world of the electron

lecture 13
ferromagnets, superconductors
recap

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ferromagnetism

due to spin of
unpaired electrons
in atomic orbitals
effect is strong
enough to influence
neighbouring atoms,
magnetic moments
align spontaneously

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ferromagnetism
regions of uniform alignment are called domains
domains magnetised
domainsin randomindirections
magnetization random directions

domains
domains alignalign in
in external

applied magnetic
magnetic field

field

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ferromagnetic materials

domains align in external magnetic field

when the applied field is removed, the

ferromagnetic material remains magnetized

above the Curie temperature (~ 760 C for iron),

thermal energy destroys the alignment

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magnetisation curve of iron

(a) no applied field, (b) domains that are in (c) in large external
domains cancel out alignment with external field, domains may
field begin to grow, rotate into alignment
domain walls move
further as external field
increases
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magnetisation curve of iron

B
magnetisation mainly due to
irreversible rotations

magnetisation mainly due to

large irreversible wall
movements

magnetisation due to small

reversible wall movements
0 B0
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 hysteresis in magnetic materials
remanance (Br) is the field that
remains when external field is
reduced to zero

= saturation
coercivity (Bc) is flux density
the reverse field
that must be
applied to get B
back to zero

A magnetically hard material (e.g. steel) retains its magnetism more then
a magnetically soft material (e.g. iron) when the external field is removed
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superconductors

electrical resistance drops to zero below the

critical temperature (Tc)

superconductors expel external magnetic fields

from their interior

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superconductivity

resistance drops abruptly

to zero

persistent currents exist

for many years without
degradation, with no power
source

no heat generated by
currents

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superconductors a brief history

1911: first example of superconductivity (in solid

Mercury) discovered by Heike Onnes

Substance Critical Temperature, Tc (K)

Mercury 4.2
Lead 7.2
Tin 3.7
Indium 3.4

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 superconductors the first 100 years
1913 1911: Onnes discovers zero resistance in mercury
1931: superconductivity discovered in an alloy
1933: Meissner and Ochsenfold discover that magnetic fields are
expelled from superconductors
1935: Fritz and Heinz London describe how superconductors
interact with electromagnetic fields
1957: Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer propose first complete
theory of superconductivity (BCS model)
1962
1972 1962: Brian Josephson postulates Josephson junction
1973 1986: discovery of perovskites superconducting around 35 K,
over the 20 K limit predicted by BCS theory
1987 1987: YBCO superconducting at 93 K (breaks liquid nitrogen
barrier)
2003
2006: new family of superconducting iron compounds
discovered....
Nobel prizes
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the Meissner effect

magnetic field lines are excluded, abruptly, from a

superconductor when T < Tc (and B < Bc)

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the Meissner effect
a magnetic field induces a pattern of current flow
in the superconductor that sets up a magnetic field
that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the external field .

not simply the behaviour of a perfect conductor,

as predicted by classical physics (Lenzs law)

superconductivity is a quantum mechanical

phenomenon material acts like a giant atom with
electrons orbiting around the edges producing the
shielding currents
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superconducting transition temperatures

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superconducting phase diagram (Type I)

magnetic fields greater than the critical magnetic

field, Bc, cause the loss of superconductivity

superconducting phase diagram for mercury

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Type II superconductors

behave like Type I below lower critical field (i.e.

zero resistance, completely expel magnetic fields)
become non-superconducting above upper
critical field

but between upper and lower critical fields the

Type II superconductor enters a mixed state
partial penetration of magnetic flux as resistive and
superconducting sub-regions coexist

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Type II superconductors
magnetic flux
penetrates material
through filaments of
non-superconducting normal

magnetic field
state
material
vortex
state
circulating vortex of
screening current
opposes field in
Meissner
filaments and keeps state
remaining material in temperature
Tc
superconducting state
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applications
superconducting magnets MRI scanners,
particle accelerators
wires and films for power transmission
superconducting quantum interference devices
(SQUIDS) for super sensitive magnetic detectors

in the future?
electric motors, generators, propulsion units e.g.
Maglev
need to overcome problems of cryogenic cooling
and material robustness
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