Handout For Power System I Updated

Electrical power Engineering stream Prepared by: Solomon Kiros
Power System I
1. Fundamentals of power system
1.1 Introduction
Generation, transmission and distribution systems are the main components of an electric power system. The transmission line is used to
transmit bulk power from the generation station to the distribution centers. Hence, it is a line which connects the generation station with the
distribution systems, and the main purpose lower voltage networks. Electric power is generated in the generation station in a voltage level of
11kv to 25kv. But transmission line voltages are in the range of 66kv to 400kv or higher. Hence, the voltage levels at the generation station
needs to be stepped up using step up transformers.
Large powers can be transmitted at different voltage levels in different countries. For example, USA uses 345kv, 500kv and 765kv. When
we come to Ethiopia, the commonly used voltage levels are 66kv, 132kv and 230kv. The other voltage levels that are rarely used in Ethiopia
are:
i. 45kv which runs from Harer old Substation to Babile Substation.
ii. 400kv which runs from Gilgel Gibe II to Sebeta Substation and from Tana beles to Sulilta Substation.
Now, EEPCo has designed to use 500kv for the transmission line of the grand Ethiopia Renaissance dam.
The power supply network can be divided in to transmission and distribution systems. Transmission line is also divided into primary and
secondary (Sub transmission) transmission system according to the range of voltage levels, i.e. Primary transmission systems use voltage
levels greater tan 200kv. The schematic diagram of power system is shown in figure 1-1.
The transmission of a particular area is called grid, and different grids are interconnected through tie lines to form a regional grid. Finally
the national grid can be formed by connecting the regional grids. Most of the power supply system in our country is ICS (interconnected
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system) since it reduces the reserve generation capacity of each area. Therefore, if there is a sudden increase of load or loss of generation
in one area, it can borrow power from adjoining interconnected areas.
Fig 1-1 schematic diagram of a power system

1.2 Electric generation
1.2.1 conventional sources of electric energy
The main conventional sources of electric energy are thermal (coal, oil, nuclear) and hydro.
i. Thermal power stations steam /gas based
In this case, the heat released during the combustion of coal, oil or gas is used in a boiler to raise steam at high pressure and temperature,
which when passed through a steam turbine gives off (emit) some of its internal energy as mechanical energy. The steam turbine acts as a
prime mover and drives the electric generator.
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Because of the high heat losses in the combustion gases and the large quantity of heat rejected to the condenser the overall efficiency of the
conversion process is poor with a maximum value of 40%. The steam power station operates on the rankine cycle. The thermal efficiency
i.e. conversion of heat to mechanical energy can be increased by using steam at the highest possible pressure and temperature.
Thermal power plants are the causes for air and thermal pollution. The agents (causes) of air pollution are NOx, CO, SOx etc which are
emitted via the exhaust gases, but the thermal pollution occurs due to the rejected heat transferred from the condenser to cooling water.
Gas turbine: gas combustion generates high temperature and pressure, so that the efficiency of the gas turbine is comparable with the steam
turbine.
It can be used as combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) since its exhaust gas still has sufficient heat content to raise steam to run a
conventional steam turbine coupled to a generator.
Fig 1-2 CCGT power station

ii. Hydroelectric power generation
It uses the potential energy of water to generate power. Hydro-electric power stations are generally located in hilly areas where dams can be
built conveniently and large water reservoirs can be obtained. In a hydro-electric power station, water head is created by constructing a dam
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across a river or lake. It is the cheapest power generation and the energy is obtained almost free of running cost as well as completely
pollution free. The capital cost is very high since heavy civil engineering construction works are involved.
Advantages
It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical energy.
It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
It requires very small running charges because water is the source of energy which is avail-able free of cost.
It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
It does not require a long starting time like a steam power station. In fact, such plants can be put into service instantly.
It is robust and has a longer life.
Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the generation of electrical energy, they also help in irrigation and controlling
floods.
Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled persons at the time of construction, yet for operation, a few experienced
persons may do the job well.
Disadvantages
It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.
There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount of water due to dependence on weather conditions.
Silting
Seepage (i.e. a slow discharge or escape of liquid)
Ecological damage to region
Displacement of human habitation from areas behind the dam which will fill up and become a lake.
Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the plant
It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is located in hilly areas which are quite away from the consumers.
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Fig 1-3 A typical layout for a storage type hydro plant
The dam is constructed across a river or lake and water from the catchment area collects at the back of the dam to form a reservoir. A
pressure tunnel is taken off from the reservoir and water brought to the valve house at the start of the penstock. The valve house contains
main sluice valves and automatic isolating valves. The former controls the water flow to the power house and the latter cuts off supply of
water when the penstock bursts. From the valve house, water is taken to water turbine through a huge steel pipe known as penstock. The
water turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
The different types of hydro plants are run of river (use of water as it comes), pondage (medium head) type, and reservoir (high head) type.
The reservoir type plants are the one which are employed for bulk power generation. Sometimes, cascaded plants are also constructed i.e. on
the same one stream where the discharge of one plant becomes the inflow of a downstream plant. For example, the construction of Gibe I,
Gibe II and Gibe III of Ethiopia is cascaded type of where the discharge of Gibe I is the inflow of Gibe II.
The power available from a hydro plant is obtained by
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P=gWH overall
Watt
Where: W-is discharge in m3/s through turbine

-is density 1000 kg/m3
H-is height in m
g -is gravity (9.8m/s2)
overall is the product of turbine and generator efficiencies
a. Choice of Site for Hydro-electric Power Stations

The following points should be taken into account while selecting the site for a hydro-electric power station:
Availability of water: Since the primary requirement of a hydro-electric power station is the availability of huge quantity of water,
such plants should be built at a place (e.g., river, canal) where adequate water is available at a good head.
Storage of water: There are wide variations in water supply from a river or canal during the year. This makes it necessary to store
water by constructing a dam in order to ensure the generation of power throughout the year. The storage helps in equalizing the flow
of water so that any excess quantity of water at a certain period of the year can be made available during times of very low flow in
the river. This leads to the conclusion that site selected for a hydro-electric plant should provide adequate facilities for erecting a dam
and storage of water.
Cost and type of land: The land for the construction of the plant should be available at a reasonable price. Further, the bearing
capacity of the ground should be adequate to with-stand the weight of heavy equipment to be installed.
Transportation facilities: The site selected for a hydro-electric plant should be accessible by rail and road so that necessary
equipment and machinery could be easily transported.
It is clear from the above mentioned factors that ideal choice of site for such a plant is near a river in hilly areas where dam can be
conveniently built and large reservoirs can be obtained.
b. Constituents of Hydro-electric Plant
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The constituents of a hydro-electric plant are
1. Hydraulic structures: Hydraulic structures in a hydro-electric power station include dam, spillways, head works, surge tank,
penstock and accessory works.
2. Water turbines: Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water into mechanical energy. The principal types of water
turbines are :
a. Impulse turbines
b. Reaction turbines
3. Electrical equipment: The electrical equipment of a hydro-electric power station includes alternators, transformers, circuit breakers
and other switching and protective devices.
iii. Nuclear power stations

When uranium-235 is bombarded with neurons, fission reaction takes place releasing neurons & heat energy. These neurons then participate
235
in the chain reaction of fissioning more atoms of U. The speeds of neurons must be reduced to a critical value in order that the freshly
released neurons be able to fission the uranium atoms. For reaction control, rods made of neuron absorbing material (boron-steel) are used
which, when inserted in to the reactor vessel, control the amount of neuron flux there by controlling the rate of reaction. The heat released
by the nuclear reaction is transported to a heat exchanger via primary coolant (CO 2, water etc) steam is then generated in the heat exchanger,
which is used in a conventional manner to generate electric energy by means of a steam turbine.
The most important feature of a nuclear power station is that huge amount of electrical energy can be produced from a relatively small
amount of nuclear fuel as compared to other conventional types of power stations. It has been found that complete fission of 1 kg of
Uranium (U235) can produce as much energy as can be produced by the burning of 4,500 tons of high grade coal. Al-though the recovery of
principal nuclear fuels (i.e., Uranium and Thorium) is difficult and expensive, yet the total energy content of the estimated world reserves of
these fuels are considerably higher than those of conventional fuels, viz., coal, oil and gas.
a. Components of a Nuclear power
The main categories (or components) of Nuclear power plant are:
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i. Nuclear reactor
ii. Heat exchanger
iii. Steam turbine
iv. Alternator.
Advantages
The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore, there is a considerable saving in the cost of fuel transportation.
A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to any other type of the same size.
It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used for producing bulk electrical energy.
This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power.
It can be located near the load centers because it does not require large quantities of water and need not be near coal mines.
Therefore, the cost of primary distribution is reduced.
There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the world. Therefore, such plants can ensure continued supply of electrical
energy for thousands of years.
It ensures reliability of operation.
Disadvantages
The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.
The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other types of plants.
The erection and commissioning of the plant requires greater technical know-how.
The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous amount of radioactive pollution.
Selection of Site for Nuclear Power Station
Availability of water: As sufficient water is required for cooling purposes, therefore, the plant site should be located where ample
quantity of water is available, e.g., across a river or by sea-side.
Disposal of waste: The waste produced by fission in a nuclear power station is generally radioactive which must be disposed off
properly to avoid health hazards. The waste should either be buried in a deep trench or disposed off in sea quite away from the sea
shore. Therefore, the site selected for such a plant should have adequate arrangement for the disposal of radioactive waste.
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Distance from populated areas: The site selected for a nuclear power station should be quite away from the populated areas as
there is a danger of presence of radioactivity in the atmosphere near the plant. However, as a precautionary measure, a dome is used
in the plant which does not allow the radioactivity to spread by wind or underground waterways.
Transportation facilities: The site selected for a nuclear power station should have adequate facilities in order to transport the heavy
equipment during erection and to facilitate the movement of the workers employed in the plant.
iv. Geothermal power plants

The heat deep inside the earth acts as a source of power in a geothermal power plant. It originates from the inner core of the earth and it is
evident on the earths surface in the forms of volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs.
Favorable sites for geothermal energy extraction are rare and occur where, magma, or hot molten rock of the earths mantle, has been
pushed up near the earths surface through faults and cracks in the crust.
Depending on the temperature and pressure of the source, geothermal sources are categorized as;
a. High enthalpy above 200oc
b. Medium enthalpy between 100oc and 200oc
c. Low enthalpy below 100oc
It can also be divided in to vapor dominated and liquid dominated depending on the nature of the fluid.
Dry steam power plants use steam directly from the geothermal reservoir.
Flash steam power plants allow high pressure hot water from the reservoir to flash into steam in low pressure tanks.
The binary cycle plant uses heat from moderately hot geothermal water to flash a second fluid to the vapor phase.
Comparison of various power plants
The comparison among hydropower, steam power, nuclear power and diesel power plant done by considering six
basic criterias are given in the table below:
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Item Hydro power plant Steam power plant Nuclear power plant Diesel power plant
Site Such plants are located where Such plants are located at a These plants are located away Such plants can be located at
large reservoirs can be obtained place where ample supply of from thickly populated areas to any place because they
by constructing a dam water and coal is available, avoid radio-active pollution. require less space and small
e.g. in hilly areas. transportation facilities are quantity of water.
adequate
Initial cost Initial cost is very high because of Initial cost is lower than those Initial cost is highest be-cause of Initial cost is less as
dam construction and excavation of hydroelectric and nuclear huge investment on building a compared to other plants.
work. power plants. nuclear reactor.
Running cost Practically nil because no fuel is Higher than hydroelectric and Except the hydroelectric plant, it Highest among all plants be-
required. nuclear plant because of the has the minimum running cost cause of high price of diesel.
requirement of huge amount of because small amount of fuel
coal. can produce relatively large
amount of power.
Limit of source of Water is the source of power Coal is the source of power The source of power is the Diesel is the source of power
power which is not dependable because which has limited reserves all nuclear fuel which is available in which is not available in huge
of wide variations in the rainfall over the world. sufficient quantity. quantities due to limited re-
every year. It is because small amount of serves.
fuel can produce huge power.
Cost of fuel Practically nil Maximum because huge Minimum because small Higher than hydro and
transportation amount of coal is transported to quantity of fuel is required. nuclear power plants
the plant site.
Cleanness and Most simple and clean. Least clean as atmosphere is Less cleaner than hydro-electric More clean than steam power
simplicity polluted due to smoke. and diesel power plants. and nuclear power plants.
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1.2.2 Renewable energy sources
To protect environment and for sustainable development, the importance of renewable
energy sources cannot be overemphasized. As they are cleaner and easier to use and
environmentally benign (harmless and are bound to certain) to become economically more
viable with increase use. In addition, renewable & nonconventional forms of energy will
play an increasingly important role in the future. Some of the renewable /non-
conventional/ alternative energy sources are wind, solar, wave and ocean thermal energy.
i. Wind power
Winds are essentially created by the solar heating of the atmosphere i.e. due to the
variation in temperature (or uneven heating of the earth). Since it is plentiful,
inexhaustible and non-polluting wind power may prove practical for small power needs in
isolated sites. But it should be better to use in conjunction with other methods of power
generation to ensure continuity and maximum flexibility.
Wind power can be generated in different operations
a. Small scale 0.5 10kw isolated house hold bases.

b. Medium 10 100kw for communities
c. Large >1.5MW for connection to the grid
The theoretical power in a wind is given by

1 3
P= A V
2 Watt
Where: -density of air (1201g/m3 at NTP)
V - Mean air velocity (m/s)
A - Swept area (m2)
ii. Solar energy
In this case, the solar radiation which comes from the sun will be converted in to electric
energy, even though it is non-exhaustible and pollution free, its energy density per unit
area is low and available for only a part of a day as well as cloudy atmospheric condition
greatly reduces the energy received. Therefore, harnessing solar energy for electricity
generation has challenging technological problems. The most important is being that of
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the collection and concentration of solar energy and its conversion to the electrical form
through efficient and comparatively economical means.
This time, two technologies are being developed for conversion of solar energy to the
electrical form. One is employing collectors with concentrators to achieve high
temperatures to operate a heat engine at reasonable efficiency to generate electricity. The
second is direct conversion to electricity using photovoltaic (PV) systems. PV converts solar
energy to electrical form by means of silicon water photoelectric cells known as solar cells.
The practical efficiency of PV systems is about 15%. In addition, PV system need storage
device (battery) to store energy to be used at night because of the fluctuating nature of
suns energy.
1.3 AC and DC schemes of transmission lines

The electric power can be transmitted either by means of dc or ac. Each system has its
own merits and demerits. It is, therefore, desirable to discuss the technical advantages
and disadvantages of the two systems for transmission of electric power.
i.3.1. DC transmission
For some years past, the transmission of electric power by dc has been receiving the active
consideration of engineers due to its numerous advantages.
Advantages: The high voltage dc transmission has the following advantages over high
voltage ac transmission:
i. It requires only two conductors as compared to three for ac transmission.

ii. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems in dc
trans-mission.
iii. Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a dc transmission line is less
than the ac line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason, a dc
transmission line has better voltage regulation.

iv. There is no skin effect in a dc system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the line
conductor is utilized.
v. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in case
of dc system than that in ac system. Therefore, a dc line requires less insulation.
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vi. A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication
circuits.
vii. The high voltage dc transmission is free from the dielectric losses, particularly in
the case of cables.

viii. In dc transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronizing
difficulties.
Disadvantages:
i. Electric power cannot be generated at high dc voltage due to commutation
problems.
ii. The dc voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high voltages.
iii. The dc switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
i.3.2. AC transmission
Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed
in the form of ac.
Advantages:
i. The power can be generated at high voltages.

ii. The maintenance of ac substations is easy and cheaper.
iii. The ac voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and
efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe
potentials.
Disadvantages:
i. An ac line requires more copper than a dc line.

ii. The construction of ac transmission line is more complicated than a dc
transmission line.
iii. Due to skin effect in the ac system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.
iv. An ac line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to
charging current even when the line is open.
From the above comparison it can be conclude that, it is clear that high voltage dc
transmission is superior to high voltage ac transmission. Although at present,
transmission of electric power is carried by ac, there is an increasing interest in dc
transmission. The introduction of mercury arc rectifiers and thyratrons has made it
possible to convert ac into dc and vice-versa easily and efficiently. Such devices can
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operate up to 30MW at 400kV in single units. The present day trend is towards ac for
generation and distribution and high voltage dc for transmission.
i. AC single phase scheme
For a given current density J the load current can be calculated using the formula:
A
I L =J
2 Ampere
Where: A is the sum of the cross-sectional area of the conductors used to carry current in
to the load and return from the load. The maximum power which can be transferred in to
the load is
P=I L U rms
IL IL
A U max
P=J =0.35 P0
2 2
Where: Umax is the maximum voltage of the conductor
Urms is the root mean square value which is used for calculations
Transmission line
Generator
ii. AC single phase three wire
The current passing through one line is then given to be:
A
I L =J
2
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And the power supplied to the load through one of the lines is
U max A U max
P1=I L =P2 =J
2 2 2
Thus, the total power supplied to the load by the two lines is
A U max
P=2 J =0.7 P0
2 2
Where: P0 is the input power
iii. AC two phase scheme
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The maximum current in the return conductor can be obtained by setting the derivative of
the return current zero. Thus, maximum current in the conductor will be:
Thus, maximum current in the conductor will be
Since the cross sectional area is directly proportional with current if the other terms are
kept constant the cross sectional area of the neutral line will be 2 X . Where: X is the
cross sectional area of the phase conductor.
The available conductor cross-section for each of the two phase conductors in terms of the
overall area of the conductors is thus:
Therefore, the total power transferred to the load will be:
A U max
P=2 J =0.41 P0
2+ 2 2
iv. Three phase scheme
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For this case three of the wires are used as a phase to transfer power from the source to
the load. If the cross sectional area the conductors of each phase is X, then the total area
A will be 3X. Hence, X will be:
A
X=
3
Therefore, the total power transferred to the load will be:
A U max U
P=3 J =JA max =0.7 P0
3 2 2
IL IL
v. DC two wire scheme
Transmission line
Note: only half of the area of the conductor is used to transfer power (i.e. to carry the load
Generator Load
current) since half of it is used for the return current.
A
I L =J
2
For a dc system the voltage is constant. Thus, the input power is given by:
P0=JA U 0
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And the power transferred to the load will be:

A
P=J U =0.5 P 0
2 0
vi. DC three wire scheme
The load current and the power transferred in to the load through dc three wires are as
shown below.
A
I L =J
2
A
P=2 J U =P 0
2 0
(By arranging the transmission scheme in such a way that voltage sources of opposing
polarity use the same return conductor, the need for conductor to carry the return
current can be obviated.)
IL
IL
Transmission line
Transmission line
Generator Load
i.4. Power in single phase and three phase systems
Three basic parameters of electrical power systems are resistance, inductance and
capacitance.
i. Resistance
The resistance of power circuit or simply resistor consumes ohmic energy. While electric
current flows through a resistor there will not be any phase difference between the voltage
and current that means electric current and voltage are in same phase the phase angle
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between them is zero. If current I flow through a resistance R for t seconds then total
energy consumed by the resistor is given by
Energy=I 2 Rt
This power is known as active power.
ii. Inductance
Inductance of the system or simply inductor stores magnetic field energy during positive
half cycle and gives away during negative half cycle of single phase power supply. If a
current 'I' flows through a coil of inductance L Henri, the energy stored in the coil in form
of magnetic field is given by
1
Wf = LI2
2
The power associated with an inductance is reactive power.
iii. Capacitance
Capacitance of the system or simply capacitor, stores electric field energy during positive
half cycle and give away during negative half cycle of supply. The energy stored between
two parallel metallic plates of potential difference V and capacitance across them C, is
expressed as
1
W fE = C V 2
2
This energy is stored in form of electric field. The power associated with a capacitance is
also reactive power.
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Active Power and Reactive Power

Let us consider a single phase power circuit in which current lags behind the voltage by
an angle .
Let the instantaneous voltage
v =V m sin t
Then the instantaneous current can be expressed as
i=I m sin (t)
Where: Vm and Im are the maximum values of sinusoidal system voltage and current
respectively.
The instantaneous power is then given by
P=vi=V m sint . I m sin ( t)
After some trigonometric arrangement the instantaneous power is obtained to be
coscos ( 2 t)
V I
P= m m
2
a. Active Power
Resistive Power
Let's take the condition first where the single phase power circuit is fully resistive, that
means the phase angle between voltage and current = 0; and hence the power in a
resistive load will be
VmIm
P= (1cos 2 t)
2
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The value of cos 2 t in the above equation cannot be greater than one whatever the
value of
t may be. Hence, the value of P is always positive irrespective of the
instantaneous direction of voltage v and current that means the energy is flowing in its
conventional direction i.e. from the source to load. P is the rate of energy consumption by
the load and this is called active power.
b. Reactive Power
a) Inductive Power
Lets consider a fully inductive single phase power circuit. In this case the current will lag
behind the voltage by an angle = + 90o. Hence, the power in the circuit will be
V m I m
P= sin 2 t
2
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As it can be seen in the figure the power is flowing in alternative directions with a
frequency, double of supply frequency. As the power is flowing in alternating direction (i.e.
from source to load in one half cycle and from load to source in next half cycle) the
average value of this power is zero. Therefore this power does not do any useful work so it
can be concluded that it will store energy as a magnetic field during positive cycle and give
away during negative half cycle, and this power will have equal positive and negative cycle
which results in a net value of zero. This power is known as reactive power (or Inductive
power).
b) Capacitive Power
Let us now consider the single phase power circuit is fully capacitive, that is the current
leads the voltage by 90o, therefore = - 90o and the power will be
VmIm
P= sin 2t
2
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Here it is also found that the capacitive power is flowing in alternative directions with a
frequency of double the supply frequency. Therefore, the capacitive power like the
inductive power does not do any useful work.
Power in ac systems have four parameters to consider. These are apparent power,
real (active) power, reactive power and power factor.
I. Apparent power: it is the total power available in a power system which is
commonly represented by S, and is measured by VA, KVA and MVA. It can
be calculated by
S=V I
Where: V is the rated voltage

I* is the complex conjugate form of the current I
II. Active (real) power: it is the power consumed only by the resistive
component of the load. The resistance is responsible for it, and is measured
by W, KW, MW and GW. Its symbol is P.

P=S cos =VI cos
Where: is the angle between the voltage V and current I.

Cos () is the power factor
III. Reactive power: it is portion of the apparent power consumed by the
reactive components only. The reactive component can be only inductive or
capacitive or inductive-capacitive. Its symbol is Q and is measured by VAr,
KVAr and MVAr.
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Q=S sin =VI sin
IV. Power factor: it is a unit less which indicates how the apparent power is
distributed among the different load components. The cosine value of the
load angle determines the power factor (pf).
Assume a load consisting of all components (i.e. the resistive and reactive). Then
the impedance of the load will be

Z =R + j( X L X C )
Where: Z is impedance
R is resistance
XL is inductive reactance
Xc is capacitive reactance
Case I: Inductive component being dominant
For this case the impedance will be

Z =R + jX
X
tan 1 ( )
Thus, the load angle is then R and the power factor will be:
X
R

()
tan1

=cos1
cos
Since the peak current comes prior to the peak voltage, the power factor is lagging.
Hence, the current lags the voltage by the load angle .
Case II: Capacitive being dominant

Here the impedance will be
Z =R jX
The power factor is leading with a value of
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X
R

()
tan1

=cos1
cos
Case III: Pure resistive component
In this case the current is in phase with the voltage; hence, the power factor is
one. Thus, the active power is equal with the apparent power magnitude wise.
P=S=VI
i.e.
ii. Types of Load
In general, the load types can be divided in to
i. Domestic
ii. Commercial
iii. Industrial
iv. Agriculture
i. Domestic: it mainly consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, air-conditioners,
mixer, grinders, heaters, ovens, small pumping motors etc.

ii. Commercial: it mainly consists of lighting for shops, offices, advertisements
etc. fans, heating, air conditioner and many other electrical appliances used in
commercial establishments such as market places, restaurants etc.

iii. Industrial: it consists of small, medium, large scale, heavy and cottage
industries.
iv. Agriculture: it is mainly motor pump-sets load for irrigation purposes. Their
load factor is 0.15-0.20
N.B: The total demand of an area depends upon its population and living standards of
people.
Connected load
Demand
Demand Interval
Chapter two
2. Power system components and per unit system
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2.1 Introduction
It is very much practical to represent a power system using simple symbols for each
component since it is very complicated to show a complete circuit diagram of a power
system for all the three phases.
The physical quantities such as current, voltage, impedance and power are expressed
using per unit as a decimal fraction or multiple of base quantities.
2.2 Single phase representation of a balanced three phase system
Fig 2-1 balanced three phase network
Fig 2-2 single phase representation of a balanced three phase network
As the network in fig 2.1 is balanced, the neutral impedance Z n does not affect the
behavior of the network.
For the reference phase shown in Fig 2-2 the phase voltage can be calculated as:
Ea =( Z g+ Z L ) I a
Eqn. 2-1
As the system shown in fig 2-1 is balanced, the voltage and currents in the other phases
have the same magnitude but are shifted in phase by 120 o.
Three identical single phase two winding transformers may be connected to form a three
phase transformer, and the windings can be connected either in Y-Y, Y-, -Y and -.
There is no phase shift between corresponding quantities on the low and high voltage
windings of Y-Y and - connection of transformers.
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Fig 2-3 single phase two winding transformer
Fig 2-4 (a) schematic representation of three phase Y-Y transformer, (b) single phase
equivalent of Y-Y, (c) single line diagram of transformer
Fig 2-5 (a) single phase equivalent of Y- transformer (b) single line diagram
2.3 Per unit (PU) system
Power system quantities such as power, voltage, current and impedance are often
expressed in per unit or percent of specified base values.
Example: Given a base voltage of 50kv, then the voltage 40kv in per unit is
40
pu=
50 =0.8 or 80%
The major advantage of the pu is to simplify the equivalent circuit of a transformer by
properly specifying base quantities. The impedance of a transformer whether referred to
primary or secondary side is the same when expressed in pu. Similarly, the other terms
like current and voltage are the same when referred from one side of the transformer to
27
the other. When all quantities are converted in pu values, the different voltage levels
disappear and power network involving synchronous generators, transformers and lines
reduce to a system of simple impedances. Hence, the pu system allows us to avoid the
possibility of making serious calculation errors when referring quantities form one side of
a transformer to the other.
Per unit quantities are calculated as follows:

actual quantity
pu=
base value of quantity Eqn. 2-2
Where: actual quantity is the value of the quantity in the actual units, and the base value
has the same units as the actual quantity, thus making the per unit quantity
dimensionless.
Two independent base values can be arbitrarily selected at one point in a power system.
For either a single phase circuit or for one phase of a three phase circuit usually the base
voltage VbaseLN and base complex power Sbase1 are selected. Then, in order for electrical laws
to be valid in the PU system, the following relations must be used for other base values:
Pbase1- = Qbase1- =Sbase1-

S base1
I base=
V base ln
2
V V
Z base =R base=X base= base ln = base ln
I base Sbase 1
1
Y base=G base =B base=
Z base
Two rules for the base quantities adapted by convention are
i.The value of Sbase1 is the same for the entire power system of concern.
ii. The ratio of the voltage bases on either side of a transformer is selected to
be the same as the ratio of the transformer voltage ratings.
If the actual impendence is Z (ohms), its pu value is given
Z (ohms) Z (ohms) Sbase 1

Z ( pu )= = 2
Z base V base ln
28
1000 ( MVA ) B ( KVA ) B

Base current
I B= = A
KV B ( KV )B
1000(KV )B ( KV )2B 1000 (KV )2B

Base impedance Z B= = = ohms
IB (MVA) B (KVA)B
Z (ohms) ( KVA)B
Z ( pu )=
Per unit impedance 2
( KV ) B 1000
In a three phase system rather than obtaining the PU values using per phase quantities,
the PU values can be obtained directly by using three phase quantities.
Let three phase base mega volt amperes = (MVA)B
Line to line base kilovolts = (KV)B
Assuming star connection (equivalent star can always be found)

1000 (MVA )B
I B= A
Base current 3( K V )B
1000( KV )B (KV )2B 1000 ( KV )2B

Base impendence
Z B= = = ohms
3 I B ( MVA) B (KVA )B
Z ( ohms ) ( MVA ) B Z ( ohms ) ( KVA ) B

Z ( pu )= =
Per unit impedance ( KV )2B ( KV )2B 1000
When MVA base is changed from (MVA)B old to (MVA)B new , and (KV)B is changed
from (KV)B old to (KVA)B new , the new PU impedances is then given by:
(MVA) B new ( KV )2B old

Z ( pu)new=Z ( pu)old
( MVA)B old ( KV )2B new
29
Chapter three
3. Transmission line parameters
3.1Introduction
Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance &Conductance are the four parameters which affect
the performance of a transmission line as an element of a power System. Shunt
capacitance is due to the leakage over line insulators, and it is normally neglected in over
head transmission lines. But the other three parameters (i.e. Inductance, Capacitance
and Resistance) are uniformly distributed along the line and they form the series
30
impedance of the line. However, it is inductive which limits the capacity of the
transmission line since inductance is the dominant parameter in transmission line.
3.2Resistance
The dc resistance of solid round conductor is given by
l
Rdc =
A Eqn.3-1
Where: is resistivity of a Conductor
l is length of a conductor
A is cross sectional area of the conductor
The following three factors affect the resistance of the conductor:
i. Spiraling
ii. Frequency
iii. Temperature
For example, due to spiraling effect the resistance of the conductor increases by 1% for
three stranded conductors and about 2% for concentrically stranded conductors. However,
frequency and temperature affect the ac resistance of an ac system.
Though the contribution of line resistance to series line impedance can be neglected
in most cases (i.e. R<<Z) it is the main source of line power loss. Thus the presence
of line resistance in transmission line must be considered. Therefore, the effective ac
resistance is given by:

average power losswatts
R= 2
i
The flow of an alternating current through a conductor results in non uniform current
distribution over the cross sectional area of the conductor and its non uniformity
increases with increase in frequency. The greatest density on the surface of the conductor
causes the ac resistance to be somewhat higher than the dc resistance, and it is known as
skin effect.
The resistance at a temperature T is given by:
31
RT =R0 (1+ 0 . T ) Eqn. 3-2
Where: RT is resistance at ToC
R0 is resistance at 0oC
0
is temperature coefficient of resistance at 0oC
Similarly, the resistance R2 at a temperature T2oC can be found if the resistance R1 at a
temperature T1oC is known, and t is given by:

1
T 2+
R2 0
= Eqn. 3-3
R1 1
T 1+
0
From the formula it can be seen that the resistance of the conductor increases as the
temperature increases.
Table 3-1 Resistivity of some conductors
Material Resistivity at 20oC [m] Temperature constant [oC]
Annealed copper 1.72 x 10-8 234.5
Hard-drawn copper 1.77 x 10-8 241.5
Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8 228.1
Iron 10.00 x 10-8 180.0
Silver 1.59 x 10-8 243.0
3.3 Skin effect
When a conductor is carrying steady direct current (dc), this current is uniformly
distributed over the whole cross-section of the conductor. However, an alternating
current flowing through the conductor does not distribute uniformly, rather it has
the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor as shown in Figure
3-1 below. This is known as skin effect.
Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section of the conductor through
which current flows is reduced. Consequently, the resistance of the conductor is
slightly increased when carrying an alternating current.
32
Fig. 3-1 skin effect in a conductor carrying ac current
The inductance of a single conductor in a stranded solid conductor, each carrying a small
part of the current will vary according to its position. Thus, the strands near the centre
are surrounded by a greater magnetic flux and hence have larger inductance than that
near the surface. The high reactance of inner strands causes the alternating current to
flow near the surface of conductor. This crowding of current near the conductor surface is
the skin effect. The skin effect depends upon the following factors:
i. Nature of material
ii. Diameter of wireincreases with the diameter of wire.
iii. Frequency increases with the increase in frequency.
iv. Shape of wire less for stranded conductor than the solid conductor.
It may be noted that skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is low (< 50 Hz)
and conductor diameter is small (< 1cm).
3.4 Inductance
The inductance of a magnetic circuit that has a constant permeability can be obtained
by determining the following:
i. Magnetic field intensity H, from Amperes law

ii. Magnetic flux density B ( B= H )
iii. Flux linkages

L=
iv. Inductance from flux linkages per ampere
As a step toward computing the inductances of more general conductors and conductor
configurations, we first compute the internal, external, and total inductance of a solid
cylindrical conductor. We also compute the flux linking one conductor in an array of
current-carrying conductors.
The series inductance of a transmission line consists of two components: internal and
external inductances, which are due the magnetic flux inside and outside the conductor
33
respectively. The inductance of a transmission line is defined as the number of flux
linkages [Wb-turns] produced per ampere of current flowing through the line:

L=
Eqn.3-4
A current flowing through a conductor will set up a magnetic field inside and outside of
the current carrying conductor. Therefore, the flux linkage should be determined first in
order to find the inductance of the circuit.
Flux linkages due to a single current carrying conductor: Consider a long straight
cylindrical conductor of radius r meters and carrying a current I amperes (rms) as shown
in Figure 3-2 (a) below.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3-2 (a) current carrying cylindrical conductor (b) flux at point X
The magnetic lines of force will exist inside the conductor as well as outside the conductor.
Both these fluxes will contribute to the inductance of the conductor.
Flux linkages due to internal flux: Refer figure 3-2 (b) above where the cross section of
the conductor is shown magnified for clarity. The magnetic field intensity at a point x
meters from the centre is given by:
Eqn. 3-5
For uniform current density, the current Ix at a radius x from the center inside the circle
expressed in terms of current I will be
34
Eqn. 3-6
Thus, the magnetic field intensity inside the conductor is
Eqn. 3-7
The flux density at a distance x from the center of the conductor is
Eqn. 3-8
The differential magnetic flux contained in a circular tube of thickness dx and at a
distance x from the center of the conductor is
Eqn. 3-9
The flux linkages per meter of length due to flux in the tube is the product of the
differential flux and the fraction of current linked:
Eqn. 3-10
The total internal flux linkages per meter can be found via integration
Eqn. 3-11
Therefore, the internal inductance per meter
Eqn. 3-12
35
If the relative permeability of the conductor is 1 (non-ferromagnetic materials, such as
copper and aluminum), the inductance per meter reduces to
Eqn. 3-13
Flux linkages due to external flux: Now let us calculate the flux linkages of the
conductor due to external flux. The external flux extends from the surface of the
conductor to infinity. Referring to Figure 3-3, the field intensity outside the conductor at a
distance x meters from centre is given by
Fig. 3-3 Field intensity outside current carrying conductor
Since the field intensity Hx of the external flux covers the whole area of the current
carrying conductor Ix will be equal to I; hence, Hx and the flux density Bx will be
I
H x= At /m
2 x Eqn. 3-14
0 I
B x = 0 H x = wb/m2 Eqn. 3-15
2 x
Now, flux
d through a cylindrical shell of thickness dx and axial length l meter is
0 I
d=B x dx= dx wb Eqn. 3-15
2 x
The flux d links all the currents in the conductor once and only once. Therefore, the
flux linkage will be

0 I
d=d= dx wbturns Eqn. 3-16
2 x
36
Thus, total flux linkages of the conductor from the surface to infinity will be

0 I
ext = dx Eqn. 3-17
r 2 x
Therefore, overall flux linkages in a current carrying conductor will be
[ ]

I I I 1 dx
+ ext = 80 + 2 0x dx= 20 + wbturns /m
4 r x
r Eqn. 3-18
=
Flux linkages in parallel current-carrying conductors:
We shall now determine the flux linkages in a group of parallel current carrying
conductors. Figure 3-4 shows the conductors A, B, C etc. carrying currents I A, IB, IC etc.
Let us consider the flux linkages with conductor A. There will be flux linkages with
conductor A due to its own current as discussed previously. Also there will be flux
linkages with this conductor due to the mutual inductance effects of I B, IC and ID etc. We
shall now determine the total flux linkages with conductor A.
Fig. 3-4 Current carrying parallel conductors
Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current

[
0 I A 1 dx
2 4 r x
+
] Eqn. 3-19 (a)
The mutual flux linkage with conductor A due to current IB and IC flowing in conductor B
and C respectively will be
37
0 I B dx

2 d x
Eqn. 3-19 (b)
1
0 I C dx

2 d x
Eqn. 3-19 (c)
2
Therefore, the total flux linkage with in conductor A can be obtained by adding equations
3-19 (a), (b) and (c) together.
A=
[
2 4 r x
+ +
]
0 I A 1 dx 0 I B dx 0 I C dx
+
2 d x 2 d x 1 2
Eqn. 3-20
Similarly, the flux linkages within the other conductors can be determined in the same
approach.
3.4.1. Inductance of a single phase two wire line
A single phase line consists of two parallel conductors which form a rectangular loop of
one turn. When an alternating current flows through such a loop, a changing magnetic
flux is set up. The changing flux links the loop and hence the loop (or single phase line)
possesses inductance. It may appear that inductance of a single phase line is negligible
because it consists of a loop of one turn and the flux path is through air of high
reluctance. But as the cross sectional area of the loop is very large, even for a small flux
density, the total flux linking the loop is quite large and hence the line has appreciable
inductance.
Fig. 3-5 Single phase two wire line
The conductors shown in figure 3-5 carry the same amount of current but opposite in
direction because one forms the return circuit of the other. Therefore, the sum of the
currents is zero (i.e. IA+IB=0). Thus, the inductance of conductor A (or conductor B) can be
calculated from the flux linkages with it. In conductor A there will be flux linkage due its
own current IA and due to the mutual inductance effect of current IB in the conductor B.
38
Therefore, the total flux linkage with conductor A will be
A=
[
2 4 r x
+
]
0 I A 1 dx 0 I B dx
+
2 d x 1
Eqn. 3-21
By integrating equation 3-21 and combining like terms together we obtain
I
( A+ I B )ln + I A (ln d ln r )

IA
+ (B/se IB=IA) Eqn. 3-22
4

A= 0
2
[ ]
d
0 I A 1
A= +ln r (B/se IA+IB=0) Eqn. 3-23
2 4
Thus, the inductance of conductor A, LA can be obtained by dividing equation 3-23 by IA.
[ ]
d
A 0 1
L A= = + ln r H /m Eqn. 3-24 (a)
I A 2 4
r
But, if is different from one, then equation 3-24 (a) will be
[ ]
d
A 0 r
L A= = + ln r H /m Eqn. 3-24 (b)
I A 2 4
The value that we get from equation 3-24 is the inductance of the single conductor.
Hence, the loop inductance will be two times the inductance LA.
3.4.2. Inductance of a three phase overhead line
Figure 3-6 shows the three conductors A, B and C of a three phase line carrying currents
IA, IB and IC respectively. Let d1, d2 and d3 be the spacings between the conductors as
shown in the figure. Let us further assume that the loads are balanced i.e. I A+ IB+ IC= 0.
Consider the flux linkages with conductor A. There will be flux linkages with conductor A
due to its own current IA and also due to the mutual inductance effects of IB and IC.
39
Fig. 3-6 Three phase line
The total flux linkage with in conductor A will be the sum of its own flux linkage and the
mutual linkage flux due to IB and IC. This will be
[ ]

0 I A 1 dx 0 I B dx 0 I C dx
A= + + + Eqn. 3-25 (a)
2 4 r x 2 d x 2 d x 1 2
By integrating equation 3-21 and combining like terms together we obtain

I
( A+ I B + I C )ln I A ln r I B ln d I C ln d
3 2
IA
+ Eqn. 3-25 (b)
4

A= 0
2
A=
2 4[
0 I A
I A ln r I B ln d I C ln d
3 2
] (Because IA+IB+IC=0) Eqn. 3-25 (c)
i. Symmetrical spacing
If the three conductors A, B and C are placed symmetrically at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of side d, then, d 1=d2=d3= d. Under such conditions, the flux linkages
with conductor A become:
A=
2 4[
0 I A
I A ln r I B ln d I C ln d ] Eqn. 3-26 (a)
I

IA r
I A ln Eqn. 3-26 (b)
4

A= 0
2
Since IA=-(IB+IC) then equation 3-26 (b) can be rewritten as
40
[ ] [ ]
d
0 I A r d 0 I A 1
A= I A ln + I A ln = + ln r Eqn. 3-26 (c)
2 4 2 4
r
If the relative permeability is different from one, then the inductance of
conductor A will be:
[ ]
d
0 r
L A= + ln r Eqn. 3-26 (d)
2 4
The inductance for conductor B and conductor C can be derived in the same approach.
ii. Unsymmetrical spacing:
When three phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other, the conductor
spacing is said to be unsymmetrical. Under such conditions, the flux linkages and
inductance of each phase are not the same. A different inductance in each phase results
in unequal voltage drops in the three phases even if the currents in the conductors are
balanced. Therefore, the voltage at the receiving end will not be the same for all phases. In
order that voltage drops are equal in all conductors, we generally interchange the
positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the line so that each conductor
occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance. Such an
exchange of positions is known as transposition. Figure 3-7 shows the transposed line.
The phase conductors are designated as A, B and C and the positions occupied are
numbered 1, 2 and 3. The effect of transposition is that each conductor has the same
average inductance.
Fig. 3-7 Transposition of phase conductors
Lets assume that the three phase transposed lines having unsymmetrical spacing are
under balanced condition i.e. IA+IB+IC=0, and the line currents are
I A =I (1+ j 0)
41
I B=I (0.5 j 0.866)
I C =I (0.5+ j 0.866)
Then by substituting the formulas for IA, IB and IC in equation 3-25 (c)
0 1
A= [
2 4
I I (1+ j0)ln r I (0.5 j 0.866) ln d I (0.5+ j 0.866)ln d 3 2
] Eqn. 3-27(a)
By combining like terms in equation 3-27(a) and simplifying, we can obtain
[ ]
d2 d 3 d3
0 I 1
A= + ln r
+ j 0.866 ln d 2
Eqn. 3-27(b)
2 4
Thus, the inductance of conductor A will be
[ ]
d2 d3 d3
1 d2
L A= 0 + ln r
+ j 0.866 ln Eqn. 3-27(c)
2 4
r
If the relative permeability of the conductor is different from one, then equation 3-
27(c) will be
[ ]
d2 d 3 d3
0 r r d2
L A= + ln + j 0.866 ln Eqn. 3-27(d)
2 4
Similarly the inductance of conductors B and C will be
[ ]
d1 d 3 d1
d3
LB = 0 r +ln r
+ j 0.866 ln Eqn. 3-27(e)
2 4
[ ]
d1 d2 d2

LC = 0 r + ln r + j0.866 ln d 1
Eqn. 3-27(f)
2 4
Since conductor A has inductance LA at the first position, L B at the second position and LC
at the third position shown in figure 3-7 then its inductance throughout the line will be
the average of the three inductance value which is given below:
[ ]
3
d 1 d 2 d3

0 r +ln r
Eqn. 3-27(g)
2 4
42
Therefore, equation 3-27(g) will be the inductance value for each line conductors of the
three phase network.
3.5 Capacitance of transmission line
Transmission line conductors exhibit capacitance with respect to each other due to
potential difference between them. This capacitance together with conductance forms the
shunt admittance of a transmission line. The conductance is the result of leakage over the
surface of insulators and is negligible. When an alternating voltage is applied to the
transmission line, the line capacitance draws a leading current. The line capacitance is
proportional to the length of the transmission line and may be neglected for a line less
than 100km of length.
3.5.1. Electric field and potential difference
Electric fields are created by electric charges and they exist around a current carrying
conductor. Electric field lines originate from positive charges and terminate at negative
charges. The amount of capacitance between conductors is a function of conductor
radius, spacing and height above the ground. Hence, the capacitance between conductors
can be defined as the ratio of charge on the conductors to the potential difference between
them. Therefore, before deriving an expression for the capacitance; we must derive a
formula for potential in different conductor arrangements.
i. Potential at a charged single conductor:
Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor A of radius r meters. Let the conductor
operate at such a potential (VA) that charge QA coulombs per meter exists on the
conductor. It is desired to find the expression for V A. The electric intensity E at a distance
x from the centre of the conductor in air is given by:

QA
E= volts /m Eqn. 3-28
2 x 0
Where: QA= charge per meter length

0= permittivity of free space
As x approaches infinity, the value of E approaches zero. Therefore, the potential
difference between conductor A and infinity distant neutral plane is given by:
43
Fig. 3-8 A charged single conductor
Eqn. 3-29
ii. Potential at a conductor in a group of charged conductors:
Consider a group of long straight conductors A, B, C etc operating at potentials such that
charges QA, QB, QC etc coulomb per meter length exist on the respective conductor
arrangements shown in Figure 3-9 below. Then, the potential at A (i.e. V A) in this
arrangement will be the sum of the potential due to its own charge (i.e. Q A), the potential
due to charge QB and the potential due to charge QC. This will be
Fig. 3-9 A group of charged conductors
Eqn. 3-30(a)
The Potential at conductor A due to charge QB is
Eqn. 3-30(b)
The potential at conductor A due to charge QC is
Eqn. 3-30(c)
44
Therefore, the overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane
is the sum of equation 3-30(a), (b) and (c).

QA QB QC
V A = dx+ dx+ dx Eqn. 3-31
r 2 x 0 d 2 x 0
1
d 2 x 0
2
Integrating and rearranging equation 3-31 for a balanced condition (i.e. Q A+QB+QC=0), we
obtain
[ ]
1 1 1
1 d d
V A= Q A ln r +Q B ln +QC ln
1 2
Eqn. 3-32
2 0
3.5.2. Capacitance of a single phase two wire line
Consider a single phase overhead transmission line consisting of two parallel conductors
A and B spaced d meters apart in air. Suppose that radius of each conductor is r meters
and their respective charge are + Q and Q coulombs per meter length.
Fig. 3-10 A single phase two wire line
Then, the total potential difference between conductor A and neutral infinite plane is
Similarly, the potential difference between conductor B and neutral infinite plane is
Both these potentials are with respect to the same neutral plane. Since the unlike charges
attract each other, the potential difference between the conductors is
45
Eqn. 3-33(a)
Capacitance to neutral: Equation 3-33 gives the capacitance between the conductors of
a two-wire line as shown in figure 3-11(a) below. The potential difference between each
conductor and the ground or neutral shown in figure 3-11(b) is half of the potential
difference between the conductors since potential of the midpoint between the conductors
is zero. Thus the capacitance to ground or capacitance to neutral for the two-wire line is
twice the line-to-line capacitance (i.e. CAN=2CAB).
(a) (b)
Fig. 3-11 (a) two wire line (b) two wire line with neutral point
Eqn. 3-33(b)
3.5.3. Capacitance of a three phase overhead line
Here, we will look at the capacitance of a conductor for symmetrical and unsymmetrical
spacing of three phase transmission line. The capacitance considered is for each
conductor not from conductor to conductor.
A. Symmetrical Spacing
Lets assume that the three conductors A, B and C of the three phase overhead
transmission line having charges QA, QB and QC per meter length respectively as shown in
figure 3-12 below are at equidistance (d meters) from each other. From the overall
potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane given in equation 3-32
46
above, the capacitance from line conductor to neutral in this symmetrically spaced line
can be determined as follows:
Fig. 3-12 Three phase overhead lines placed at equidistant d
For a balanced three phase system QA+QB+QC=0 and QB+QC=-QA. Therefore, the overall
potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane is
Thus, the capacitance of conductor A with respect to neutral is
Eqn. 3-34
As the result indicates the capacitance of conductor A with respect to neutral given in
equation 3-34 is identical with the capacitance to neutral for two-wire line given in
equation 3-33(b). The expressions for capacitance of conductors B and C can be derived in
the same approach.
B. Unsymmetrical spacing
47
Figure 3-13 shows a three phase transposed line having unsymmetrical spacing. Let us
assume balanced conditions i.e. QA+ QB+ QC= 0. When transposing, each phases will have
all the three sections of the transposed line. Considering all the three sections of the
transposed line for phase A,
Fig. 3-13 Transposition of three phase lines with unsymmetrical spacing
48
Chapter four
4. Mechanical design of overhead lines

4.1Introduction
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by means of underground cables
or by overhead lines. The under-ground*cables are rarely used for power trans-mission
due to two main reasons. Firstly, power is generally transmitted over long distances to
load centers. Obviously, the installation costs for underground transmission will be very
heavy. Secondly, electric power has to be transmitted at high voltages for economic
reasons. It is very difficult to provide proper insulation to the cables to withstand such
higher pressures. There-fore, as a rule, power transmission over long distances is carried
out by using overhead lines. With the growth in power demand and consequent rise in
voltage levels, power transmission by over-head lines has assumed considerable
importance.
An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other external
interferences. This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety in order to
ensure the continuity of operation in the line. In general, the strength of the line should
be such so as to provide against the worst probable weather conditions. In this chapter,
we shall focus our attention on the various aspects of mechanical design of overhead
lines.
49

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Electrical power Engineering stream Prepared by: Solomon Kiros

Fig 1-1 schematic diagram of a power system

Fig 1-2 CCGT power station

Fig 1-3 A typical layout for a storage type hydro plant

Where: W-is discharge in m3/s through turbine

overall is the product of turbine and generator efficiencies

a. Choice of Site for Hydro-electric Power Stations

iii. Nuclear power stations

iv. Geothermal power plants

1.2.2 Renewable energy sources

To protect environment and for sustainable development, the importance of renewable

variation in temperature (or uneven heating of the earth). Since it is plentiful,

generation to ensure continuity and maximum flexibility.

Wind power can be generated in different operations

a. Small scale 0.5 10kw isolated house hold bases.

The theoretical power in a wind is given by

Where: -density of air (1201g/m3 at NTP)

V - Mean air velocity (m/s)

A - Swept area (m2)

ii. Solar energy

through efficient and comparatively economical means.

electrical form. One is employing collectors with concentrators to achieve high

temperatures to operate a heat engine at reasonable efficiency to generate electricity. The

1.3 AC and DC schemes of transmission lines

and disadvantages of the two systems for transmission of electric power.

consideration of engineers due to its numerous advantages.

i. It requires only two conductors as compared to three for ac transmission.

transmission line has better voltage regulation.

of dc system than that in ac system. Therefore, a dc line requires less insulation.

the case of cables.

i. Electric power cannot be generated at high dc voltage due to commutation

in the form of ac.

i. The power can be generated at high voltages.

i. An ac line requires more copper than a dc line.

charging current even when the line is open.

transmission is superior to high voltage ac transmission. Although at present,

transmission of electric power is carried by ac, there is an increasing interest in dc

generation and distribution and high voltage dc for transmission.

i. AC single phase scheme

Where: Umax is the maximum voltage of the conductor

ii. AC single phase three wire

The current passing through one line is then given to be:

Where: P0 is the input power

iii. AC two phase scheme

Thus, maximum current in the conductor will be

cross sectional area of the phase conductor.

overall area of the conductors is thus:

Therefore, the total power transferred to the load will be:

iv. Three phase scheme

A will be 3X. Hence, X will be:

Therefore, the total power transferred to the load will be:

v. DC two wire scheme

And the power transferred to the load will be:

vi. DC three wire scheme

i.4. Power in single phase and three phase systems

energy consumed by the resistor is given by

This power is known as active power.

of magnetic field is given by

The power associated with an inductance is reactive power.

also reactive power.

Active Power and Reactive Power

Let the instantaneous voltage

Then the instantaneous current can be expressed as