Chapter 1
Simplest creatures only have single cells
ANATOMY
- The study of the structure and shape of the
body and its parts and their relationships to
one another.
- Ana (apart) & Tomy (to cut)
Gross Anatomy studying large, easily
observable structures
Microscopic Anatomy- study of the body
structures that are too small to be seen
with the naked eye. (ex. Cells and
tissues)
PHYSIOLOGY
- Study of how the body and its parts work or
function
- Physio (nature) & Ology (the study of)
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
1. Chemical level- atoms combine to form
molecules
Atoms tiny building blocks of matter
2. Cellular level- cells are made up of molecules
Cells- smallest units of all living things
3. Tissue level- tissues consist of similar types of
cell
Tissues- consist of similar cells that have
a common function
Types: epithelial, connective, muscular,
neural)
4. Organ level- organs are made up of tissues
Organ- structure compose of 2 or more
tissue types that performs a specific
function for the body
Extremely complex functions become
possible
5. Organ system- organ systems are made up of
organs that work together closely
Organ system- group of organs that work
together to accomplish a common
purpose
There are 11 organ systems
6. Organismal level- human organisms are made
up of many organ systems
 Organism- living body; highest level of
structural organization
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW
1. Integumentary system
- External covering of the body, or the skin.
- Waterproofs/cushions/protects the deeper
tissues from injury
- Excretes salts and urea (perspiration)
- Regulates body temperature
- Where temperature, pressure and pain
receptors (cutaneous receptors) are located
- Synthesizes vitamin D
- Sweat and oil glands
2. Skeletal System
- Bones, cartilages, ligaments and joints
- Supports the body and provides a framework
that skeletal muscles use for movement
- Has a protective function
- Hematopoiesis (formation of blood cells)
happen within the cavities of the skeleton
- Bones hard substance: storehouse for
minerals
3. Muscular System
-function of muscles: contract or shorten for
movement to occur
-muscles: machines of the body
- Skeletal muscles: mobility of the body as a
whole
Skeletal muscles- large, fleshy muscles
attached to the bones
- form the muscular system
- produces heat
4. Nervous System
- Bodys fast acting control system
- Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves,
sensory receptors
- Responsible for the response to irritants or
stimuli from outside the body/ inside the body
1. Sensory receptors detect changes and
send messages via nerve impulses or
electric signals.
2. The central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord) receives and assesses the information
 then induces response by activating the
body effectors (muscles or glands)
5. Endocrine system
- Acts very slowly
- Release chemical molecules called hormones
and release them into the blood to regulate
other structures
- Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals,
thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries and testes
- Not connected anatomically
- Responsible for growth, reproduction and food
use (metabolism) of cells
6. Cardiovascular system
- Primary organs: heart and blood vessels
- Blood: transporting fluid
- Blood vessels: transport blood
- Carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other
substances to and from the tissue cells
Tissue cells- where exchanges are made
- White blood cells & chemicals in blood: help
protect body from foreign invaders (bacteria,
toxins, tumor cells)
- Heart: pumping blood out chambers to blood
vessels to be transported to body tissues
7. Lymphatic System
- Organs: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and
other lymphoid organs: spleen and tonsils
- Return fluid leaked from the blood back to the
blood vessels
- Lymph nodes and lymphoid organs: help
cleanse the blood by disposing debris in the
lymphatic stream
- House white blood cells involved in immunity
8. Respiratory system
- Keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide
- Organs: nasal passages, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs
- Thin walls of air sacs (housed by lungs): gases
are transported to and from the blood

9. Digestive System
- Basically a tube running through the body from
mouth to anus
- Organs: oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestines, rectum
- Role: break down food and deliver the
products to the blood for dispersal to the body
cells
- Undigested food leaves the body through the
anus as feces
- Breakdown activities: starts with mouth,
completed in the small intestine
- After completion in the small intestine, the
main function is to: reclaim water
- Liver: produces bile to break down fats
- Pancreas: deliver digestive enzymes to the
small intestine
- Often called excretory system
- Organs: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
- Maintaining water and salt (electrolyte)
balance
- Regulating acid-base balance of blood
11.Reproductive System
- Produce offspring
- Male: testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands,
duct system
Testes- produces sperm
Duct system- carries sperm to the
outside of the body
- Female: ovaries, female duct system (uterine
tubes, uterus, vagina)
Ovaries- produces eggs
Uterus- site for development of fetus,
once fertilization has occurred

10.Urinary System MAINTAINING LIFE

- Disposes of waste containing nitrogen, which I. NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
results when the body cells break down A. Maintaining Boundaries
proteins and nucleic acids *Cell
- every cell of the body is surrounded by an external
membrane that contains its contents which allows
needed substances in, preventing entry of damaging
substances
*Integumentary system
-protects internal organs from drying out, bacteria,
and damaging effects of heat and chemical
substances in the ext. environment
B. Movement
-includes all activities promoted by muscular system
Ex. Walking, swimming
-manipulating external environment w/ our fingers
-Muscles pull on bones to create movement
-Also occurs when substances such as blood, food
and urine are propelled through internal organs of
cardiovascular, digestive and urinary systems
C. Responsiveness
-also called irritability
-ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment
and then react to them
-nerve cells are highly irritable, communicate with
each other via electrical impulses
-all body cells are irritable to some extent
D. Digestion
-process of breaking down ingested food into simple
molecules that the blood can absorb
-nutrient- rich blood is distributed to all body cells by
cardiovascular system
-for one-celled organisms, the cell itself is the
digestion factory
E. Metabolism
-refers to all chemical reactions that occur within
body cells
-breaking down complex substances to simpler
building blocks
-making larger structures from smaller ones
-uses nutrients and oxygen to produces ATP
ATP- energy-rich molecules that power cellular
activities
-depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to
make nutrients and oxygen
-also depends on cardiovascular system to distribute
these needed substances
-regulated by hormones secreted by glands of
endocrine systems
F. Excretion
-process of removing excreta or wastes from the
body
-getting rid of non-useful substances produced
during digestion and metabolism
-digestive system rids of indigestible food through
feces
-urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing
metabolic wastes through urine
G. Reproduction
-production of offspring
-can occur on the Cellular or Organismal level
Cellular- original cell divides, producing 2
identical daughter cells that may be used for
body growth or repair
-production of sperm and egg to make a whole new
person
-regulated by the hormones of the endocrine system
H. Growth
-an increase in size
-usually accomplished by an increase in the number
of cells
-cell constructing activities must occur at a faster rate
than cell destroying ones
II. SURVIVAL NEEDS
-includes nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and
appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure
Nutrients- the body takes in through food,
contain chemicals used for energy and cell
building
Carbohydrates- major energy providing fuel
for body cells
Proteins and fats-building cell structures
Fats- cushion body parts, provide reserve
fuel
Minerals and vitamins- required for chemical
reactions that go on in cells; oxygen transport
in blood
 Oxygen
-all nutrients in the world are useless unless oxygen is
also available
-chemical reactions that release energy from food
require oxygen
-20% of the air we breathe is oxygen
Water
- Accounts for 60-80% of body weight
- Single most abundant chemical in the body
- Provides fluid base for body secretions and
excretions
- Obtained: ingested food and liquids
- Lost: evaporation from lungs and skin;
excretion
Body temperature
- 37 degrees C (98 F)
if body temp drops below this pt, metabolic
reactions become slower, and slower until it
stops
if too high, chemical reactions proceed too
rapidly, and body proteins begin to break down
- Heat is generated mostly by the activity of
skeletal muscles
Atmospheric pressure
- Force exerted on the surface of the body by
the weight of air
- Involves breathing, exchange of O and CO2 in
lungs
- High altitudes (atmospheric pressure is lower)
gas exchange may be too low to support
cellular metabolism
HOMEOSTASIS
-bodys ability to maintain relatively stable
internal conditions even though the outside world
is continuously changing
-means unchanging (homeo= same; stasis=
standing still)
-indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a
balance in w/c internal conditions change and
vary but always within relatively narrow limits
-body demonstrates homeostasis: when needs are
met and it functions smoothly
-every organ system plays a role
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS
 -Communication w/in the body is accomplished
chiefly by the nervous and endocrine systems
Nervous systems- electrical signals as info
carriers
Endocrine- blood borne hormones as info
carriers
-Variable: factor or event being regulated
-HCM Components:
1. Receptor-some sensor that monitors and
responds to changes in the environment
Stimuli- what the changes are called
- sends input to the control center, along the
afferent pathway
2. Control center- determines the level at w/c a
variable is to be maintained, analyzes the info
then determines the appropriate response or
course of action
3. Effector- provides the means for the control
centers output to the stimulus
LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
- Information from the control center to
the effector flows along the efferent
pathway
4. The results of the response will induce a
feedback to influence the stimulus:
Negative feedback- depressing it
-shutting off original stimulus or
reducing its intensity
-regulating body temperature, heart
rate, blood pressure, breathing rate,
blood levels of glucose/O/CO2/minerals
Positive feedback mechanism
-rare
-increase the original stimulus and
increase the variable farther from its
original number
-control infrequent events that occur
explosively and do not require
continuous adjustments
-blood clotting, birth of baby
Anatomical position
-standard position
-body is erect, w/ feet parallel and arms hanging at
the sides w/ palms facing forward (thumbs pointing
away)

Directional Terms (TABLE 1.1)