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Copyright #2004. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received June 28, 2003; provisional acceptance September 29, 2003; revised manuscript
received October 30, 2003; final acceptance December 3, 2003.
AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, no. 4 (April 2004), pp. 515 538 515
INTRODUCTION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Andrew Horbury for a dis- The discovery of economic hydrocarbons in both Iraq and Syria in the
cussion on the sequence stratigraphy of north- Triassic rocks of the northern Arabian plate makes these sediments
ern Iraq. The manuscript benefited considerably increasingly important. This has created further interest in these strata
from extensive revisions by D. E. Eby, K. W. that are already considered important within the context of Neo-
Glennie, C. G. Kendall, A. E. M. Nairn, and Tethys development. They are distributed across diverse geologic
R. W. Scott. A. Fowler read the final version and settings that range from continental, epicontinental, Neo-Tethyan
made many useful amendments, and Hamdi margins, rift-zone belts, and pelagic seaways. These rocks have been
Kandeel drafted the figures. Varda Arad pro-
described from both surface and subsurface localities in most parts
vided some valuable archives for the study.
of the Arabian basin (Figure 1). The succession changes gradually
upward from clastics in the lower part to alternations of limestone,
dolomite, anhydrite, shale, and occasionally halite. The average thick-
ness of these Triassic rocks is around 2000 m (6600 ft).
The regional distribution and the depositional setting of the
Upper Triassic rocks on the northern part of the Arabian plate and
around the eastern Mediterranean Sea have been discussed by sev-
eral workers, including Druckman et al. (1975), Basha (1981), and
Sharief (1982, 1983). They have suggested that the submergence
and emergence of a platform during the late Middle to Late Triassic
has led to the establishment of marginal marine peritidal flats to
the north, which are associated with deposition in sabkhas and shal-
low lagoons. Fluvial and eolian conditions dominated the southern
part of the platform, whereas deep-water rocks (clastics with cherts,
radiolarite, and reefal limestone associated with pillow lava) were
laid down to the north and beyond the margin of the platform.
Druckman et al. (1982) compared the Triassic section in the
eastern Mediterranean region with the typical Alpine Triassic. They
divided these strata into four sedimentary cycles, which they relate
to the German Triassic facies. The Triassic rocks of Syria were re-
viewed by Bebeshev et al. (1988). They concluded that the bound-
ary between the Permian and the Triassic is probably positioned at
the base of the mottled sandstones of the Ammanus Formation,
representing a halt in sedimentation separated by two major regional
tectonic events.
The first to examine Triassic eustatic cycles of the Mediter-
ranean region, including the northern parts of Arabia, was Hirsch
(1992). He found that the Triassic cycles in this region are closely
matched to the global eustatic sea level changes and are comparable
with the European Triassic section. According to him, the initial
opening of the Neo-Tethys during the late Spathian Aegean was
represented by a regression in the Levant region. The transgression
that followed during the early late Anisian was in the form of
platform carbonates with Tethyan and endemic fauna. During the
late Carnian and Norian, most of the region was dominated by a
dolomitic, shallow-marine Tethyan facies. Alsharhan and Kendall
(1986) suggested the upper Permian Triassic carbonate and
evaporite rocks of the Arabian basin accumulated on an epeiric
shelf, punctuated by a series of transgressive and regressive events.
A review of the lithostratigraphic relations of the Triassic rocks
over the Arabian basin was conducted by Alsharhan and Nairn
516 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
Sadooni and Alsharhan
Figure 1. Base map of the northern parts of the Arabian plate showing the main locations mentioned in the text.
517
(1997). Bandel and Khoury (1981) and Andrews (1992) The movement of the Arabian plate toward warmer
provided a comprehensive database of the major Triassic latitudes at the southern parts of the tropical zone was
rock units in Jordan and attempted to correlate them associated with thick clastic rocks in the Arabian plate.
with the neighboring countries. These include the Sudair and Suwai formations in
The development of a sedimentary basin during the Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, and United Arab
Late Triassic in northern Iraq marked the initiation of the Emirates, the Gaara Formation in western Iraq, the
Neo-Tethys Sea in the region. These rocks are believed Humrat Maain Formation in Jordan, and sandstones in
to have been deposited over a complex shallow-marine the southern Palmyrides in Syria. These clastics prob-
shelf under the influence of clastic accumulation and ably show evidence of humid conditions during their
the development of salinas (Sadooni, 1995). The sub- deposition, although only for a fairly short period of
surface Triassic section of Jordan was divided into sev- time, because most of them are mixed with evaporites
eral unconformity-bounded sequences by Shinaq (1996), or change gradually into limestone or dolomites (Al-
whereas Sadooni and Dalqamouni (1998) found that sharhan and Nairn, 1997). The main locations of the
the Upper Triassic of northern Jordan represents part Triassic strata in the northern extensions of the Arabian
of a regressive evaporitic-clastic succession that marked plate are shown in Figure 1.
the shrinkage phase of the Late Triassic basin. Alshar- Following the extensive Late Permian Khuff car-
han and Nairn (1997) reviewed the lithostratigraphic bonate deposition (Murris, 1980; Beydoun, 1988), arid
relations of the Triassic rocks over the Arabian basin. and semiarid conditions characterized the Triassic. Al-
though the Early Triassic was dominated, in the southern
part of Arabia, by gypsiferous and red shale and sand-
stone deposition of a continental to nearshore facies,
GEOLOGIC EVOLUTION OF THE these events were short-lived. As the Triassic advanced,
TRIASSIC BASIN there was an increase in periodic shallow-water lime-
stone and dolomite deposition commonly interbedded
The oceanic opening of Neo-Tethys was apparently with anhydrite. After uplift and rifting, these shallow-
accomplished in two stages. The first occurred during marine conditions became dominant during the Late
the Permian and Triassic, causing the Iranian micro- Triassic, as the south Tethys Ocean opened to the east
plate to drift away from the Arabian plate and be con- and north, with the separation of Iran and Turkey. A
fronted with, and accreted to, the Eurasian plate. The similar conclusion was reached by Read and Horbury
second stage followed in the Late Triassic to Middle (1993). They found that the climate during the Triassic
Jurassic, when the width of the Neo-Tethys reached a switched between semiarid conditions, in which cyclic
maximum of 4000 km (3500 mi). This phase of exten- sabkha-capped facies developed only on the inner plat-
sional tectonics subsequently produced localized troughs form, and arid conditions with major evaporative draw-
on the adjacent Arabian platform aligned in a remark- down. This resulted in extension of the inner platform
able arcuate pattern delineating two main trends: the cyclicity into intrashelf basin-center evaporite cycles.
western Taurus and an eastern Zagros trend. We pos-
tulate that this configuration was inherited from the
initial shape of the Neo-Tethys at the time of conti- LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND
nental separation (P. Nadir, 2000, personal communi- FACIES DISTRIBUTION
cation ). The extensive Triassic rifting is one of the most
characteristic features of the Neo-Tethyan terrains that Triassic rocks show a wide lithologic variation and
extend throughout the eastern Mediterranean and into cover both marine and nonmarine settings. The range
adjacent areas. The major rifting became progressively of sedimentary facies and depositional environments
younger westward from the Late Permian in the Oman characteristic of the Permian to Triassic strata of the
Mountains, the Early Triassic in the southern Turkish Middle East has been reviewed by Sharief (1982). Tri-
area, the Middle Triassic (AnisianLadinian) in Greece, assic rocks of Syria and Iraq were assigned by Read and
the Dinarides, and Italy, to the Early Jurassic (Liassic) Horbury (1993) to several depositional environments
in the Atlantic Tethys. Therefore, the best developed that range from inner shelves to interplatform basins.
assemblages of rift sediments are probably located in Both Druckman et al. (1982) and Hirsch (1992)
rather southerly positions in the Neo-Tethyan fold belt compared the stratigraphic successions and the depo-
(Dixon and Robertson, 1984). sitional settings of the Triassic strata of the eastern
518 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
Table 1. The Main Formations of the Northern Parts of the Arabian Plate Divided Among the Typical German Triassic Depositional
Environments
Mediterranean region to the Alpine Triassic. This ap- of the town of Gaara, a town on the Iraqi-Jordanian
proach has facilitated regional correlation and enabled a border (Figure 2). The formation, which is around 150 m
better understanding of the development of Neo- (492 ft) thick, consists of coarse-graded, current-bedded
Tethys. We have followed a similar approach in this sandstones that may be brown or rusty in weathered ex-
paper (Table 1). The major Triassic lithofacies of the posures, but may also be white. Subordinate bands of
northern parts of the Arabian plate have been described purple and red sandy marls with gray and greenish
and compared with the classic German Triassic litho- sandy or silty marls are found in the uppermost part of
facies and depositional settings described by Aigner and the unit.
Bachmann (1992). Ctyroky (1973) described some palynoflora from
the Gaara Formation. These include Lobatannularia
The Bunter-Type Facies heianensis, Plagiozamites oblongitolius, Sigillaria sp., and
Taeniopteris sp. from which he suggested a Permian
This facies consists of conglomerate, cross-bedded Carboniferous age for the formation. Al-Ameri (1990),
sandstone and shale and contains wood and plant re- however, proposed that these floras better support a
mains. These strata are believed to have been laid down Middle Triassic (Anisian/Ladinian) age. This age is in
in terrestrial, lacustrine, and fluviatile settings with agreement with the age of similar facies in other parts of
some eolian influence (Hirsch 1992). In the northern the Arabian plate.
parts of the Arabian plate, this facies is represented by The Gaara Formation is underlain by the Nijili
the Gaara Formation (Anisian/Ladinian) in western Formation and then by the Paleozoic clastics. These
Iraq, the Um Irna Formation (Induan) in Jordan, the Paleozoic strata are formed by a thick succession of
Budra Formation (Ladinian) in the southern parts of alternating sandstones and shales that have been as-
the Levant region, and the Ammanus Sandstone For- signed to the Sufi Formation, a new formation intro-
mation (Induan) in Syria (Table 2). duced to accommodate these clastics (Aqrawi, 1998).
The Gaara Formation is exposed on the fringes of Without proper dating, it is very difficult to assign an
the Gaara depression, about 60 km (37 mi) to the west accurate age to these continental rocks, but they may
belong to the so-called Nubian sandstones, which are bedded sandstone that grades into fine-grained, cross-
widespread over the Mediterranean area and north- bedded sandstone and, sometimes, into cross-laminated
eastern Africa. sandstone, siltstone, and claystone. The coarse fraction
The Gaara Formation was probably deposited in of the formation represents channel sediments, where-
continental fluviatile and lacustrine settings, but the as the fine one is of flood-plain type. The dark color of
presence of some littoral marine clastics may not be some of the claystone beds may suggest their deposition
excluded (Buday, 1980). The Gaara Formation in the in a vegetated site on the flood plain (Al-Ameri, 1990).
western desert of Iraq consists of many fining-upward In Jordan, a similar facies has been assigned to the
cycles, each of which begins with coarse-grained, cross- Um Irna Formation (Makhlouf et al., 1991) (Table 2).
520 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
Figure 2. Outcrop of
the Gaara Formation
in the Duaikhla quarry,
Gaara depression, west-
ern desert of Iraq, where
the formation is quarried
for kaolin.
This unit is believed to be of Permian to Triassic age and some argillite. The formation consists mainly of
(probably Induan). It consists of 60 m (197 ft) of flu- sandy-clayey beds that lack fossils and have local cross-
vial sandstone, maroon siltstone, and silty shale locally bedding. These strata are also believed to have been
containing pebbly sandstone horizons with abundant deposited in a fluvial regime with shallow-marine in-
ferruginous concretions. The formation also contains fluence (Bebeshev et al., 1988).
abundant plant remains in gray clay. It consists of six
sedimentary cycles of terrestrial deposits without any The Keuper-Type Facies
trace of bioturbation (Bandel and Khoury, 1981). The
base of the formation, however, is characterized by The Keuper facies consists of evaporites, sandstones,
the first occurrence of bioturbation and purplish color dolomites, marls, or shales with plant remains and
of the beds. The presence of flaser bedding, mud cracks, monospecific shallow-water marine, hypersaline, or
ripple surfaces, laminations, bioturbations, marine bi- brackish to freshwater bivalves and ostracods (Hirsch,
valves, and burrows are interpreted by the authors to 1992). This facies is represented in the northern parts
indicate a tidal zone with shallow-water conditions of the Arabian basin by the Nijili (Anisian/Ladinian)
(Bandel and Khoury, 1981). The formation was prob- and Zor Hauran (Rhatian) formations of the western
ably laid down in an unconfined braided plain sloping desert of Iraq, the Beduh Shale (Induan Olenekian)
northwest away from a raised source area (the Arabian- and Baluti Shale formations (Rhatian) of northern Iraq,
Nubian shield) (Makhlouf et al., 1991). the Mukheris Formation (Anisian) of Jordan, and the
In the southern parts of the Levant and Sinai, the Ammanus Shale Formation (Induan) of Syria (Table 2).
continental facies is represented by the Budra Forma- The Nijili Formation (Anisian/Ladinian) was de-
tion, which may be Ladinian. The formation consists scribed from outcrops near the Gaara depression in the
of red beds that were deposited under fluviatile and western desert of Iraq as consisting of flaky, saliferous,
eolian conditions. In eastern Egypt, this facies has been yellow and green marls and shales with frequent pur-
designated as the Qiseib Formation, which is probably plish bands and two thin beds of sandstone near the
equivalent to the Jilh Formation in the southern parts base. The main fossils found in the formation are in-
of the Arabian plate (Druckman, 1974). determinate plant remains at the contact with the over-
The Ammanus Sandstone Formation occurs widely lying Gaara Formation (Bellen et al., 1959). Because of
in Syria and consists of varicolored sandstone, siltstone, the lateral interfingering and vertical alternations of this
522 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
The Humrat Maain Formation of Jordan is ex- some of its exposures, the formation contains lenses of
posed only along the course of the Wadi Zerqa Maain gypsum, for example, those being quarried in the Sir-
River (Figure 1). This formation consists of reddish, wan area. The formation contains anhydrite and salt
limonitic, and gray-greenish sandstone interbedded layers at its middle part and a prominent sandstone bed
with varicolored clayey sandstone and claystone with at its base in the Mileh Tharthar-1 well (Bellen et al.,
mud cracks, ripple marks, rain prints, trace fossils, in- 1959; Sadooni, 1995) (Figure 1).
tercalations of dark shale rich in plant remains, and The Abu Ruweis Formation represents the final
partly dolomitized rocks. The formation contains the stage of Triassic deposition in northern Jordan. In the
same fossils described from the Mirga Mir Formation subsurface, the formation consists of dolomite, anhydrite
(Basha, 1981). with limestone, and claystone. There are sparse beds of
The finding of the same Lower Triassic conodonts olive gray to pale claystone and argillaceous mudstone
of the Pachycladina-Hadrodontina assemblages in the (Andrews, 1992; Sadooni and Dalqamouni, 1998).
upper part of the Yamin Formation and in the lower The deposition of the Mohilla Formation in the
part of the Zafir Formation, and in the upper part of Levant was associated with the peak of the regressive
the Humrat Maain Formation, suggests an age equiv- phase that began during the Ladinian and intensified
alency between these formations across the Levant during the Carnian and Norian. The Mohilla Formation
(Druckman et al., 1982). Both of the Yamin and the consists, in its lower parts, of aphanitic dolomite with
Zafir formations are composed of interbedded sand- abundant algal laminations and stromatolites grading
stone, shale, and limestone, totaling 430759 m (1411 upward into nodular and laminated anhydrite. The Mo-
2490 ft) thickness. Judging from the lithofacies types, hilla Formation may have been deposited in sabkha and
the fossil content, and the sheet geometry of the sand- shallow lagoon settings (Druckman, 1974). The Geva-
stone units, Druckman et al. (1982) assumed that these nim Formation (Anisian) in the Negev represents the
strata were deposited in a nearshore marine setting, clastic facies of the Raibl type, whereas the Mohilla
where the mixed clastic-carbonate facies were laid Formation belongs to the evaporitic facies of the Raibl
down in the littoral zone or in lagoons, whereas the type (Hirsch, 1992).
sand bodies accumulated as barriers.
The Ammanus Shale Formation in central Syria,
despite having the term shale associated with its name, The Muschelkalk-Type Facies
consists of intercalated gray sandstone and argillite that
grade into limestone. The formation becomes more This facies consists of fossiliferous and stromatolitic
calcareous upward, and at its top, dolomitized lime- limestone with minor shales and occasional sandstones
stone appears. In the subsurface, Pseudomontis clarai with plant remains and reptile bones, lithographic
Emmrich has been found in the formation (Bebeshev limestone with fish remains, and some gypsum inter-
et al., 1988). calations (Druckman et al., 1975; Hirsch, 1992). The
main faunal assemblages of the Muschelkalk facies
include bivalves, ammonites, conodonts, and crinoids.
The Raibl-Type Facies These strata were deposited in a large shallow epicon-
tinental platform sea (Druckman et al., 1975; Hirsch,
This is a regressive facies consisting of evaporites, sand- 1992). The Muschelkalk facies is well represented in a
stone, plant-bearing shale, marl with limestone, and fairly large number of formations in the northern parts
containing bivalve Myophorids and ostracods. This fa- of the Arabian basin. These include the Geli Khana
cies accumulated mainly during the Pan-Mediterranean Formation (Anisian Ladinian) of northern Iraq, the
salinity crisis during the early Carnian (Hirsch, 1992). Mulussa Formation (Carnian) of western Iraq, Hisban
This facies is represented, partially at least, by the Kurra (Anisian) and Salit (Ladinian Carnian) formations of
Chine Formation of northern Iraq, the Abu Ruweis For- Jordan, Saharonim (Ladinian) of the Levant, and the
mation of Jordan, and the Mohilla Formation of the Kurrachine (written as a single word in Syria) Dolomite
Levant, all of which are of Carnian age (Table 2). Formation (Anisian,Table 2).
The Kurra Chine Formation consists of approxi- The Geli Khana Formation of northern Iraq con-
mately 834 m (2736 ft) of dark brown and black lime- sists of approximately 575 m (1890 ft) of laminated
stone alternating with intercalations of papery shale and dolomite, dolomitic limestone containing abundant re-
thick-bedded dolomite showing slump structures. In crystallized gastropods, and fine-grained limestone with
intercalations of olive green shale and yellow brown trus (Goldfuss), Gervillia sp., Archaediscus spp., and
marl. The formation has yielded some important faunas, Trocholina spp., with frondicularids, textularids, and
including Daonella indica Bittner, Myophoria sp., Spi- ostracods (Bellen et al., 1959; Buday, 1980).
riferina sp., Trocholina spp., and Glomospira spp. The In its type locality at the well Northern Highlands
Geli Khana is thought to have been deposited approx- (NH)-2 (Figure 1), the Hisban Formation of northern
imately at the same time as the Gaara Formation in the Jordan consists of fossiliferous limestone, oolitic lime-
western desert. The Nijili Formation, which underlies stone, minor fossiliferous argillites, and subordinate
the Gaara, closely resembles the basal beds of the Geli beds of dolomite and anhydrite at the top (Andrews,
Khana (Bellen et al., 1959; Sadooni, 1995). 1992). Similarly, the Salit Formation is composed of
The Mulussa Formation of the western desert is peloidal, oolitic, bioclastic limestone, which is carbo-
probably the most important prominently exposed naceous and glauconitic in places, and contains a con-
Triassic rock unit in that part of Iraq (Figure 3). The siderable amount of dolomite. The formation contains
formation has a variable thickness that is the product of a 2030-m (66 98-ft) unit of shale in the upper part,
erosion and consists of a wide variety of lithologies that called the B2 shale (Andrews, 1992).
include oolitic, peloidal, and sandy limestones alter- The Saharonim Formation of the eastern Medi-
nating in thin beds with yellow marl and marly lime- terranean region consists of intercalations of fossilifer-
stone. The Mulussa is divided into two parts separated ous limestone and marl with ammonites, nautiloids,
by the (i) marker, which consists of conspicuous pelecypods, and benthonic foraminifera in the lower
oolitic-peloidal, locally conglomeratic limestone. Most parts. In the upper parts of the formation, the amount
of the fossils were recovered from the (i) marker and and diversity of the fauna are significantly reduced,
include Myophoria aff. Postera Moore, Mytilus minus- and the formation contains stromatolites, flat-pebble
524 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
conglomerates, lumpy limestone, and tidal channels strata were deposited (either Werfen or Muschelkalk
(Zak, 1963; Druckman, 1974). facies types) over continental or marine clastics (Bun-
The Kurrachine Dolomite Formation is the most ter, Keuper, or Raibl facies types) or regressive system
widespread Triassic formation of Syria. It is made up tracts where the stacking is reversed. There are differ-
of various types of dolomite. The lower part of the ences in the various locales of the Arabian plate, and
formation consists of clayey dolomite, and the upper some of these sequences may be missing. In other
part is composed of interbedded anhydrite and dolo- locales, there may be more than four sequences. In
mite. In the subsurface section of the formation, bi- northern Iraq, as much as six maximum flooding sur-
valves belonging to the genera Halobia or Daonella faces may be recognized in the outcrops and the sub-
were found (Bebeshev et al., 1988). surface sections (Table 3). These surfaces, however, are
difficult to trace across the northern parts of the Ara-
Dachstein Limestone-Type Facies bian plate because of the lack of enough paleontological
and sedimentological data. The following is a summary
This facies consists mainly of coral-algal buildups with of the main sequences that are found over most of the
back-reef shelf lagoons hosting foraminifera, algal northern extensions of the Arabian plate.
mats, large bivalves, and gastropods. The only record
of this facies is in the Shefayim Formation (Norian The Induan Olenekian Sequence
Rhaetian) of the Levant (Hirsch, 1992). Buday (1980)
recorded an informal formation called the Avroman The oldest Triassic unit in northern Iraq is the Mirga
Limestone Formation (Rhaetian?) from northern Iraq, Mir Formation (Werfen facies type) that rests con-
as consisting of thick-bedded limestone and marly lime- formably on the Permian Chia Zairi Formation. The
stone, which may represent marine depositional con- contact between the two formations is gradational with
ditions (Table 2). a substantial upward increase in the marls and shales
A regional lithostratigraphic correlation between from the massive Permian dolomites. The Mirga Mir is
the different Triassic strata across the northern exten- overlain by the Beduh Shale Formation (Keuper-type
sions of the Arabian plate is shown in Figure 4. facies). It appears that the equivalent of this sequence is
missing in the western desert of Iraq.
In Jordan, this sequence begins with the Bunter-
type continental clastics of the Um Irna Formation (In-
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY duan) and Ammanus Sandstone Formation (Induan) of
Syria, followed by the mixed clastic-carbonate facies of
The transgression that started the deposition of the the Keuper type, represented by the Suwayma Forma-
Khuff Formation (and its equivalent the Chia Zairi tion (Olenkian), or the Werfen-type facies, represented
Formation in the Mesopotamian basin) marked the by the Humrat Maain Formation (Induan) in Jordan
establishment of a shallow carbonate platform over all and the Ammanus Shale Formation (Induan) in Syria.
the northern parts of Arabia that was bordered by a In the Levant region, this sequence is represented by the
clastic province (Sharland et al., 2001). The low sub- Werfen-type facies of the Yamin and Zafir formations.
sidence rates and the consequent low rates of develop-
ment of accommodation space eventually led to the
deposition of fairly clean limestones, but no deep- The Anisian Ladinian Sequence
marine shale, even in the northeastern parts of the
basin. In northern Iraq, this sequence is represented by the
The Triassic strata of the northern extension of the Muschelkalk facies type of the Geli Khana Formation.
Arabian plate display a series of long-lived highstand In the western desert of Iraq, this sequence begins with
systems tract successions, beginning with the base of the Keuper-type facies, represented by the Nijili For-
the Khuff Formation (or its equivalent in the Mesopo- mation, followed by the continental clastic of the
tamian basin). The succession can be divided into at Bunter-type facies, represented by the Gaara Forma-
least four depositional sequences (Sharland et al., 2001) tion. According to Bellen et al. (1959), the Gaara
(Figure 5). Formation was nearly contemporaneous with the Geli
Some of these sequences represent a basal trans- Khana, whereas the Nijili Formation is equivalent to
gressive systems tract in which carbonate and evaporite the basal beds of that formation.
Figure 4. Lithostratigraphic comparison between the Triassic sections from selected wells in the northern parts of the Arabian plate
(compiled and modified from Druckman et al., 1982; Andrews, 1992; Sharland et al., 2001).
526 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
Figure 4. Continued.
and the Baluti Shale Formation of northern Iraq. The The available paleontological and sedimentological
strata of this sequence are believed to have been eroded data about these rocks do not allow detailed subdivi-
in Jordan and Syria. In the Levant, this sequence is rep- sions to low-order sequences. Nevertheless, the thick
resented by local occurrences of the Dachstein facies formations described, for example, from northern and
type, as represented by the Shefayim Formation. northwestern Iraq, such as Mirga Mir, Geli Khana,
528 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
Table 3. Maximum Flooding Surfaces in the Triassic Sediments of Northern Iraq
The Triassic of Iraq has the following six flooding surfaces, which are best noted in a combination of the Kurdistan outcrop
descriptions and the deeper wells in northern country region. All of these flooding surfaces either have clear deeper water faunas
(commonly indicated by filamentous pelagic bivalves) or have clearly developed open-marine carbonates above unconformities or
well-developed evaporites (Figure 5).
(1) Middle Scythian (Tr30) Halobia and glauconitic base of the Mirga Mir Formation (Gayara, 1992).
(2) Anisian (Tr40) clean carbonates at the base of the lower Geli Khana, which overlies the continental sediments of the Beduh
highstand systems tract clastics.
(3) Ladinian (Tr50) upper Geli Khana Formation. Argillaceous carbonates with a Daonella fauna.
(4) Early Carnian (Tr60) lower Kurra Chine clean carbonates that are developed above the top Geli Khana paleokarst.
(5) Late Carnian (Tr70) oolites locally deposited (Butmah and Kand) over the thick lowermost anhydrites of the Kurra Chine of
northern Iraq.
(6) Norian (Tr80) widespread clean limestones/dolomite at the base of the Butmah Formation immediately above the Baluti Shale
and uppermost Kurra Chine anhydrites; this event can be easily correlated from Iran to Jordan.
Kurra Chine, and Mulussa formations, provide evi- Fine-grained clastics, with carbonate-evaporite depos-
dence of interruptions in the sedimentation. its of restricted shelf, lagoonal, and tidal-flat origin,
accumulated in a rather narrow northwest-southeast
trending belt in eastern Iraq (Buday, 1980). These
shallow-marine shelf deposits can be traced into similar
GEOLOGIC HISTORY shallow-marine carbonate and shale or mudstone shelf
facies in Iran (Figure 6).
Early Triassic
Middle Triassic
The overall sedimentary sequence deposited on the
northern Arabian platform during the Early and Middle Middle Triassic rocks conformably overlie Lower Tri-
Triassic is essentially a continuation of the sedimentary assic beds and were deposited during a major marine
cycle that began during the Late Permian. Sedimenta- transgression, which interrupted the formerly domi-
tion continued to be controlled by the Mardin, Khle- nant clastic regime with carbonate sedimentation. The
issia, and Rutbah highs. The Rutbah and Khleissia highs Middle Triassic carbonate shelf deposits (east of the
were still separated by the Euphrates Anah trough RutbahKhleissia high) formed in very shallow-marine
during the remaining part of the cycle. At times, in- conditions (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997). A restricted
tervening areas between the Mardin and Khleissia highs shelf of carbonates and evaporites with lagoons, tidal
were also exposed. This ridge was subjected to erosion flats, and sabkhas dominated the central part of the Ara-
and was fringed on its northeastern side by the large bian platform and the Palmyra Sinjar and Euphrates
Mesopotamian basin that extended from Turkey in the Anah troughs. The facies grade into variably textured
northwest to central Iran in the southeast. To the west carbonates with some shales of shallow-marine to shelf-
of the Rutbah Khleissia ridge, the Palmyra Sinjar margin origin in Iran, northern Iraq, southern Turkey,
trough was connected to the Mediterranean Tethys to and most of Syria and Jordan. Close to the western edge
the west and continued to subside (Alsharhan and of the Afro-Arabian massif, the Middle Triassic dep-
Nairn, 1997). ositional facies is represented by continental sand-
The Lower Triassic depositional facies is charac- stones intercalated with nearshore sandstones and shales
terized by abundant clastics over most of the region (Figure 7).
east of the RutbahKhleissia high, indicating an epi- The Middle Triassic evaporites, with younger Tri-
sode of regression in the Tethys, probably related to assic evaporites, form an effective regional seal to major
uplift as the precursor of the initiation of the Neo- gas accumulations in the underlying Permian carbonate
Tethys rifts. This uplift is well documented in the cen- and Lower Triassic clastic reservoirs. In the Palmyra
tral part of the craton along the RutbahKhleissia high. Sinjar and EuphratesAnah troughs in Lebanon and
532 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
Sadooni and Alsharhan
533
Figure 8. The main depositional environments of the Late Triassic rocks in the northern Arabian plate.
trough began to form much earlier in the early Late carbon, ranging between 0.5 and 1.9%, and hence,
Triassic. they represent oil-prone source rocks. Mature and oil-
prone source rocks are expected at depths greater
than 1900 m (6200 ft) in the Risha area (Figure 1),
TRIASSIC PLAY POTENTIAL but they may be at shallower depths in the Northern
Highlands (Dungworth et al., unpublished report, cited
Source Rocks by Sadooni and Dalqamouni, 1998). Finally, the lower
part of the Abu Ruweis Formation (Carnian) contains
Triassic source rocks are among the least studied strata shale beds that represent fair to good source rocks
of the Middle East. The absence of thick marine shales (Sadooni and Dalqamouni, 1998).
suggests a lack of potential source rocks to generate
commercial quantities of hydrocarbons. Metwalli et al. Reservoirs
(1972) studied the chemical characteristics of the crude
oil from Jebissa field in Syria (Figure 1) and found that The Triassic Jurassic sequence of the northern Arabi-
the Triassic oils have different characteristics from the an platform includes reservoir and cap-rock lithologies
Cretaceous and Tertiary oils. May (1991) suggested and is considered the primary objective for future oil
that the Triassic oil in the Syrian and Iraqi oil fields may exploration in eastern Syria and northwestern Iraq. The
be sourced from the Middle to Lower Triassic and Per- lower Mulussa Formation and the Kurra Chine dolo-
mian shales and limestones, or possibly from a distant mite in northwestern Iraq may be attractive reservoirs.
Jurassic source rocks. Beydoun (1988, 1993), however, To be so, they should be overlain by the TriassicJurassic
favored an indigenous oil source represented by the thin evaporite sequence and are in communication with
interbedded shales in the Triassic carbonates. Grunau Silurian source rocks at the time they were generat-
(1983) and Sadooni (1995) agreed and suggested that ing oil or in areas where, in response to overthrusting,
the Kurra Chine Formation contains both source and this reservoir overlies oil-rich Cretaceous source rocks
reservoir rocks in northern Iraq. (Sadooni, 1995). The TriassicJurassic reservoirs also ap-
Using fluid inclusions, Bilal (1988) has examined pear to reach a depth of burial in the Palmyra Sinjar
the paleothermal history of the Triassic rocks of Syria. and Euphrates Anah troughs, which would have al-
He suggested that the thermal gradient in these strata lowed bordering oil-prone source rocks to source struc-
ranges between 5 and 7% and increases from the north- tures along the south flank of the troughs.
northeast toward the west-southwest, the direction of Toward the close of the Late Triassic (Rhaetian),
the tectonic and volcanic activities associated with the subsidence on the Arabian platform slowed, and the
Great Syrian rift, a northern extension of the great influx of terrigenous clastics increased (Murris, 1980).
African rift. The initial Permian clastic rocks deposited The climate became less arid, with restriction of arid
in Syria are locally more than 500 m (1640 ft) thick in conditions to the northern part of the Mesopotamian
the SinjarPalmyra trough. Much thinner accumula- basin. The fluviatile and coastal sandstones belonging
tions were deposited on the flanks of the trough. Some to this period have good reservoir properties, but so
minor oil-prone source rocks have been identified in far, they are unproductive, probably a response to a
the clastic sequence, as well as sandstones of fair to good lack of access to adequate hydrocarbon sources. This
reservoir characteristics. stage terminated with emergence after the Rhaetian.
The Kurrachine Formation consists of alternations The break is well marked over the stable shelf, with
of limestones and dolomites, shales, and anhydrites, removal of notable parts of the Upper Triassic se-
which may contain local source rocks. The formation quence, mainly on the Rutbah and Khleissia highs.
may be at the beginning of thermal maturation on the Currently, the Triassic reservoirs of the Middle
Aleppo plateau and in thermal or overmature zones East are not significant. They contain some 1% of
in areas of Jebbissa, Soukhne, and Souedie (Figure 1), the total Iraqi proven oil reserve. Other countries do
which are situated in the eastern part of Syria (Al- not fare much better. The main Triassic reservoir
Sakini, 1992). rocks are the dolomites, oolitic limestones, and sand-
In northern parts of Jordan, shales and argillaceous stones in northern Iraq and Syria. The main accumula-
limestones in the Triassic strata may represent poten- tions are within the Kurra Chine Formation in north-
tial indigenous source rocks. In the NH-1 well (Fig- ern Iraq, mainly in the Butmah, Sufaiya, and Alan oil
ure 1), these rocks contain a fairly high total organic fields and in the fields of Souedie, Rumailan, Jebbissa,
534 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
and Tishreen in Syria (May, 1991; Sadooni, 1995). In are structurally inverted, and there is a considerable
the Euphrates graben, oil was recovered during tests shift between surface and subsurface structures. There-
from Triassic carbonates and clastics (Al-Sakini, 1992). fore, many of the drilled wells were shifted and missed
Although the Rutba sandstone is the most prolific the intended reservoir targets. There are, however, sev-
reservoir in the graben, other reservoir-quality rocks eral fields that produced significant amounts of oil and
have been documented in the Triassic and Carbonif- gas during production tests. In Alan field, several for-
erous (Litak et al., 1998). Some of these clastics may mation tests were carried out on the Kurra Chine For-
belong to the Kurra Chine Formation, because Sadooni mation. In the well Alan-1, free oil was encountered at
(1995) reported that the lower part of the Kurra Chine the depth of 2569 2570 m (8428 8431 ft) and gas
Formation becomes increasingly clastic toward the cen- shows at 2564 m (8412 ft). In Alan-2, a formation test
tral parts of Iraq. Minor oil accumulations and shows was carried out in the Kurra Chine at the depth of
were reported from different parts in Jordan and the 2408 2466 m (7900 8090 ft), and the well produced
Levant region. an average of 343 bbl/day of oil with a gravity of 29.6j
API. At the depth of 2762 2799 m (9081 9183 ft),
Exploration History gas and gas condensate were also recovered. After main-
tenance, the well produced an average of 6000 bbl/day.
In the Middle East, Syria has the highest oil and gas The total calculated oil reserves in this field are around
potential in Triassic rocks. Since the late 1960s, ex- 12 million tons.
ploration of these reservoirs has commenced in several In Butmah field, gas-bearing zones were encountered
fields that produce also from the Upper Cretaceous in the well Butmah-2 between 3198 3233 and 3253
massif limestone. In the Souedia field, which is a large 3255 m (10,49110,607 and 10,67210,679 ft), oil zone
seismic dome, drilling of the well S-40 proved the ex- between 3262 and 3278 m (10,701 and 10,754 ft), and
istence of economic hydrocarbons in the Liassic But- oil shows at 3266 3269 m (10,715 10,725 ft). The
mah Formation and the Triassic Kurrachine Formation. average porosity of the Upper Triassic rocks in that well
Both reservoirs were sealed by the anhydrite of the is approximately 10%. Oil and gas shows were reported
Adaiyah Formation. The well produced 36j API oil also from the well Butmah-15. The average porosity in
with sulfur content of 0.85% from the Liassic and 31.70j that well is between 3 and 12%, and the total reserves are
API oil with 0.9% sulfur content from the Triassic. 7 million tons of oil and 5.5 109 m3 of gas.
The well R-4 in the Rumailan field encountered In Ibrahim-1, a small amount of oil and gas was
gas and condensate in the Triassic Kurrachine Forma- reported from the dolomite rocks at the lower part of the
tion (Dolaa Group) at around 2900 m (9500 ft). The Kurra Chine Formation. Friable tar and dead oil were
reservoir contains an important quantity of gas accom- found at the interval of 2756 2778 m (9041 9114 ft).
panied with the production of 2830 bbl/day of con- Gas and oil were noticed during coring on the fracture
densate. The total reserves in the Triassic are around planes of the dolomite interval of 3078 3165 m
85 million tons. The Hamzah field is a small domal (10,098 10,383 ft). Preliminary reservoir evaluation
structure, 9 km (6 mi) in diameter, situated between suggested the presence of a total oil column of ap-
Souedia and Karatchok. Oil has been found in the Tri- proximately 82 m (269 ft) in thickness containing 26j
assic at a depth of 3100 m (10,200 ft). Similar findings API oil. The total estimated oil in this field in the Upper
were reported from other fields, such as Karatchok, Triassic rocks is 3.7 million tons.
Jebbissa, and Tishreen, and the Euphrates graben, but In the field of Sufaiya, the well Sf-1 produced on
details are not available at this time (Wetzel, 1974). test gas and condensate at the interval of 28842906 m
In Iraq, with a total estimated reserve of 22.8 million (94619534 ft) and oil and water at the interval of
tons of oil and 6.6 109 m3 of gas, the Triassic strata 29273045 m (96029990 ft). The estimated gas
are still not important reservoir rocks. These figures, reserve in this field is 1.1 109 m3 gas. Furthermore, oil
however, depend on rudimentary data derived from a and gas shows were reported from the wells of Atshan-1,
few scattered wells. The Triassic sedimentary strata are Kand-1, and Kifl-3, oil shows were reported from the
composed of more than 500 m (1640 ft) of porous and wells of Qalain-1 and Tel Hajar-1, and heavy oil shows
fractured dolomite in most of the wells that penetrated were reported from the well Mileh Tharthar-1.
the Triassic succession in northwestern Iraq. They may In the Levant region, 18 wells were drilled down to
contain larger quantities of oil and gas than anticipated. the Triassic rocks. No significant hydrocarbons were
Furthermore, most of the drilled fields in that region found in any of these wells, although many of them had
536 Stratigraphy, Lithofacies Distribution, and Potential of the Northern Arabian Plate
Syria, the Triassic strata in the Euphrates Anah Beydoun, Z. R., 1988, The Middle East: Regional geology and
petroleum resources: United Kingdom, Scientific Press, 292 p.
graben in Syria and Iraq, and the Triassic buildups in Beydoun, Z. R., 1993, Evolution of the northeastern Arabia Plate
the northern parts of the Levant. The Kurrachine margin and shelf: Hydrocarbon habitat and conceptual future
Formation represents both source and reservoir rocks potential: Revue de lInstitut Francais du Petrole, v. 48,
p. 311 345.
and may be at the beginning of thermal maturation
Bilal, A., 1988, Paleothermal study of Triassic formation in Syria
at Aleppo plateau and in thermal or overmature zones by using fluid inclusion (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 72, p. 988
in areas of Jebbissa, Soukhne, and Souedie of Syria. 989.
7. The Triassic strata produced light oil, gas, and con- Buday, T., 1980, The regional geology of Iraq, stratigraphy and
paleontology: Baghdad, State Organization for Minerals, 445 p.
densates in several fields, such as the Souedia, Ru- Cordey, W. G., 1971, Stratigraphy and sedimentation of the
mailan, and Hamza in Syria and Alan and Sufaiya in Cretaceous Mardin Formation in southeastern Turkey, in A. S.
Iraq. High potential of gas and condensate may be Campbell, ed., Geology and history of Turkey: 13th Annual
Field Conference of the Petroleum Exploration Society of
found in the northern parts of the Levant. Libya, p. 317 348.
Ctyroky, P., 1973, Permian flora from the Gaara region (western
Iraq): Neues Jahrbuch fur Geologie und Palaontologie, Monats-
hefte, v. 7, p. 383 388.
NOTE ABOUT NOMENCLATURE
Dixon, J. E., and A. H. F. Robertson, eds., 1984, The geological
evolution of the eastern Mediterranean: Oxford, United
We used the collective term Levant to encompass both Kingdom, Blackwell Scientific Publishers, 836 p.
Druckman, Y., 1974, The stratigraphy of the Triassic sequence in
Israel and the Palestinian territories to avoid geographic
southern Israel: Geological Survey of Israel Bulletin, v. 64,
confusion related to the unresolved territorial pro- p. 5 54.
blems of the region. Druckman, Y, G. Gvirtzman, and E. Kashai, 1975, Distribution and
environments of deposition of Upper Triassic on the northern
margins of the Arabian shield and around the Mediterranean
Sea: Proceedings of the IX International Congress on Sedimen-
tology, Nice, Theme 5, Tome 1, p. 183 192.
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