and unbound energy is the greatest. times employed in transactional analy-
See ENERGY, CATHEXIS. sis (as well as other therapeutic modal-
ities). It involves a symbolic repetition
reality, consensual the Cathexis (Schiff of the birth experience. Therapeutic
et al., 1975) term for the view of reality aims include dealing with birth
101
rechilding
up relationships with violent part- who are placed (or by agreement place
ners). This is one of the dynamics that themselves) in our care such as chil-
lie behind the playing of GAMES. dren or clients. Even if we accept some
responsibility, we need to encourage
Rescue to do something for someone the person in our care to be as
else in a way that undermines their autonomous as he or she can within
autonomy. This use of the term is dis- the context. Attempts to shift responsi-
tinguished from legitimate acts of res- bility are usually manipulative. I only
cue (where the help is really needed) did it because of you may be accept-
by spelling it with a capital letter. able if there was clear prior agreement
Rescuing involves DISCOUNTING the but not otherwise. You made me
power of the other person to act effec- angry implies a responsibility for
tively and take charge of their own life other peoples feelings, however I felt
and the Rescuer comes from an I+U angry about what you said is likely to
position (see LIFE POSITIONS). Rescuing be a statement of fact. See I STATEMENTS.
involves an invitation into SYMBIOSIS.
review discussion of the therapy process
Rescuer role (also Rescuer) the DRAMA and what has been achieved. The THER-
TRIANGLE role, which involves inviting APY CONTRACT may make provision for
others into Rescue (the initial capital regular review sessions. Transactional
indicates that a drama triangle role is analysis is a contractual process and
being referred to and not legitimate will include provision for regular
rescue). The Rescuer is discounting review of outstanding contracts.
the supposed Victims ability to deal
with the situation himself or herself rituals a form of TIME STRUCTURING in
and is probably being grandiose about which the transactions follow an
his or her ability to solve the problem. agreed pattern so that they are highly
predictable. An example is the greeting
resolution (1) an intention to act in a ritual Hello, how are you? OK
particular way (for example, a New thanks. Rituals are safe but yield few
Years resolution). The outcome is strokes.
likely to depend on the ego-state in
which the resolution is made. Rogerian relating to the approach of the
Resolutions are often made in Child in American therapist Carl Rogers. This
response to internal pressure from therapeutic method is usually referred
Parent. Usually the Child will quickly to as client-centred or person-centred.
find a way of wriggling out of this and Rogers original term, non-directive
there will be no long-term behavioural therapy, is no longer used. From a
change. position of unconditional positive
regard the therapist facilitates the
resolution (2) the solving of a problem client in making his or her own evalua-
or group of problems or release from a tion of their situation and life process.
state of internal conflict, for example Because of its humanistic base transac-
the resolution of an IMPASSE. tional analysis shares many values with
the person-centred approach but is
responsibility transactional analysis prepared to utilise more directive
takes the philosophical position that approaches. See PERSON-CENTRED COUN-
people are responsible for their own SELLING.
lives, thinking, feelings and behaviour.
We need to accept limited responsi- role a position in relation to others
bility for those who are vulnerable or adopted temporarily or in specific con-
106
rules of communication
texts, for example mother, wife, ties are agreed as to who should be in
teacher, friend. A role provides only which ego-state). An example would be
limited opportunity to express the per- a stimulus Parent to Child responded to
sonality and may be highly circum- by Child to Parent. When illustrated, the
scribed by the expectations of others vectors of a complementary transaction
(role senders), that is playing a role run parallel.
involves not being fully AUTHENTIC. The The second rule of communication
three positions (Persecutor, Rescuer states that when a transaction is
and Victim) on the DRAMA TRIANGLE are crossed a break in communication
referred to as roles since they are all results and one or both individuals will
unauthentic. need to shift ego-states in order for
communication to be re-established. A
rubber band this describes an abrupt CROSSED TRANSACTION occurs when the
move into a Child ego-state so that one ego-state that answers is not the one
finds oneself thinking, feeling and that was addressed, i.e. the parties dis-
behaving as one did in the past, con- agree as to who should be in which ego-
tacting old beliefs and construing ones state. An example would be a transac-
experience in the old way. It is as if, as tion Adult to Adult responded to Parent
we developed, we remained con- to Child. When illustrated the vectors
nected to a point in the past by a rub- usually do not run parallel and often
ber band. This stretched as we grew cross.
but has suddenly contracted and The third rule of communication
whisked us back. This term is a states that the behavioural outcome of
description of the experience of being an ULTERIOR TRANSACTION is determined at
in TRANSFERENCE. It is usually used to the psychological and not at the social
refer to negative experiences. level. An ulterior transaction operates
at two levels simultaneously. There is a
rules of communication these rules social transaction that is the ostensible
predict the outcomes of different types meaning of the transaction and is usual-
of TRANSACTION (Berne, 1964). ly the literal meaning of the words spo-
The first rule of communication ken. This meaning is socially acceptable.
states that so long as transactions There is also a second meaning that is
remain complementary communication understood by both participants. This
can continue indefinitely. COMPLEMEN- understanding may not be fully in
TARY TRANSACTION means that the ego- awareness and certainly will not be
state that replies is the one that was acknowledged. This is the psychological
addressed, and the reply is directed to level transaction whose content is often
the ego-state that initiated (i.e. both par- not socially acceptable.
107
S
sabotage behaviours or thought patterns Schiff, Jacqui Lee transactional analyst.
that undermine the therapy process.
This is indicative of internal conflict,
the sabotage often being due to the
Child ego-state hanging on to an old
She has made major contributions to
theory and practice and, with Aaron
Schiff, was awarded the Eric Berne
Memorial Prize in 1974 for her work
and well-tried defensive strategy. on passivity and the four discounts.
She founded the Cathexis Institute
SAD see SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER. which gave its name to the Cathexis
school of transactional analysis. Her
sadness one of the FOUR AUTHENTIC FEEL- major innovation was the technique of
INGS , sadness is experienced in the REPARENTING , which she claimed was
process of mourning. It relates to the able to cure schizophrenia. As originally
loss of someone or something one has practised, this involved inviting the
been attached to and expressing the client to regress to a childhood state
feeling and having it validated by oth- and bringing him or her up again with-
ers helps in the process of letting go so in the therapists family or therapeu-
that new attachments can be made. tic community. Within this supportive
Unlike other authentic feelings, its environment there was high confronta-
time frame is the past. Although it is tion of dysfunctional behaviours. It
classified as an authentic feeling, it can was therefore a highly interventionist
be expressed unauthentically as a approach with a strong emphasis on
RACKET FEELING . Sadness should be behaviour. The level of intervention
distinguished from UNHAPPINESS and that Jacqui Schiff was using with her
DEPRESSION. clients caused concern within the
transactional analysis community
Santa Claus, waiting for passively wait- where some felt it breached the princi-
ing for some imagined future good ple of Im OK, Youre OK. This dis-
outcome, especially as a long-term agreement eventually led to a breach
strategy in SCRIPT. between her and the transactional
analysis community although the
Schiff, Aaron with Jacqui Lee Schiff joint- Cathexis school within transactional
ly received the Eric Berne Memorial analysis remains active and influential.
Scientific Award in 1974 for work on
passivity and the four discounts (Schiff Schiffian theory the body of transaction-
and Schiff, 1971). al analysis theory developed by Jacqui
108
script
Lee Schiff and her co-workers. This makes messes (problems for others)
centres around the therapeutic use of and then apologises and seeks to be
REPARENTING . Important concepts forgiven. As described it does not meet
include the FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS, SYM- all the criteria of Bernes later (1972)
BIOSIS, DISCOUNTING, the DISCOUNT MATRIX, definitions of a game.
REDEFINING and FRAME OF REFERENCE. This
constitutes one of the major theoreti- schools of transactional analysis there
cal areas of transactional analysis, are three major schools:
which is usually referred to as the
the CLASSICAL SCHOOL, representing
Cathexis school (the Schiffs called their
the work of Berne and those closely
organisation the Cathexis Institute).
associated with him (e.g. Steiner);
The major source of information on
the REDECISION SCHOOL, based on the
this approach is The Cathexis Reader:
work of Robert and Mary Goulding;
Transactional Analysis Treatment of
the CATHEXIS (or Schiffian) school
Psychosis (Schiff et al., 1975).
based on the work of Jacqui Schiff
and co-workers. See separate entries.
schizoid personality adaptation a pat-
tern of personality organisation charac- A new school is emerging that seeks to
terised by passivity, withdrawal and a integrate transactional analysis with cer-
separation of feeling and thinking. The tain aspects of psychoanalytic thinking.
schizoid client has suffered a failure in This is associated with transactional ana-
contact by the caretaker in early child- lysts such as Moiso and Erskine. Stewart
hood resulting in withdrawal and get- (1996a) has suggested the name
ting needs met in fantasy. Often there psychoanalytic renaissance for this.
was SECOND-ORDER SYMBIOSIS with the
mother. They usually have a rich fantasy script an unconscious life pattern based
life so may be highly creative. Their WARE on early decisions made, usually out of
SEQUENCE is behaviour (passive), think- awareness, in childhood. This may
ing, feeling, so feeling is doubly defend- take many years or even a lifetime to
ed. Feelings are often dealt with mainly run its course. The final outcome
in fantasy (for example, writing love resulting from the script process (e.g.
poems instead of relating to a partner). isolation) is called the PAYOFF. This is
also considered to arise from early
schizophrenia a serious mental illness decisions. The term payoff suggests
characterised by acute psychotic that this endpoint in some ways solves
episodes and disturbances of thought a life problem in accordance with the
and perception. It is uncertain how far logic of the Child and that this solu-
it is caused by psychological factors or tion acts as a motivator (script moves
disturbances of brain biochemistry. towards the payoff, which is a teleolog-
Both may be involved. The concept of ical view) or that the payoff brings
schizophrenia has been criticised for other benefits (see SECONDARY GAIN). An
being over-inclusive and in fact may alternative formulation is to see script
signify a group of disorders. The as representing a TRANSFERENTIAL replay
SCHIFFS (Cathexis school) treated schiz- of unresolved life issues, the drama
ophrenics using a radical REPARENTING being cast from people currently avail-
approach for which they claimed a able who transferentially represent
high level of success. See Schiff and significant figures in the past. It is
Day (1970). possible for issues to be worked
through in this way but usually the
Schlemiel a game described by Berne amount of DISCOUNTING of current reality
(1964) in which the player repeatedly and PROJECTING of issues from the past
109
script apparatus
results in a replay of the original out- script belief a belief about self, others
come thus reinforcing script. or the world arrived at in childhood
There has been debate as to whether in an attempt to deal with unfinished
there can be a positive script. Uncon- business (usually feelings that have
scious patterns may be useful but will not been appropriately responded to)
always suffer the disadvantage that they by explaining away (making cogni-
cannot readily be changed to adjust to tive closure). Script beliefs are an
current reality. Essentially all script important element in the SCRIPT
behaviours involve discounting. Stewart ( RACKET ) system of Erskine and
and Joines (1987) define script as that Zalcman (1979).
part of the FRAME OF REFERENCE that
involves discounting. See SCRIPT APPARA- script diagrams the two main ways of
TUS, SCRIPT MATRIX, SCRIPT SYSTEM, PROCESS illustrating the script are Steiners
SCRIPT, EARLY LIFE DECISION. SCRIPT MATRIX and the RACKET SYSTEM
(sometimes called the SCRIPT SYSTEM) of
script apparatus the elements which Erskine and Zalcman (1979).
make up the script. These include
INJUNCTIONS, COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, PRO- script matrix a diagram showing how a
GRAM, PERMISSIONS AND EARLY LIFE DECISIONS. client received his or her INJUNCTIONS,
COUNTERINJUNCTIONS and PROGRAM MES-
script backlash after a movement out SAGES from parents ego-states. In
of script the client may experience a Steiners (1966) original model the
severe reaction of anxiety, guilt etc. script is shown as held in all three ego-
This may be seen in terms of the states of the client. Woollams and
Parent punishing the Child for its Brown (1978) hold that the script is
transgression. It is important that suf- held in the Child and is distributed
ficient PROTECTION is available from the between the three second-order ego-
therapist to deal with this if it occurs. states P1, A1 and C1.
Figure 24 Script matrix Woollams and Brown (Woollams and Brown, 1978).
script sign a behaviour which indicates sculpting a technique in which the client
that a person is in their script. This is is invited to generate a pattern in the
often a characteristic gesture, expres- environment that symbolises their
sion posture or movement of some internal state. In a group this may
kind but also includes words, paralin- involve getting the group members to
guistic signals such as tone of voice arrange themselves in a pattern and in
and even bodily states such as postures that symbolise the clients
headaches. (Also called script signal.) feelings about them (their distance,
their warmth or threatening quality) or
script system an alternative name for the about members of the clients family of
RACKET SYSTEM. origin or other important others that
111
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
they represent. The configuration may at each other, although not to each
then be worked on by asking them to other. See RULES OF COMMUNICATION
change position. Inanimate objects can
be used in the same way. This tech-
nique enables unacknowledged
(unconscious) thoughts and feelings to
be projected and then dealt with sym-
bolically. This technique, which is
essentially a development of PSYCHO-
DRAMA, is often employed by transac-
tional analysts and facilitates contact
with the Child ego-state.
ego-states in transactional analysis do level body parts may be cut off (e.g.
not correspond to the self although Van Goghs ear).
they provide descriptions of a part of
the psychic apparatus where the self-regard see SELF-ESTEEM.
experience of selfhood is manifested.
The concept of self is subjective (phe- self-reparenting a method developed by
nomenological) whereas these are the transactional analyst Muriel James
objective descriptions. Berne (1961) (1974), for which she received the Eric
pointed out that there may be a sepa- Berne Memorial Scientific Award in
ration between that which is (the self) 1983. The method involves generating
and that which acts (the executive). In new Parent content to supplement or
this case the self may perceive the replace existing defective Parent. The
action as out of character and alien Adult is actively involved in doing this
(EGO DYSTONIC). Berne explained this in for the self, drawing on internal
terms of the distribution of differ- sources such as ideas, decisions, mem-
ent types of ENERGY between the ego- ories of positive Parent figures, etc.
states. This can be done with the guidance of
the therapist but the therapist does
self-esteem positive self-valuation. This not take on the parent role as in the
is enhanced by being valued (receiving other forms of REPARENTING.
positive STROKING, especially uncondi-
tional stroking, that is stroking for self-sabotage acting, usually in therapy
being). It is damaged by unjust criti- and out of awareness, to undermine
cism, the negative projections of ones own endeavours. The SCRIPT has
others and being ignored. Low self- been elaborated in the Child ego-state
esteem is usually associated with a in an attempt to make his or her world
belief, often rooted in childhood experi- safe and satisfy STROKING needs. It there-
ences, that the person has only a condi- fore has a defensive function although it
tional right to exist and be himself or is in fact damaging as it is based on mis-
herself (Dont Exist, Dont Be You and information, archaic information or a
Dont Be Important INJUNCTIONS defend- confused understanding of reality.
ed by COMPOUND DECISIONS). For a trans- However, to the Child ego-state it is
actional analysis approach to working essential for safety or even survival.
with self-esteem issues, see Clark (1978). Psychotherapy, by challenging the script,
makes the Child feel unsafe and so
self-fulfilling prophecy action in rela- tends to set up internal conflict that may
tion to an imagined future outcome lead to self-sabotage. See also IMPASSE.
that makes the outcome more proba-
ble (e.g. being hostile to people who self-talk sub-vocal or inaudible statements
we fear may reject us). made to the self that influence behav-
iour. From a transactional analysis
self-harm damage to the body. This may standpoint this may be regarded as an
include SUBSTANCE ABUSE, SELF-MUTILATION intervention in the INTERNAL DIALOGUE
and SUICIDE . Self-harm is one of the between ego-states, the voicing of one
three ESCAPE HATCHES. of the participants serving to reinforce
it. Positively, the self-talk may represent
self-mutilation this commonly takes the Adult thinking or Parent support or
form of cutting the arms and is often information. However, it may be a neg-
seen in seriously disturbed clients. It is ative Parent voice (youve done it
likely to indicate a powerful Dont again!). Self-talk can also be used
Exist injunction. At its most serious actively, e.g. giving oneself AFFIRMATIONS.
113
separation anxiety
separation anxiety anxiety derived origi- social control a stage early in therapy in
nally from interruption in the care- which sufficient insight has been
givers contact with the child, which achieved for inappropriate behaviours
interfered with the babys attachment to to be identified and avoided and more
the mother or caregiver and conse- appropriate behaviours chosen. This
quently its sense of security. In Bowlbys will occur when substantial DECONTAMI-
(1969) view this forms the basis for all NATION of Adult has been achieved,
later anxieties relating to separations. however no changes will have
occurred in Child or Parent so symp-
Sex in Human Loving this book by Eric toms will not have been relieved. See
Berne was published in the year of his STAGES OF THERAPY.
death (1970). In his characteristic
lucid, humorous and incisive style he social level the manifest message of an
looks at human sexual relationships in ulterior transaction (what appears to
terms of transactional analysis theory. be being said) is the social level mes-
sage. A second message is being trans-
shame self-judgement for some public mitted at the psychological level and it
display of inadequacy or immorality is this that decides the outcome of the
and the emotional state that accompa- transaction. See TRANSACTION, ULTERIOR.
nies this. There is a social dimension
to shame that may be lacking in guilt; social psychiatry Eric Berne chose the
it involves the imagined condemnation title San Francisco Social Psychiatry
of an audience. Shaming is often used Seminars for the meeting of profes-
by parents to control children and in sionals that took place at his home
the experience of shame the Parent every Tuesday evening from 1958.
ego-state is attacking the Child in the Here many of the ideas of transactional
INTERNAL DIALOGUE in a way that often analysis were burnished and devel-
closely parallels the original family oped. The term social psychiatry
process. In accepting shaming the derives from Harry Stack Sullivan
child is colluding in the parents (1953) who was one of the first people
process of negative projection in an to place psychiatric problems in a
attempt to obtain love. Shame under- social psychological framework, as
mines the individual and does not sup- being located not solely in the individ-
port positive change, so it is regarded ual but also in his or her relationship
as a RACKET FEELING. See Erskine (1994), with society. A one-person psychology
English (1994) and Cornell (1994). such as drive theory psychoanalysis
ignores an important part of the sys-
should statements a statement imply- tem. Transactional analysis, with its
ing a moral imperative to act in a cer- ability to conceptualise and analyse
tain way. This usually indicates that the transactions between individuals is
Parent ego-state is active. ideally equipped to develop this
approach.
Sigmund, Eric received an Eric Berne
Memorial Scientific Award jointly with soft closure see ESCAPE HATCHES.
Ken Mellor in 1980 for his work on DIS-
COUNTING and REDEFINING (Mellor and somatic relating to the body. See also PSY-
Sigmund 1975a, 1975b). CHOSOMATIC.
social anxiety anxiety experienced in somatic Child the Child in the Child ego-
social situations associated with feel- state or C1. So called because the young
ings of shyness and embarrassment. child experiences the world mainly
114
stages of therapy
cure. It will remain stable as long as tracting and the way counsellors repre-
the client can keep the therapist sents themselves and what they can
around in his or her head, certainly offer, both within the therapeutic rela-
for the duration of therapy and per- tionship and in advertising. See
haps beyond if the new parent can Appendix 3.
be as firmly retained as the old one.
However, there is the risk of lapsing Steiner, Claude transactional analyst. A
back into script. close associate of Eric Berne, Claude
4. In the fourth and final stage the Steiner had a major influence on the
client is assisted in making funda- development of transactional analysis
mental changes in the Child ego- and his work is included in the Classic
state with Adult support. The client School. He is best known for develop-
is thus able to move permanently ing script theory, in particular the
out of script. In his earlier writing SCRIPT MATRIX. Other important contri-
Berne called this psychoanalytic butions to transactional analysis include
cure but later, with the development his work on CONTRACTING and the
of life script theory, he renamed it STROKE ECONOMY . He was given Eric
script cure. Berne Memorial Scientific Awards in
1971 (script matrix) and again in 1980
There are a number of other systems (stroke economy). He is the author of
for describing the stages of therapeutic a number of important books and
change, notably those of Erskine articles on transactional analysis
(1973) and Woollams and Brown including Games Alcoholics Play
(1978). (1971) and Scripts People Live (1974).
stamps (also trading stamps) feelings
stimulus hunger the need for mental
that are held so that they can be used
and physical stimulation. Such stimula-
to manipulate others. Stamps are col-
tion appears to be essential for the
lected by indulging in RACKET BEHAVIOURS
normal development and psychologi-
that invite others into treating us in a
cal health of all mammals. Eric Berne
certain way (e.g. inviting us into anger
(1964) suggested that in human beings
so that we can collect an anger stamp).
Stamps are later used to achieve a this is manifested primarily as a
scripty outcome, which the collected hunger for recognition by others
stamps justify. This is called cashing (RECOGNITION HUNGER). He called acts of
in the stamps, for example a collec- recognition STROKES since in infants
storming and performing. A further losing ones job) or internal (e.g. psy-
stage in which the group focuses on its chological or physical problems) and
termination has been called mourn- the response to stress may occur at
ing by Lacousiere (1980). Clarkson either or both levels (e.g. an external
(1992) has integrated Tuckmans theo- stressor may result in depression and
ries with those of Berne (1963, 1966). eczema).
She identifies Tuckmans storming
stage with Bernes adapted group stress scale Woollams and Brown
imago. See STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT. (1978) developed a scale for express-
ing levels of psychological stress.
story telling allowing the client to tell They suggest that REDECISIONS are
his or her story is an important part rarely complete but can be seen in
of psychotherapy, giving valuable terms of the protection that they offer
script information and helping the against a script element such as an
client to feel heard and validated by INJUNCTION becoming active under
the therapist. Although it is important stress. The more profound the redeci-
for the client to feel heard, exhaustive sion the greater will be the level of
story telling is likely to mean that the stress necessary before the injunction
therapist and client are playing the will become active.
GAME of Archeology. See FLIGHT INTO HIS-
TORY . One way of constraining the stroke a unit of recognition, so called
process of telling the life history is to because the human infant first received
use a SCRIPT QUESTIONNAIRE. Imaginative this mainly through touch. A stroke can
story telling, in which the client is be a smile, a phrase of praise or criti-
invited to make up a story, can be cism or another of the numerous social
used to access script (unconscious) signals which humans give each other.
material that will be expressed sym- Strokes can be positive (well done),
bolically. Therapeutic interventions negative (you loused that up), condi-
can be made at the symbolic level by tional (I like you when you smile like
inviting the client to change the story. that) or unconditional (I hate you).
Another approach is for the client and They can also be verbal or non-verbal.
therapist to create the story jointly, Combining these three categories, there
the therapist making a therapeutic are eight types of stroke.
response to what the client presents
while remaining within the symbolic stroke bank positive strokes (such as
frame of the story. praise) can be stored in memory and
recalled when stroke deprived. This is
strategy in transactional analysis TREAT- called using a stroke bank.
MENT PLANNING . This term signifies a
plan for achieving a therapeutic objec- stroke economy Steiner (1974) suggest-
tive. ed that cultural patterns encourage
parents to create a stroke shortage for
stress a situation in which an increased children. This raises the value of the
demand is being placed on the adjust- strokes they supply and therefore
ment systems of the person. Stress
makes the children more controllable.
that does not exceed an individuals
He saw this shortage economy as
adjustment capacity will not be harm-
being sustained through five restrictive
ful and may even be perceived as
rules about stroking:
pleasantly stimulating because it satis-
fies STIMULUS HUNGER . Stress may be Dont give strokes when you have
due to external circumstances (e.g. them to give.
117
stroke filter
Dont ask for strokes when you need shows the functions associated with
them. each ego-state and does not suggest
Dont accept strokes if you want that each function is associated with a
them. structural element, its conceptual
Dont reject strokes when you dont framework being behavioural rather
want them. than intrapsychic. See EGO-STATES, SEC-
Dont give yourself strokes. OND-ORDER ANALYSIS OF EGO-STATES.
Stupid a GAME in which individuals obtain Some degree of splitting into discrete
strokes by inviting others to think for intrapsychic structures (e.g. ego-states)
them and criticise them thus the initia- is universal. The term sub-personality
tor of the game is able to achieve SYM- is usually reserved for situations in
BIOSIS from a Child position. which the splitting is marked.
Accounts of multiple personality disor-
subconscious the part of the mind that der (MPD) suggest that this represents
contains material that is not currently an extreme condition in which sub-
conscious. It often signifies that part of personalities are so deeply split that
the mind that, although not currently they manifest separately and some-
conscious, can become so, thus corre- times seem to be unaware of each
sponding to the Freudian concept of others existence.
the preconscious. Transactional ana-
lysts may also use these terms but usu- substance abuse the misuse of chemical
ally prefer to talk of psychological substances such as alcohol or non-pre-
material being in or out of awareness, scribed drugs to produce psychologi-
using a metaphor of a process, aware- cal changes. Like psychological
ness, which is necessary for conscious- defences, drugs are used to control
ness, rather than a place in the mind anxiety arising from unresolved inter-
(subconscious, unconscious) from nal conflicts. Drug misuse therefore
which material must be retrieved. constitutes a manifestation of SCRIPT.
Steiner (1971) writes about the signifi-
subjectivity the state of being a subject cance of GAMES in maintaining sub-
relating to others or OBJECTS from a stance misuse by alcoholics.
unique personal viewpoint. Our own
personal world of experiences, feelings suicide killing oneself. One of the three
and ideas. This is more real to us (that ESCAPE HATCHES. Suicide results when a
is it impinges on us more strongly) than Dont Exist INJUNCTION is insufficiently
the experiences of others or statements defended. This defence may be at two
about what is held to be objectively levels: (1) by a counterinjunction such
real (e.g. scientific knowledge). We as Please Others leading to a com-
need to be in touch with our own sub- pound decision I can exist as long as I
jective world but to withdraw too far please others; (2) by another injunc-
into it would be to lose contact with tion such as Dont Be Close leading to
the world we share with others and the compound decision I can exist as
which impinges on our own bodies, long as I dont get close. These
which are a part of that external world. defences may be disturbed by outside
Psychosis represents the extreme point events (e.g. a Please Others driver may
of such withdrawal. Transactional cease to provide protection if the client
analysis aims to be a two-person psy- experiences a relationship failure and
chology that can integrate the subjec- so feels that they are failing to please a
tive and objective views through its significant other). The defences may
understanding of the connections also be disturbed by intrapsychic
between observable behaviours (e.g. change; therapy itself may disturb the
SCRIPT SIGNS, behavioural manifestations defensive system, so adequate PROTEC-
of ego-states) and subjective mental TION must be provided for the client
processes. See also INTERSUBJECTIVITY. before major change is initiated and
this must include escape-hatch closure.
sub-personality a semi-autonomous part
of the personality resulting from the superego (psychoanalysis) an intrapsy-
use of the defence of DISSOCIATION . chic structure (mental organ) that reg-
119
supervision
ulates and criticises the ego. In Freuds sor will also be concerned with the
original formulation the ego is in the effectiveness of the therapists work,
unenviable position of having to satisfy use of theory and specific difficulties
the demands of the ID , placate the he or she has encountered, as well as
superego and also deal with the con- his or her professional development.
straints of exterior reality. Tran- The process provides protection for
sactional analysis sees the functions of the client and also for the professional
the superego as manifesting through position of the therapist.
the Parent ego-state. This contains
introjects of specific parent figures that sweatshirt self presentation. People
have been experienced by the client. An behave as if they were wearing sweat-
objection to this view is that the inter- shirts with messages on the front and
nal Parent sometimes manifests as more back. The message on the front is the
critical and punishing than any histori- way the person habitually presents him-
cal parent figure. This is explained in self or herself while on the back is the
terms of two Parent ego-states. An earli- underlying psychological message. Thus
er version is within the Child ego-state someone who avoids longed for contact
(P1) and is largely the creation of child because they fear rejection might have
PHANTASY and also incorporates early on the front keep your distance and on
experiences in which the child saw the the back but dont leave me.
parent as enormously powerful (magi-
cal Parent) and potentially threatening. switch the point in a GAME at which DRAMA
This early Parent may be split into ide- TRIANGLE positions are switched. See
alised and negative forms, sometimes FORMULA G.
referred to as the Fairy Godmother and
the Pig or Witch Parents. This theoreti- symbiosis (Cathexis school) Symbiosis
cal position is reminiscent of the occurs when two individuals behave as
Kleinian view. Unlike the superego, the through they constituted a single per-
Parent ego-state may contain positive son. Each person in a symbiosis is DIS-
and supportive as well as critical COUNTING certain ego-states so that only
aspects of the historical parent. See also one Parent, Adult and Child ego state
SPLITTING. is functioning in the combination.
TEW see TRAINING ENDORSEMENT WORKSHOP. states. The result is a model of the
individual in a social context that can
Thanatos (psychoanalysis) the death take account of the dynamics of the
instinct. Referred to by Berne (1957) whole system. A change in an individ-
and possibly an influence on his more ual will result in changed behaviours,
pessimistic thinking about SCRIPT. See which will elicit changed behaviours
LIBIDO. from others and these will impact on
the individual. Through their ability to
The Mind in Action Eric Bernes first model the whole interpersonal system
book (Berne, 1947) offering an acces- the theories of transactional analysis
sible approach to psychoanalytic theory. are able to offer options for interven-
The seeds of transactional analysis tion at many points within it.
were beginning to sprout but this was
not yet a book on transactional analy- therapeutic alliance (also called the
sis. It was subsequently reissued in an working alliance) the relationship
expanded and revised form and incor- between therapist and client, which
porating a substantial amount of trans- serves to maximise the effectiveness of
actional analysis under the title A LAY- the therapeutic process. The therapeu-
MANS GUIDE TO PSYCHIATRY AND PSYCHO- tic alliance comprises the three
ANALYSIS (Berne, 1957). A further domains of bonds, goals and tasks. In
revised edition was published under transactional analysis the OK:OK posi-
the same title with contributions from tion and the contractual process are
other transactional analysts (Berne, key aspects of the therapeutic alliance.
1967). See also EMPATHY, INTERSUBJECTIVITY.
directed at the professional, but light- someone else). This is usually fol-
ened by Bernes lucid, vivid and at lowed by a TRANSACTIONAL RESPONSE.
times humorous style. Regrettably,
transactional analysis has become best transaction a transaction consists of a
known through Bernes other writings, transactional stimulus from one per-
none of which contains such a com- son to another (e.g. the first person
prehensive treatment of transactional asks a question) followed by a transac-
analysis theory. tional response (e.g. the second per-
son replies). Berne (1961) described
transactional analysis, history of see the transaction as the unit of social
HISTORY OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS. intercourse.
yet conceived as a person) that trans- will make checks on the clients agree-
forms self-experience (e.g. by giving ment. See CONTRACT.
comfort). This knowing is more exis-
tential than representational. The treatment planning the process of plan-
mother is experienced as a process ning a treatment direction in psy-
rather than known as a person. There chotherapy or counselling. In doing
are parallels in the process of therapy this it is necessary to take account of
in which the therapist also may trans- the CONTRACT and the DIAGNOSIS.
form the clients self-experience. The
term may be generalised to any object, troll Parent another name for the nega-
person or event that is sought out and tive aspect of the Parent in Child (P1).
used as a transformer of self-experi- This is also referred to as the witch
ence. Parent, the pig Parent, ogre Parent or
the electrode.
transitional object a concept used by
the object relations theorist Donald Try Hard one of the five DRIVERS. When in
Try Hard, the person is in SCRIPT, seek-
Winnicott (1951). An object such as a
ing approval from the internal Parent
doll, teddy bear or piece of cloth that a
or some person on whom the Parent
child treasures and uses as a com- has been projected. This approval is
forter. This seems to function as a link for effort rather than achievement so
between the child and another person people in Try Hard tend to do things
(usually the mother) and helps the the hard way and often fail.
child to make the transition from
dependency to a more independent TSTA teaching and supervising transac-
position. tional analyst. A transactional analyst
who is qualified to train and supervise
trauma a damaging experience or set of provisional teaching and supervising
experiences, particularly as the cause transactional analysts (PTSTA).
of psychological problems.
Tuckmans stages of group develop-
treatment contract the agreements made ment see GROUPS, STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.
between the therapist or counsellor
two-chair work the client is invited to
and his or her client concerning the
imagine another person (or sometimes
details of treatment. Transactional
a part of himself or herself) in another
analysis is a contractual technique. This
chair and to talk to this person. The
means that everything that takes place client may also sit in the other chair and
is agreed. It does not necessarily mean speak as the other person. This enables
that it is agreed a long time in advance. something that is internal, such as a
There will be an overall contract that conception of a significant person
will specify outcomes. This may be (INTROJECT), to be externalised and dealt
quite general at first, becoming clearer with by a process of PROJECTION. This
as the work proceeds. There will also technique derives from GESTALT THERAPY.
be a contracting process in each session It is extensively used in transactional
to decide a session contract and within analysis, often as part of redecision
the process of the session the therapist therapy. See REDECISION SCHOOL.
129
U
UKCP (United Kingdom Council for
Psychotherapy) the major governing
body for psychotherapy in the UK,
which operates a voluntary system of
registration for psychotherapists.
Training bodies are assessed by a
process of peer review and if they
reach the standards laid down by the
UKCP they are granted full membership.
Trainees of member organisations
are placed on the register when they
qualify. The UK transactional analysis
organisation, the Institute of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mem-
ber of UKCP. As a result clinical certified
transactional analysts become UKCP reg-
istered psychotherapists. Figure 31 An ulterior transaction (duplex).
them. This does not mean uncondi- the FOUR AUTHENTIC FEELINGS .
tional acceptance of their behaviour. Unhappiness can be a consequence of
This concept is similar to IM OK, YOURE real sources of distress but it may also
OK and the client-centred approach has be a RACKET FEELING.
been an influence on the way many
transactional analysts practise. United Kingdom Council for
Psychotherapy see UKCP.
unconditioned reflex (behaviourism) a
reflex (automatic response) that is not unipolar affective disorder an emotion-
the result of conditioning (training), al disorder characterised by a stable
such as salivating at the sight of food. emotional state, which is usually
depression. This contrasts with bipolar
unconscious (psychoanalysis) in classi- emotional disorder (often referred to
cal Freudian theory, a zone of the as manic depressive illness) in which
mind whose content is usually inacces- there are wide mood swings between
sible. Elements of the ego and super- depression and elation (hypomania or
ego may be unconscious but the major mania). Cyclothymia is a condition
content of the unconscious is instinc- marked by less severe swings of mood.
tual energy associated with the ID as These are the classifications of affective
well as disturbing material repressed disorders used in the DSM-IV (a diagnos-
from the conscious mind. It has no tic system often used in the certified
sense of time or consistency (PRIMARY transactional analyst examination). See
PROCESS THINKING). The term has been also DEPRESSION.
little used in transactional analysis
although certain concepts (injunc- unthought known a spontaneous mani-
tions, the psychological messages of festation of a past being-state possibly as
ulterior transactions etc.) might be a mood (Bollas, 1987). In transactional
seen as referring to unconscious struc- analysis terms this describes one of the
tures. Instead, a distinction is often ways the Child ego-state may be experi-
made between what is in awareness or enced. See also EXPERIENTIAL MEMORY.
out of awareness. This classifies the
availability of the mental material with- Until script a process script pattern char-
out making assumptions about the acterised by a tendency to defer
structure of the mind. actions (in particular actions that yield
satisfaction) until some task has been
unfinished business unresolved issues performed e.g. not watching television
from the past that are at the root of until the dishes have been washed.
current emotional or behavioural diffi- People with the Until script have Be
culties. This term, originating in Perfect as a principal DRIVER and conse-
GESTALT, is often used in transactional quently often have the obsessive com-
analysis. pulsive (workaholic) PERSONALITY ADAPTA-
TION.
unhappiness a generalised feeling of
psychological discomfort that may Uproar a GAME in which a conflict is
involve a mixture of emotions and staged to avoid needing to deal with
experiences. These may include sad- feelings that are perceived as unac-
ness but unhappiness is not to be ceptable. Berne saw the origins of the
equated with sadness, which is one of game as oedipal.
131
V
values of transactional analysis see
LOSOPHY OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS.
132
W
Ware Sequence see PERSONALITY ADAPTATION. Wooden Leg a GAME initiated from Victim
133
Y
Yes But also known as Why Dont You you statements you statements often
(Yes But). A GAME in which help (usual-
ly advice) is sought but everything that
is offered is rejected as unsuitable so
that the other party who takes the
seek to place responsibility for feelings
etc. on the other party (for example,
you made me angry). Shifting to I
statements clarifies the process. I feel
Rescuer role is invited into Victim. The angry about what you said owns the
game that usually pairs with this is IM feeling and opens up the questions of
ONLY TRYING TO HELP YOU. whether anger is an appropriate
response to what has occurred and
You Cant Make Me a GAME initiated what is wanted from the other person.
from a rebellious Victim position and You statements are often indicative of
inviting persecution. Be Strong DRIVER BEHAVIOUR.
134
Z
Zalcman, Marilyn transactional analyst.
She received the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award in 1982 jointly with
RICHARD ERSKINE for their work in devel-
oping the RACKET SYSTEM (Erskine and
Zalcman, 1979). She now conducts
training in the US and Europe. For
her later thinking on the racket sys-
tem and racket analysis see Zalcman
(1990).
135
This page intentionally left blank
Appendix 1:
Reading list
Starting
The TA literature covers a wide range but, because it is a central principle of TA to max-
imise accessibility, most of it can be attempted once a basic understanding of theory has
been obtained. For those with a knowledge of psychology or counselling Bernes
Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy (1961) is a good stating point. It is demanding
but lucid and contains the most complete exposition of transactional analysis theory in
the literature. For those with less background in the field, Born to Win by Muriel James
and Dorothy Jongeward (1971) is easy to read. TA Today by Ian Stewart and Vann Joines
(1987) is a recent addition to the literature which is accessible to the beginner but devel-
ops theory up to intermediate level. Ian Stewarts Transactional Analysis Counselling in
Action (Stewart, 1989) offers a clear and accessible introduction to the use of transac-
tional analysis in counselling and his Eric Berne (Stewart, 1992) provides an excellent
historical and theoretical overview of transactional analysis.
The Structure and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups (1963). Contains little
transactional analysis although it is an important contribution to group theory.
Games People Play (1964). Contains important ideas but games theory has dated.
What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (1972). Bernes last book containing impor-
tant ideas, particularly about script theory. It has Bernes characteristic, accessible style
and is aimed at both a popular and a professional audience. It was edited after his
death and would have been crisper and briefer had he lived.
137
Appendix 1
Intuition and Ego States (1977). A compilation of Bernes professional papers pub-
lished between 1949 and 1962 as he developed transactional analysis.
The Cathexis Reader (1975) Jacqui Lee Schiff et al. A major work of the cathexis
school.
TA The State of the Art (1984). Edited by Erika Stern. A collection of intermediate to
advanced papers originating in Europe.
Transactional Analysis for Trainers (1992). Julie Hay. Transactional analysis from
the viewpoint of the organisational special field.
138
Appendix 2:
Winners of the Eric Berne
Memorial Award
The Eric Berne Memorial Scientific Award was established in 1971 to honour and per-
petuate the memory of Eric Bernes scientific contributions. It was to be given annually
to the originator of a new scientific concept in transactional analysis.
In 1990, the ITAA Board of Trustees decided to change the title and scope of the
Award. It is now known as the Eric Berne Memorial Award in Transactional Analysis.
The Award is given annually for published contributions to transactional analysis theo-
ry or practice, or for the integration or comparison of transactional analysis theory or
practice with other therapeutic modalities. The winner(s) of the Award is (are) chosen
by a committee appointed by the ITAA Board of Trustees.
A chronological list of winners of the Award for the years 197195 follows, together
with references to the works for which they received their awards.
1971
Claude Steiner, SCRIPT MATRIX . Steiner, C. (1966) Script and counterscript.
Transactional Analysis Bulletin 5(18), 1335.
1972
Steven Karpman, DRAMA TRIANGLE. Karpman, S. (1968) Fairy tales and script drama analy-
sis. Transactional Analysis Bulletin 7(26), 3943.
1973
John Dusay, EGOGRAMS. Dusay, J. (1972) Egograms and the constancy hypothesis.
Transactional Analysis Journal 2(3), l3742.
1974
Aaron Schiff and Jacqui Schiff, PASSIVITY AND THE FOUR DISCOUNTS. Schiff, A. and Schiff, J.
(1971) Passivity. Transactional Analysis Journal 1(1), 718.
1975
Robert Goulding and Mary Goulding, REDECISION AND TWELVE INJUNCTIONS. Goulding, R.
and Goulding, M. (1972) New directions in transactional analysis. In Sager and
Kaplan (eds) Progress in Group and Family Therapy, pp. 10534. New York:
Brunner/Mazel; and (1976) Injunctions, decisions and redecisions. Transactional
Analysis Journal 6(1), 418.
139
Appendix 2
1976
Pat Crossman, PROTECTION . Crossman, P. (1966) Permission and protection.
Transactional Analysis Bulletin 5(19), 1524.
1977
Taibi Kahler, MINISCRIPT AND FIVE DRIVERS. Kahler, T. (1974) The miniscript. Transactional
Analysis Journal 4(1), 2642.
1978
Fanita English, RACKETS AND REAL FEELINGS: THE SUBSTITUTION FACTOR. English, F. (1971) The
substitution factor: rackets and real feelings. Transactional Analysis Journal 1(4),
22530; and (1972) Rackets and real feelings, Part II. Transactional Analysis
Journal 2(1), 235.
1979
Stephen Karpman, OPTIONS. Karpman, S. (1971) Options. Transactional Analysis
Journal 1(1), 7987.
1981
Franklin H. Ernst, Jr., THE OK CORRAL. Ernst, F. (1971) The OK corral: the grid for get-on-
with. Transactional Analysis Journal 1(4), 23140.
1982
Richard Erskine and Marilyn Zalcman, RACKET SYSTEM AND RACKET ANALYSIS. Erskine, R. and
Zalcman, M. (1979) The racket system: a model for racket analysis. Transactional
Analysis Journal 9(1), 519.
1983
Muriel James, SELF-REPARENTING. James, M. (1974) Self-reparenting: theory and process.
Transactional Analysis Journal 4(3), 329.
1984
Pam Levin, DEVELOPMENT CYCLE . Levin, P. (1982) The cycle of development.
Transactional Analysis Journal 12(2), 12939.
1985, 1986
Not awarded.
1987
Carlo Moiso, EGO STATES AND TRANSFERENCE. Moiso, C. (1985) Ego states and transference.
Transactional Analysis Journal 15(3), 194201.
1988 to 1993
Not awarded.
140
Appendix 2
141
Appendix 3:
Codes of ethics
Appendix 3 contains the codes of ethics of the Institute of Transactional Analysis (ITA),
the European Association for Transactional Analysis (EATA) and the International
Association for Transactional Analysis (ITAA).
1. An ITA member acknowledges the dignity of all humanity; members of the ITA are
expected to conduct themselves in such a way that they promote equal opportuni-
ties for all.
2. Members of the ITA shall in their public statements, whether written or verbal,
speak with respect and with the intent of furthering professional standing, bearing
in mind their responsibility as representatives of the ITA and Transactional Analysis.
142
Appendix 3
3. It is the primary protective responsibility of members of the ITA to provide their best
possible services to the client and to act in such a way as to cause no avoidable harm
to any client.
4. Members of the ITA are committed to develop in their work with clients, an aware-
ness of functioning from a position of dignity, autonomy and personal responsibility.
5. The ethical practice of Transactional Analysis involves entering an informed contrac-
tual relationship with the client, which the client as well as the ITA member should
have the competence and intent to fulfil. When a client is unable or unwilling to act
responsibly within this contractual relationship, the ITA member shall resolve this
relationship in such a way as to minimise any harm to the client.
6. A member of the ITA will not exploit a client in any manner, including, but not limit-
ed to financial and sexual matters. Sexual relations between an ITA member and a
client are prohibited.
7. Members of the ITA will not enter into or maintain a professional contract where
other activities or relationships between an ITA member and a client may jeopardise
the professional contract.
8. The professional relationship between a member of the ITA and a client is defined by
the contract, and that professional relationship ends with the termination of the con-
tract. However certain professional responsibilities continue beyond the termination
of the contract. They include but are not limited to the following:
9. Contracts with clients shall be explicit regarding fees, payment schedule, holidays,
cancellation of sessions by client or practitioner, and frequency of sessions. The
member shall make it clear whether the contract with the client is for therapy, train-
ing, supervision, consultancy or some other service. The length of the professional
work, the methods utilised, transfers of clients and termination shall be discussed
with clients and mutual agreement sought.
10. Members of the ITA will operate and conduct services to clients in compliance with
the laws of the country in which they reside and work.
11. In establishing a professional relationship, members of the ITA assume responsibility
for providing a suitable environment, including but not limited to such things as
specifying the nature and limitations of confidentiality to be observed, providing for
physical safety appropriate to the form of activity involved, and obtaining informed
consent for any high-risk procedures.
12. If members of the ITA become aware that personal conflicts of medical, financial or
other problems might interfere with their ability to carry out a contractual relation-
ship, they must either terminate the contract in a professionally responsible manner,
or ensure that the client has the fullest possible information needed to make a deci-
sion about remaining in the contractual relationship.
13. Members of the ITA accept responsibility to confront a colleague, whom they have
reasonable cause to believe is acting in an unethical manner, and, failing resolution,
to report that colleague to the appropriate professional body.
14. In the event that a complaint should be made against a member, that member shall
co-operate in resolving such a complaint and will comply in all respects with require-
ments of the Procedures for Handling Ethics Charges which are current at that time.
15. ITA members who apply Transactional Analysis in their professions will demonstrate
a commitment to keep up-to-date in their fields of application through activities such
143
Appendix 3
I. EATA members will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsibility to
existing laws of the state and/or country in which they reside.
144
Appendix 3
Recognising that professional ethics are a series of Parent rules as to what is right and
wrong the ITAAs Statement of Ethics seeks to promote, in addition, the development
of Adult processing in the field of ethics with particular emphasis on establishing a
clear Adult contract.
We recognise that through our certification process, the ITAA establishes a social
contract that invites the public to trust that Certified Members and Regular Members of
the ITAA acknowledge and adhere to the ethical premises and principles in this docu-
ment.
We also recognise that members do not always utilise these ethical principles and,
therefore, that confrontation of a member is sometimes desirable and/or necessary.
We further recognise that should an individuals behaviour show a lack of integra-
tion of or consistency with these principles, his/her certification, training contract
and/or membership may be suspended by the ITAA until such time as that integration
is assured.
These principles represent a consensus of Parent values, Adult data and Child
rights:
145
Appendix 3
should have the competence and intent to fulfil. When a client is unable or unwilling
to function autonomously and responsibly within this contractual relationship, the
member of the ITAA must resolve this relationship in such a way as to bring no harm
to the client.
6. A member of the ITAA will not exploit a client in any manner, including, but not lim-
ited to, financial and sexual matters. Sexual relations between an ITAA member and a
client are prohibited.
7. Members of the ITAA will not enter into or maintain a professional contract where
other activities or relationships between an ITAA member and a client might jeopar-
dise the professional contract.
8. The professional relationship between a member of the ITAA and the client is
defined by the contract, and that professional relationship ends with the termination
of the contract. However, certain professional responsibilities continue beyond the
termination of the contract. They include, but are not limited to, the following: a)
maintenance of agreed-upon confidentiality; b) avoidance of any exploitation of the
former relationship; c) provision for any needed follow-up care.
9. Members of the ITAA will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsi-
bility to existing laws of the state and/or country in which they reside.
10. In establishing a professional relationship, members of the ITAA assume responsibili-
ty for providing a suitable environment, including such things as specifying the
nature of confidentiality observed, providing for physical safety appropriate to the
form of activity involved, and obtaining informed consent for high-risk procedures.
11. If members of the ITAA become aware that personal conflicts or medical problems
might interfere with their ability to carry out a contractual relationship, they must
either terminate the contract in a professionally responsible manner, or ensure that
the client has the full information needed to make a decision about remaining in the
contractual relationship.
12. Members of the ITAA accept responsibility to confront a colleague whom they have
reasonable cause to believe is acting in an unethical manner, and, failing resolution,
to report that colleague to the appropriate professional body.
We affirm these principles as common to the practice of those certified by the ITAA
unless a member of ITAA explicitly states in writing his/her differences from these posi-
tions. In such an instance, the clients attention to any such differences must also be
noted in writing as part of their contract-setting process.
146
References
Achimovich, L. (1985) Suicidal scripting in Berne, E. (1972) What Do You Say After
the families of anorectics, TAJ 15(1), You Say Hello? New York: Grove Press.
219. Berne, E. (1977) (ed. P. McCormick)
Bandler, R. and Grinder, J. (1975a) The Intuition and Ego States. San
Structure of Magic. Palo Alto: Science Francisco: TA Press.
and Behaviour Books. Blackstone, P. (1993) The dynamic child:
Bandler, R. and Grinder, J. (1975b) integration of second-order structure,
Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of object relations and self-psychology.
Milton Erickson MD. Cupertino: Meta TAJ 23, 3.
Publications. Bollas, C. (1987) The Shadow of the
Berne, E. (1947) The Mind in Action. New Object. The Psychoanalysis of the
York: Simon & Schuster. Unthought Known. London: Free
Berne, E. (1957) A Laymans Guide to Association.
Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis. New Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss.
York: Simon & Schuster. London: Hogarth and the Institute of
Berne, E. (1961) Transactional Analysis Psychoanalysis.
in Psychotherapy. New York: Grove Buber, M. (trans. Kaufman) (1923, 1970) I
Press. and Thou. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
Berne, E. (1963) The Structure and Cassius, J. (1975) Body Scripts. Memphis:
Dynamics of Organizations and Cassius.
Groups. New York: Grove Press. Cassius, J. (1977) Bioenergetics and TA. In
Berne, E. (1964) Games People Play. New James, M. (ed) Techniques in Trans-
York: Grove Press. actional Analysis. Reading, MA:
Berne, E. (1966) Principles of Group Addison-Wesley.
Treatment. New York: Oxford Childs-Gowell, E. and Kinnaman, P.
University Press. (1978) Bodyscript Blockbusting: A
Berne, E. (1970) Sex in Human Loving. Transactional Approach to Body
New York: Simon & Schuster. Awareness. San Francisco:
Berne, E. (1971) Away from a theory of the Transactional Publications.
impact of interpersonal interactions on Clark, B.D. (1991) Empathic transactions
non-verbal participation. TAJ 1(1), in the deconfusion of Child ego states.
613. TAJ 21(2), 928.
147
References
150