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16 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS
Figure 4.18 Silt-size fraction of Mexico City clay showing
poriferous whole geometric forms and fragments of diatoms.
Figure 4.19 Photomicrograph of fibrous Middleton peat.
display a substantial cation exchange capacity which
increases with degree of humification and is strongly
influenced by the hydrogen ion concentration in the pore
water. Cations such as calcium, magnesium, potassium,
sodium, and also iron and aluminum, replace hydrogen
at the exchange sites of organic polymolecules. The cation
Figure 4.20 Photomicrograph of a poriferous cellular peat
particle.
exchange capacity of very fine humic substances may be
as high as 1.5 to 5.0 meq/g.
Soil fabrics characterized by organic coarse particles,
as in fibrous peat, hold a considerable amount of water
because they are generally very loose, and also because
organic particles are hollow and largely full of water.
This is illustrated in Figs. 4.19 and 4.20 by SEM photomi-
crographs of a light brown fibrous peat from Middleton,
Wisconsin, with natural water content and void ratio in
the range of 610 to 830% and 11.1 to 14.2, respectively.
In organic fine substances, water of hydration and double-
layer water are important. In general, the water-holding
capacity of peats decreases with increased degree of
decomposition. In a high-pH, alkaline environment,
organic fine substances disperse into globular polyanions
as small as 3 to 9 nm. In a low-pH, acidic environment
or in high-electrolyte concentration, the polyanions coag-
ulate to form large flocs of a more or less globular shape.
Organic polyanions that pigment the surface of fine min-
eral particles such as clay minerals result in stable clay-
humus complexes that promote loose and open fabric in
organic soft clays and silts. Globular organic polyanions
attach themselves, directly through hydrogen bonding or
through adsorbed cations, to specific sites at the surface
of minerals and thus promote flocculation and aggregation
of mineral particles.
Drying of organic coarse particles causes shrinkage
of thin-walled tissues and collapse of cell structure and
thereby decreases particle porosity and water-holding
capacity. It also promotes aggregation of organic sub-
stances, whereupon organic precipitates bind mineral par-

ticles into stable aggregates. Even without drying and
at moderate laboratory temperatures, the organic solid
content of soil is susceptible to degradation, decomposi-
tion, dissolution, and therefore to loss. Scorching, irre-
versible dehydration, and oxidation of organic substances
begin at about 60C.
4.7 Practical Significance of Colloidal Properties
The foregoing sections of this article have made it clear
that the properties of the very fine soil fractions are of
outstanding engineering importance. They have also indi-
cated that an understanding of these properties has its
roots in physical chemistry, colloidal chemistry, clay min-
eralogy, and organic chemistry. Notwithstanding the fun-
damental importance of these scientific disciplines, a
detailed quantitative knowledge of none of them is needed
in geotechnical engineering practice, because the influ-
ence of the various scientific findings is reflected in the
numerical values of the index properties and of the
strength, deformation, and hydraulic properties deter-
mined by means of engineering tests and used in engi-
neering calculations. To know the percentages of, say,
illite and sodium montmorillonite in a deposit where a
landslide has developed gives the engineer insight into
the causes of the slide and may suggest the relative appli-
cability of certain remedial measures, but it is the quantita-
tive influence of the very fine soil fraction, as determined
by engineering tests and analyses, that is of primary value
in assessing and solving most problems in applied soil
mec hanics.
Selected Reading
The first three references include a review of the history
and development of geotechnical engineering from the
earliest times up to 1985. The remaining references deal
with mineralogy, physico-chemistry, fabric, and structure
of soils.
Kerisel, J. (1985). The history of geotechnical engineering up
until 1700, Proc. 11th Int. Conf Soil Mech. and Found.
Eng., San Francisco, Golden Jubilee Volume, pp. 3-93.
Peck, R. B. (1985). The last sixty years, Proc. 11th Int. Con$
Soil Mech. Found. Eng., San Francisco, Golden Jubilee
Volume, pp. 123-133.
Skempton, A. W. (1985). A history of soil properties, 1717-
1927, Proc. 11th Int. Con$ Soil Mech. Found. Eng., San
Francisco, Golden Jubilee Volume, pp. 95-121.
Terzaghi, K. (1925). Structure and volume of voids of soils,
in Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage,
pp. 10-13, translated by A. Casagrande in From Theory
to Practice in Soil Mechanics, New York, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., (1960), pp. 146-148.
Casagrande, A. (1932b). The structure of clay and its impor-
tance in foundation engineering, J. Boston SOC. Civil
Engrs., 19, No. 4,p. 168.
ARTICLE 5 MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 17
Skempton, A. W. and R. D. Northey (1952). The sensitivity
of clays, Geot., 3,p p. 30-53.
Rosenqvist, I. T. (1953). Considerations on the sensitivity of
Norwegian quick clays, Geot., 3, pp. 195-200.
Bjerrum, L. (1954). Geotechnical properties of Norwegian
marine clays, Geot., 4, pp. 49-69.
Kenney, T. C. (1964). Sea-level movements and the geological
histories of the post-glacial marine soils at Boston, Nicolet,
Ottawa, and Oslo, Geot., 15, No. 3, pp. 203-230.
Grim, R. E. (1968). Clay Mineralogy, 2nd, ed. New York,
McGraw-Hill, 596 p.
Rowe, P. W. (1972). The relevance of soil fabric to site investi-
gation practice, Geot.,22, No. 2, pp. 195-300.
Gieseking, J. E. (1975a). Soil Components. Volume 1: Organic
Components, New York, Springer-Verlag, 534 p.
Gieseking, J. E. (1975b).Soil Components. Volume 2: Inorganic
Components, New York, Springer-Verlag, 684 p.
Mitchell, J. K. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil Behavior; 2nd ed,
New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 450 p.
Van Olphen, H. (1977).An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemis-
try, 2nd ed., New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 318 p.
Quigley, R. M. (1980). Geology, mineralogy and geochemistry
of Canadian soft soils: a geotechnical perspective, Cana-
dian Geotech. J., 17, No. 2, pp. 261-285.
ARTICLE 5 MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF
SOILS
5.1 Methods of Mechanical Analysis
The purpose of mechanical analysis is to determine the
size of the grains that constitute a soil and the percentage
of the total weight represented by the grains in various
size ranges. The most direct method for separating a soil
into grain-size fractions is the use of sieves. However,
since the openings of the finest mesh readily available
have a width of 0.07 mm, the use of sieves is restricted
to analysis of clean sands. If a soil contains grains smaller
than 0.07 mm, it may be separated into two parts by
washing with water. As the water becomes turbid, it is
drawn off. The coarser portion of the soil remains in the
container and can be subjected to a sieve analysis. The
soil particles in the turbid liquid, which are too fine to
be collected on sieves, can be subjected to wet mechani-
cal analysis.
The methods for performing wet mechanical analysis
are based on Stokess law, which determines the velocity
at which a spherical particle of given diameter settles in
a quiet liquid. In the method commonly used for engi-
neering purposes, 20 to 40 g of clay soil or 50 to 100 g
of sandy soil are mixed with one liter of water, agitated,
and poured into a container. The density of the suspension
is measured at various times by means of a hydrometer
of special design. At any given time, the size of the
largest particles remaining in suspension at the level of
the hydrometer can be computed by means of Stokess
law, whereas the weight of the particles finer than that
size can be computed from the density of the suspension
18 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS
at the same level. The performance of a test requires
several days.
By means of wet mechanical analysis, soil fractions
can be separated down to a size of about 0.5~.
fractions can be obtained by means of a centrifuge, but
Still finer
the results of such refined methods are of interest only
in connection with scientific research.
Agitation in water transforms many clays into suspen-
sions, not of individual particles, but of flocs. To break
up the flocs into individual grains, or to disperse the soil,
a deflocculating agent must be added to the water. The
most common errors in the results of wet mechanical
analysis are caused by inadequate dispersion.
The results of wet mechanical analysis are not strictly
comparable to those of sieve analysis, because soil grains
are never exactly spherical, and the smallest ones are
commonly of a flaky shape. In a sieve analysis the width
of the flake is measured, whereas the dimension deter-
mined by means of wet mechanical analysis is the diame-
ter of a sphere that sinks at the same rate as the flake.
This diameter may be much smaller than the width of
the actual flake.
The most convenient representation of the results of a
mechanical analysis is the semilogarithmic grain-size
curve shown in Fig. 5.1. The abscissas of this curve
represent the logarithm of the grain size. The ordinates
represent the percentage E by weight, of grains smaller
than the size denoted by the abscissa. The more uniform
the grain size, the steeper is the slope of the curve; a
vertical line represents a perfectly uniform powder. The
most important advantage of a semilogarithmic plot is
that the grain-size curves of soils having equal uniformity
are identical in shape, regardless of the average grain
size. In addition, the horizontal distance between two
curves of the same shape is equal to the logarithm of the
ratio of the average grain sizes of the corresponding soils.
Figure 5.2 shows several typical grain-size curves.
Curve a is a common type. It closely resembles the normal
frequency curve that represents one of the fundamental
laws of statistics. Since grain size is a statistical phenome-
non, attempts have been made to use the terms and con-
tm r I
aoo/ 0101 Q/ 10 /O
Values of D fmm)
Figure 5.1 Semilogarithmic plot of results of mechanical
analysis.
'00%
/
"",
,
0
100 %
0
IO0 %
Volues of D (mml
Figure 5.2 Typical grain-size curves. (a) Normal frequency
curve. ( b and c) Curves for soils having coarser and finer
fractions of different uniformity. ( d and e ) Composite curves.
cepts of statistics to describe the results of mechanical
analyses. Such refinements, however, are usually not war-
ranted in connection with soil mechanics for engi-
neering purposes.
If a sample has the grain-size distribution shown in
Fig. 5.2a, the uniformity of the fraction having grains
larger than D50(corresponding to P = 50%) is approxi-
mately equal to that of the fraction having grains smaller
than D50. If the distribution resembles that shown in b,
the coarser half of the sample is relatively uniform,
whereas the size of the grains in the finer half varies over
a wide range. Conversely, the distribution represented in
c corresponds to a sample in which the coarser grains
are of widely different sizes and the finer ones are more
uniform. The curves represented in d and e are said to
be composite.
The grain-size curves of immature residual soils are
usually similar to that shown in Fig. 5.2b. With increasing
age of the soil, the average grain size decreases because
of weathering, and the curves become more nearly straight
(Fig. 5 . 2 ~ )The
. grain-size curves of mature soils resemble
that shown in Fig. 5 . 2 ~ Distributions
. represented by b and
c are also common among soils of glacial or fluvioglacial
origin. Absence of a medium grain size in a sedimentary
soil, as exemplified by the curve in Fig. 5.24 is common
among sand-gravel mixtures that were deposited by
swiftly flowing rivers carrying a large load of sediment.

Gravels of this type are said to be poorly, or gap, graded.
A curve such as that in Fig. 5.2d may also be obtained
if the materials from two different layers are mixed before
the mechanical analysis is performed.
A conspicuous break in the continuity of the grain-size
curve may also indicate the simultaneous deposition of
the soil by two different agents. For instance, one fraction
might be washed into a glacial lake by a river and another
fraction dropped from melting ice floats. Thus, a knowl-
edge of the shape of grain-size curves may assist in
determining the geological origin of a soil and thereby
reduce the risk of error in the interpretation of the data
obtained from test borings.
5.2 Abbreviated Representation of Grain-Size
Characteristics
In order to represent the essential results of the mechanical
analysis of a great number of soils, it may be convenient
to express the grain-size characteristics of each soil either
by numerical values indicative of some Characteristic
grain size and of the degree of uniformity or else by
names or symbols that indicate the dominant soil fraction.
The most common procedure based on numerical values
is known as Allen Hazens method. On the basis of a
great number of tests with filter sands, Hazen (1892)
found that the permeability of these sands in a loose state
depends on two quantities that he called the effective size
and the uniformity coefficient. The eflective size is the
diameter Dlo that corresponds to P = 10% on the grain-
size diagram. In other words, 10% of the particles are finer
and 90% coarser than the effective size. The uniformity
coeficient Cu is equal to D60/D10, wherein D m is the grain
size corresponding to P = 60%. A third characteristic of
the grain-size distribution, useful in the classification of
soils (Article 8.3), is the coeficient of curvature Cc,
defined as D$olDloOm.
Hazens findings led other investigators to the more or
less arbitrary assumption that the quantities Dlo and Cu
are also suitable for expressing the grain-size characteris-
tics of mixed-grained natural soils. With increasing
knowledge concerning fine-grained soils, it has become
evident that the character of such soils depends chiefly
on the finest 20% and that it might be preferable to select
D20 and D70 as the significant quantities. However, the
advantage is not sufficiently important to justify a depar-
ture from well-established procedure. The use of symbols
to indicate the grain-size characteristics of a soil is
described in Article 8.3.
Selected Reading
Techniques for performing mechanical analyses and other
classification tests are described in Section 4 of the
Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
ARTICLE 6 SOIL AGGREGATE 19
ARTICLE 6 SOIL AGGREGATE
6.1 Introduction
The term aggregate refers to the soil itself, in contrast
to its constituent parts. Qualitatively, soil aggregates may
differ in texture and consistency. Quantitatively,they may
differ in porosity, relative density, water and gas content,
and consistency. The qualitative information is obtained
in the field by visual inspection. It constitutes the basis
for preparing the boring logs or other records that describe
the succession of strata in the underground. The quantita-
tive information is obtained by means of laboratory and
field tests. Without such information the description of
any soil is inadequate.
6.2 Texture, Structure, and Consistency
The term texture refers to the degree of fineness and
uniformity of a soil. It is described by such expressions
asfloury, smooth, gritty, or sharp, in accordance with the
sensation produced by rubbing the soil between the
fingers.
The term structure may refer to the fabric of the
aggregate, as described in Article 4.5. It may also refer
to features acquired after deposition, such as the root
holes contained in loess (Article 2). Stiff clays may
also contain tubular root holes extending to a depth of
several meters below the surface, or they may be divided
by hair cracks into prismatic or irregular fragments that
fall apart as soon as the confining pressure is removed.
Such hair cracks are known asjoints. Striations produced
by movements along the walls of the joints are known
as slickensides. The origin, nature, and practical implica-
tions of such defects of soil strata are discussed in
Chapter 2.
The term consistency refers to the degree of adhesion
between the soil particles and to the resistance offered
against forces that tend to deform or rupture the soil
aggregate. The consistency is described by such terms
as hard, stifi brittle, friable, sticky, plastic, and soft.
The more nearly a soil approaches the characteristics
of a clay, the greater is the variety of states of consis-
tency in which it may be found. The degree of plasticity
is sometimes expressed by the terms fat and lean. A
lean clay is one that is only slightly plastic because
it contains a large proportion of silt or sand. Further
information concerning the consistency of clays is given
in Article 7.
6.3 Porosity, Water Content, Unit Weight, and
Density
The porosity n is the ratio of the volume of voids to the
total volume of the soil aggregate. The term volume of
voids refers to that portion of the volume of the soil not
occupied by mineral grains.
20 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS
The void ratio e is the ratio of the volume of voids to
the volume of the solid substance. If
V = total volume
Vv = total volume of voids
then
n = -VV (6.l a )
V a vessel. Fine and very fine sands may in some instances
and
e=--- VV (6.lb)
v - vu
The relation between void ratio and porosity is expressed
by the equations,
n water that causes the unstable structure to collapse.
e=--- (6.2a)
1-n
and
n=- e (6.2b)
l+e
The porosity of a stable mass of identical cohesionless
spheres depends on the manner in which the spheres are
arranged. In the densest possible arrangement, n is equal
to 26%, and in the loosest state to 47%. Natural sands
are found with porosities varying from about 25 to 50%.
The porosity of a natural sand deposit depends on the
shape of the grains, the uniformity of grain size, and the
conditions of sedimentation.
The effect of the shape of the grains on the porosity
of the aggregate can be demonstrated by mixing various
percentages of mica with a uniform angular sand. If the
percentage of mica, by weight, is equal successively to
0,5,10,20, and40, the porosities of the resultant mixtures
when loosely dumped into a vessel are about 47, 60, 70,
77, and 84%, respectively (Gilboy 1928). The porosity
of soft natural clays, which contain an appreciable per-
centage of flat particles, usually ranges between 30 and
60%. It can even exceed 90%.
Because of the great influence of the shape of the
grains and of the degree of uniformity on the porosity,
the porosity itself does not indicate whether a soil is
loose or dense. This information can be obtained only by
comparing the porosity of the given soil with that of the
same soil in its loosest and densest possible states. The
looseness or denseness of sandy soil can be expressed
numerically by the relative density D,, defined by the
equation
emax - e
D, = (6.3)
emax - emin
in which emax= void ratio of the soil in its loosest sta-
ble state
emin= void ratio in the densest state that can
be obtained in the laboratory
e = void ratio of the soil in the field
To bring a medium or coarse sand into its loosest
state, corresponding to the void ratio emax,the sand is
first dried and then poured from a small height into
be brought into the loosest state by mixing a sample
with enough water to transform it into a thick suspension
that is then allowed to settle; the value of emaxis equal
to the final void ratio of the sediment. In other instances
the loosest state can be established by carefully depos-
iting the sand in a slightly moist state, such that the
capillary forces produce an artificially loose structure,
and by then permitting a very slow upward flow of
The densest state of clean sands can be established by
prolonged vibrations, under a small vertical load, at a
frequency of 20 to 30 Hz.
The relative density of sand has a well-defined meaning
because its value is practically independent of the static
pressure to which the sand is subjected. It depends primar-
ily on the procedure used in placing and compacting the
sand. On the other hand, the degree of density of clays
and other cohesive soils depends chiefly on the loads that
these soils have carried and, in some instances, on the
rate at which the loads were applied. The degree of density
of these soils is most clearly reflected by the liquidity
index Zl (Article 7.2).
The water content w of a soil is defined as the ratio
of the weight of water to the dry weight of the aggregate.
It is usually expressed as a percentage. In sands located
above the water table, part of the voids may be occupied
by air. If e , represents the volume occupied by water per
unit volume of solid matter, the ratio,
100 V, - 100e,
S,(%) = ___ - - (6.4)
VV e
represents the degree of saturation. The degree of satura-
tion of sands is commonly expressed by such words as
dry or moist. Table 6.1 gives a list of such descriptive
terms and of the corresponding degrees of saturation. The
nomenclature represented in Table 6.1 applies only to
sands or very sandy soils. A clay in the state of desiccation
represented by S , = 90% might be so hard that it would
be called dry instead of wet.
Coarse sands located above the water table are usually
humid. Fine or silty sands are moist, wet, or saturated.
Clays are almost always completely or nearly saturated,
except in the layer of surface soil that is subject to seasonal
variations of temperature and moisture. If a clay contains
gas, the gas is present in bubbles scattered throughout
 ARTICLE 6 SOIL AGGREGATE 21
Table 6.1 Degree of Saturation of Sand in Let
Various States
ys = average unit weight of solid constituents
yw = unit weight of water
Condition of Sand Degree of Saturation (%) n = porosity (expressed as a ratio)

0 The unit weight of dry soil (S, = 0%) is

Dry
Humid 1-25 Yd = (1 - n h s (6.7)
Damp 26-50
Moist 5 1-75 and of saturated soil (S, = 100%) is
Wet 76-99
Saturated 100
Ysat = (1 - n>rs + nyw = 7s - n(rs - rw> (6.8)
The density and unit weight of the principal solid con-
stituents of soils are given in Table 6.2. For sand grains
the material. The bubbles may be composed of air that the average density is usually about 2.65 Mg/m3. For clay
entered the deposit during sedimentation, or of gas pro- particles the density varies from 2.5 to 2.9 with a statistical
duced at a later date by chemical processes such as the average of approximately 2.7 Mg/m3.
decomposition of organic material. The gas may be under Given in Table 6.3 are the porosity, the saturated den-
pressure great enough to cause the clay to expand energet- sity, and the saturated unit weight of typical soils. For
ically at constant water content if the confining pressure sandy soils the values for dry soil have also been included.
is decreased. The determination of the gas content of a The values have been computed on the assumption that
clay is extremely difficult. It requires special equipment ps is 2.65 Mg/m3 for sandy soils and 2.70 Mg/m3 for
and is not a routine test. clays. The tabulated values should be considered only as
The water content itself is a significant index property, approximations. Before final computations are made on
especially with respect to the consistency of clays (Article a given job, the actual density or unit weight of the soil
7). Of even greater importance, however, is the state of should always be determined.
stress of the water in the voids of the soil. The porewater The speciJic gravity of the solid constituents is defined
stress, which may be either positive or negative with as Gs = P S I P W = Ys/Yw
respect to atmospheric pressure, is fundamentally related
to the behavior of the soil under field conditions. This Problems
relationship is at the heart of much of the subject matter
of the remainder of this book. Porewater stress is variously 1. A sample of saturated clay weighed 1526 g in its natural
referred to as porewater pressure, pore pressure, or neu- state, and 1053 g after drying. Determine the natural water
tral stress (Article 15). content. If the specific gravity of the solid constituents was 2.70,
The density of the soil aggregate is defined as the mass what was the void ratio? The porosity? The total unit weight?
of the aggregate (soil plus water) per unit of volume. It Ans. w = 44.9%;e = 1.21; n = 0.55; y = 17.3 kN/m3.
depends on the density of the solid constituents, the poros-
ity of the aggregate, and the degree of saturation. It may
Table 6.2 Density of Most Important Soil
be computed as follows:
Constituents
Let
ps = average density of solid constituents Mg/m3 Mg/m3
pw = density of water
n = porosity (expressed as a ratio)
Gypsum 2.32 Dolomite 2.87
The density of dry soil (S,= 0%) is Montmorillonite 2 SO-2.80 Aragonite 2.94
Orthoclase 2.56 Biotite 3.0-3.1
Pd = (1 - n>Ps (6.5) Kaolinite 2.60 Augite 3.2-3.4
and of saturated soil (S, = 100%) is Illite 2.66-2.72 Hornblende 3.2-3.5
Chlorite 2.6-3.0 Limonite 3.8
Psat = (1 - n)ps + npw = P s - 4 P s - Pw) (6.6) Quartz 2.66 Hematite, 4.32
Similarly, the unit weight of the soil aggregate is Talc 2.7 hydrous
defined as the weight of the aggregate (soil plus water) Calcite 2.72 Magnetite 5.17
per unit of volume. It depends on the unit weight of the Muscovite 2.8-2.9 Hematite 5.2
solid constituents, the porosity of the aggregate, and the
degree of saturation. It may be computed as follows: Larson and Berman (1934).
22 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Table 6.3 Porosity, Void Ratio, Density, and Unit Weight of Typical Soils in Natural State

Density Unit Weight

Water (Mg/m3) (kN/m3)
Porosity, Void content,
Description n (%> ratio ( e ) w (%I pd Psat Yd Ysat
~

1. Uniform sand, loose 46 0.85 32 1.43 1.89 14.0 18.5

2. Uniform sand, dense 34 0.5 1 19 1.75 2.09 17.2 20.5
3. Mixed-grained sand, loose 40 0.67 25 1.59 1.99 15.6 19.5
4. Mixed-grained sand, dense 30 0.43 16 1.86 2.16 18.2 21.2
5. Glacial till, very mixed-grained 20 0.25 9 2.12 2.32 20.8 22.7
6. Soft glacial clay 55 1.2 45 1.77 12.0 17.4
7. Stiff glacial clay 37 0.6 22 2.07 16.7 20.3
8. Soft slightly organic clay 66 1.9 70 1.58 9.1 15.5
9. Soft very organic clay 75 3.0 110 1.43 6.7 14.4
10. Soft bentonite 84 5.2 194 1.27 4.2 12.5

w = water content when saturated, in percent of dry weight.

pd = density in dry state.
psat= density in saturated state.
Y d = unit weight in dry state.
Ysat = unit weight in saturated state.

2. A sample of hardpan had a weight of 129.1g and a volume ARTICLE 7 CONSISTENCY OF FINE-
of 56.4 cm3 in its natural state. Its dry weight was 121.5 g. GRAINED SOILS
The specific gravity of the solid constituents was found to be
2.70. Compute the water content, the void ratio, and degree 7.1 Consistency and Sensitivity of Undisturbed
of saturation. Soils
Ans. w = 6.3%; e = 0.25; S, = 67%. The consistency of clays and other cohesive soils is usu-
3. The density of a sand backfill was determined by field ally described as sojl, medium, stifi or hard. The most
measurements to be 1.75 Mg/m3. The water content at the direct quantitative measure of consistency is the load per
time of the test was 8.6%, and the specific gravity of solid unit of area at which unconfined prismatic or cylindrical
constituents was 2.60. In the laboratory the void ratios in the samples of the soil fail in a compression test. This quantity
loosest and densest states were found to be 0.642 and 0.462, is known as the unconfined compressive strength of the
respectively. What were the void ratio and the relative density soil. Values of the compressive strength corresponding to
of the fill? the various degrees of consistency are given in Table 7.1.
Ans. e = 0.616; D, = 14%.
4. A dry quartz sand sample weighs 1.54 Mg/m3. What is Table 7.1 Consistency of Clay in Terms of
its density when saturated? Unconfined Compressive Strength
Ans. p = 1.96 Mg/m3.
5. A sample of silty clay had a volume of 14.88 cm3. Its Unconfined Compressive
weight at the natural water content was 28.81 g and after oven- Consistency Strength, q,(kPa)
drying was 24.83 g. The specific gravity of solid constituents
was 2.70. Calculate the void ratio and the degree of saturation
Very soft Less than 25
of the sample.
Soft 25-50
Ans. e = 0.617; S, = 70%. Medium 50-100
6. Given the values of porosity n for the soils in Table 6.3, Stiff 100-200
check the values of void ratio e, water content w, density p, Very stiff 200400
and unit weight y. For soils 1 to 5, G, = 2.65; for soils 6 to Hard Over 400
10, G, = 2.70.

Clays share with many other colloidal substances the
property that kneading or working at unaltered water
content makes the material softer. The process of knead-
ing or working is commonly referred to as remolding,
and clays that have been subjected to the process are
called remolded clays. The softening effect is probably
due to three different causes: destruction of the orderly
arrangement of the water molecules and ions in the
adsorbed layers, reorientation of clay plates from edge-
face arrangement to a predominantly face-face interac-
tion, and injury to the structure that the clay acquired
during sedimentation and consolidation. That part of the
loss of strength caused by the disturbance of the adsorbed
layers and reorientation of clay plates may be gradually
regained, at unaltered water content, after the working
has ceased. The remainder, probably caused by permanent
alteration of the structure, is irrecoverable unless the water
content of the clay is reduced. The ratio between these
two parts of the loss of strength is very different for
different clays.
The term sensitivity indicates the effect of remolding
on the consistency of a clay, regardless of the physical
nature of the causes of the change. The degree of sensitiv-
ity is different for different clays, and it may also be
different for the same clay at different water contents. If
a clay is very sensitive, a slide may turn it into a mass
of lubricated chunks capable of flowing on a gently slop-
ing base, whereas a similar slide in a clay with low
sensitivity merely produces a conspicuous local deforma-
tion. The change in consistency produced by the distur-
bance of a sensitive clay is always associated with a
change of the permeability.
The degree of sensitivity S, of a clay is expressed by
the ratio between the unconfined compressive strength
of an undisturbed specimen and the strength of the same
specimen at the same water content but in a remolded
state. That is.
s, = Unconfined compressive strength undisturbed
Unconfined compressive strength remolded
(7.1)
The values of S, for most clays range between 2 and
about 4. For sensitive clays they range from 4 to 8.
However, extrasensitive clays are encountered with val-
ues of S, between 8 and 16, and in some localities clays
with even higher sensitivities are found; these are known
as quick clays. High degrees of sensitivity may be due
to a very loose structure, or to leaching of soft glacial
clays deposited in salt water and subsequently uplifted.
The quick clays of Scandinavia and of eastern Canada
are of this category. On the other hand, the extra-sensitive
clays of Mexico City were derived from the decomposi-
tion of volcanic ash.
ARTICLE 7 CONSISTENCY OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS 23
The remolded strengths of some saturated clays may
be so low that an unconfined specimen cannot stand
without excessive deformation under its own weight.
Under these conditions the degree of sensitivity S, may
be evaluated by comparing the undisturbed and remolded
shearing strength determined by such other procedures
as the vane shear test (Article 11.5.2).
7.2 Consistency of Remolded Soils
After a cohesive soil has been remolded, its consistency
can be changed at will by increasing or decreasing the
water content. Thus, for instance, if the water content of
a clay slurry is gradually reduced by slow desiccation,
the clay passes from a liquid state through a plastic state
and finally into a solid state. The water contents at which
different clays pass from one of these states into another
are very different. Therefore, the water contents at these
transitions can be used for identification and comparison
of different clays. However, the transition from one state
to another does not occur abruptly as soon as some critical
water content is reached. It occurs gradually over a fairly
large range in the value of the water content. For this
reason every attempt to establish criteria for the bound-
aries between the limits of consistency involves some
arbitrary elements. The method that has proved most
suitable for engineering purposes was taken over from
agronomy. It is known as Atterberg's method, and the
water contents that correspond to the boundaries between
the states of consistency are called the Atterberg limits
(Atterberg 191 1).
The liquid limit w Iis the water content in percent of
the dry weight at which two sections of a pat of soil
having the dimensions shown in Fig. 7.1 barely touch
each other but do not flow together when subjected in a
cup to the impact of sharp blows from below. The personal
equation has an important influence on the test results.
In order to eliminate this factor, a standardized mechanical
device is used (Casagrande 1 9 3 2 ~ ) .
The plastic limit w p or lower limit of the plastic state
is the water content at which the soil begins to crumble
when rolled out into thin threads.
The record of the results of the plastic-limit test should
also contain a statement as to whether the threads, imme-
diately before crumbling, were very tough like those of
a gumbo, moderately tough like those of an average gla-
Figure 7.1 Cross-section through soil pat for liquid-limittest
(after Casagrande 1932~).
24 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS
cia1 clay, or weak and spongy like those of an organic or
of a micaceous inorganic soil.
The shrinkage limit w , or~ lower limit of volume change
is the water content below which further loss of water
by evaporation does not result in a reduction of volume.
As soon as the soil passes below the shrinkage limit its
color becomes slightly lighter.
Performance of the liquid and plastic limit tests is
specified in ASTM D4318. The shrinkage limit test is
specified in ASTM D427.
The range of water content within which a soil pos-
sesses plasticity is known as the plastic range, and the
numerical difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit is the plasticity index I,. As the water content
w of a cohesive soil approaches the lower limit of the
plastic range, the stiffness and degree of compaction of
the soil increase. The ratio,
(7.2)
is called the liquidity index of the soil. If the water content
of a natural soil stratum is greater than the liquid limit
(liquidity index greater than 1.O), remolding transforms
the soil into a thick viscous slurry. If the natural water
content is less than the plastic limit (liquidity index nega-
tive), the soil cannot be remolded. The unconfined com-
pressive strength of undisturbed clays with a liquidity
index near unity commonly ranges between 30 and 100
L iau/d
lo 20 30 ' 40
I I I I
inorganic Si/fs
of Low com-
pressibi/ify
Figure 7.2 Plasticity chart (after Casagrande 1932~).
kPa. If the liquidity index is near zero, the compressive
strength generally lies between 100 and 500 kPa.
In addition to the Atterberg limits, a knowledge of the
dry strength is useful in the identification and comparison
of cohesive soils. The strength of air-dry specimens of
clay ranges from about 200 kPa to more than 20 MPa,
and a trained experimenter can distinguish among the
degrees of very low, low, medium, high, and very high,
merely by pressing an angular fragment of the soil
between the fingers. The strength is called medium if the
fragment can be reduced to powder only with great effort.
Fragments with very high strength cannot be injured at
all, whereas those of very low strength disintegrate com-
pletely on gentle pressure. The fragments should be
obtained by molding a cylindrical specimen about 25 mm
high and 25 mm in diameter from a paste at a water
content close to the plastic limit. After the cylinder has
dried at room temperature, it is broken into smaller pieces,
and fragments for the examination are selected from the
interior of the specimen.
7.3 Plasticity Chart
It has been observed (Casagrande 1932a) that many prop-
erties of clays and silts, such as their dry strength, their
compressibility, their reaction to the shaking test, and
their consistency near the plastic limit, can be correlated
with the Atterberg limits by means of the plasticity chart
(Fig. 7.2). In this chart, the ordinates represent the plastic-
Li m i f wD
50 601 70 80 90 IO0
I I I 1 I

I I
1 A&ceots
~~
Sundy,Silf Ku)fersrill:? Go./
L iguid L imif
Figure 7.3 Relation between liquid limit and plasticity index for typical soils (after Casa-
grande 1932~).
ity index I, and the abscissas the corresponding liquid
limit wi.
The chart is divided into six regions, three above line
A and three below. The group to which a given soil
belongs is determined by the name of the region that
contains the point representing the values of I, and wI
for the soil. All points representing inorganic clays lie
above line A, and all points for inorganic silts lie below
it. Therefore, if a soil is known to be inorganic, its group
affiliation can be ascertained on the basis of the values
of I,, and wIalone. However, points representing organic
clays are usually located within the same region as those
representing inorganic silts of high compressibility, and
points representing organic silts in the region assigned to
inorganic silts of medium compressibility. Usually, the
organic soils can be distinguished from the inorganic by
their characteristic odor and their dark-gray or black color.
ARTICLE I CONSISTENCY OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS 25
I
I
I
I
In doubtful cases the liquid limit should be determined
for an oven-dry specimen as well as a fresh one. If drying
decreases the value of the liquid limit by 30% or more,
the soil may usually be classified as organic, although in
some instances other constituents, such as the clay mineral
halloysite, similarly lower the liquid limit. Finally, if an
inorganic and an organic soil are represented in Fig. 7.2
by approximately the same point, the dry strength of
the organic soil is considerably greater than that of the
inorganic soil. Experience has shown that the points
which represent different samples from the same soil
stratum define a straight line that is roughly parallel to
line A. As the liquid limit of soils represented by such a
line increases, the plasticity and the compressibility of
the soils also increase. The dry strength of inorganic soils
represented by points on lines located above A increases
from medium for samples with a liquid limit below 30
26 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

to very high for samples with a liquid limit of 100. On
the other hand, if the line representative of inorganic
samples from a given stratum is located at a considerable
distance below A, the dry strength of samples with a
liquid limit less than 50 is very low, and that of samples
with a liquid limit close to 100 is only medium. In accor-
dance with these relationships, the dry strength of inor-
ganic soils from different localities but with equal liquid
limits increases in a general way with increasing plasticity
index. Figure 7.3 shows the plasticity characteristics of
several well-defined types of clay.
The samples required for Atterberg-limit tests need not
be undisturbed, and the technique of making the tests is
simple. A great amount of useful information can be
derived from the test results. Therefore, the investigation
of statistical relations between the Atterberg limits and
the other physical properties of cohesive soils is a promis-
ing field for research. Every well-established statistical
relation of this type broadens the scope of conclusions
that can be drawn from the results of limit tests. Two
useful relations of this kind are shown in Figs. 19.7
and 20.20
However, empirical relations between the physical
properties of soils and their Atterberg limits, based on data
from sedimentary deposits consisting of clay minerals
commonly found in temperate climates, are not likely to
apply to certain residual soils formed under humid tropi-
cal conditions, particularly from volcanic materials. These
soils are likely to display a characteristic yellow, red, or
brown color. In some (latosols), the predominant clay

Figure 7.4 Latosols and Andosols from Java, Indonesia (after Wesley 1973).

c
w0=73% /' /

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l
QOl o./ /
Purticle Size fmm)
Figure 7.5 Particle size distribution and Atterberg limits for sample of residual soil from
Indonesia (data from Wesley 1973).

mineral is halloysite; the water is held in the pores of
clusters or aggregates that are cemented together. There-
fore, at the same water content or liquid limit the soils
have lower compressibility and significantly higher shear
strength than soils consisting of the clay minerals more
commonly found in temperate climates. In others (ando-
sols), the predominant clay mineral is allophane; a major
part of the pore water is trapped within the soil particles
and, consequently, the plastic limit is unusually high and
the plasticity index correspondingly low (Fig. 7.4). When
dried, removal of the water causes the porous clusters to
shrink irreversibly to form hard grains. The resulting
effects on the Atterberg limits and grain-size distribution
for one such material are shown in Fig. 7.5.
Selected Reading
The classic study of the Atterberg limits and their uses
for engineering purposes is Casagrande, A. (19324.
Research on the Atterberg limits of soils, Public Roads,
13, pp. 121-136.
Atterberg, A. (1911). On the investigation of the physical
properties of soils and the plasticity of clays, Znt. Mitt.
Bodenkunde (German), 1, p. 10.
ARTICLE 8 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
8.1 Practical Significance of Soil Classification
Ever since the physical properties of soils became a matter
of interest, frequent attempts have been made to correlate
the results of simple classification tests with the soil
parameters needed for solving practical problems. Most
of the early correlations were related to the grain-size
characteristics. The results of the endeavors to base sys-
tems of classification exclusively on grain size, however,
were consistently disappointing. Attempts to compute the
coefficient of permeability of soils on the basis of the
results of mechanical analysis failed because the perme-
ability depends to a large extent on the shape of the grains,
which can be very different for soils with identical grain-
size characteristics. Attempts to correlate the grain-size
characteristics of fine-grained soils such as silt or clay
with the angle of internal friction have been even less
successful. The reason is illustrated by Fig. 8.1.
In Fig. 8.1 the heavy uppermost curve is the gruin-
sizefrequency curve for a glacial clay from southeastern
Canada. On the horizontal axis are plotted the logarithms
of the grain size. The area of the strip located above an
arbitrary grain-size range, for instance 2 p. to 1 p., repre-
sents the quantity of soil particles within this range, in
percent of the total weight of the dried clay. According
to the diagram the macroscopic fraction (>0.06 mm),
like that of most other clays, consists chiefly of quartz.
The microscopic fraction (0.06 to 0.002 mm) consists
ARTICLE 8 SOIL CLASSIFICATION 27
Groin Size
Frequency Curve
Total Area
= IO0 %
/
0.01 0.02 0.1 0.2 1 2 IO 20 1m
Grain Size in Microns (log scale1
Figure 8.1 Grain size and mineralogical composition of a
glacial marine clay (courtesy R. E. Grim).
partly of quartz and calcite and partly of mica flakes. The
mica content of this fraction is very different for different
clays, and it has a decisive influence on the compressibil-
ity and other properties of the clay. The colloidal fraction
(<0.002 mm) consists almost exclusively of montmoril-
lonite, whereas that of other clays may consist chiefly of
clay minerals of the kaolin or illite groups. The physical
properties of the clay depend to a large extent on the type
of clay mineral that dominates the colloidal fraction. They
also depend to a large extent on the substances that are
present in the adsorbed layers (Article 4). Hence, two
clays with identical grain-size curves can be extremely
different in every other respect.
Because of these conditions, well-defined statistical
relations between grain-size characteristics and signifi-
cant soil properties such as the angle of internal friction
have been encountered only within relatively small
regions where all the soils of the same category, such as
all the clays or all the sands, have a similar geological
origin. In such regions the grain-size Characteristics can
be used as a basis for judging the significant properties
of the soils. This is commonly and successfully done.
However, none of the procedures that grow out of experi-
ence in such regions can safely be used outside the bound-
aries of the region where they originated.
Since the properties of fine-grained soils can be corre-
lated in a general way with the plasticity of the materials,
classification systems for such soils are preferably based
on the Atterberg limits rather than on grain size. Classifi-
cation of mixed-grained soils containing both coarse and
fine fractions should be based not only on the grain-size
characteristics of the coarse fractions but also on the
plasticity of the fine and very fine fractions.
8.2 Classification Based on Grain Size
In spite of their shortcomings, soil classifications based
on grain-size characteristics, such as the one shown in
Table 8.1, are widely used, especially for preliminary or
general descriptions. It is customary, in connection with
such classifications, to assign the names of soils, such as
silt or clay, to different grain-size fractions. However,
28 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Table 8.1 Soil Classification Based on Grain Size The coarse-grained soils are divided into gravelly (G)
or sandy (S) soils in accordance with whether more or
Soil Diameter (mm) Sieve Size* less than 50% of the visible grains are larger than the
No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm.). They are each divided further
into four groups:
Boulders Over 300 12 in.
Cobbles (rounded) 300-75 12 in.-3 in. W: clean (less than 5% finer than 0.074 mm); well
Gravel 75-4.76 3 in.-No. 4 graded (uniformity coefficient C, greater than
Coarse 75-19 3 in.-3/4 in. 4 for gravels or 6 for sands, and coefficient of
Fine 19-4.76 314 in.-No. 4 curvature Cc between 1 and 3).
Sand 4.76-0.074 No. &No. 200 P: clean (less than 5% finer than 0.074 mm); poorly
Coarse 4.76-2 .O NO. &NO. 10 graded (C, less than 4 for gravels or 6 for sands,
Medium 2.0-0.42 NO. 10-No. 40 or gap-graded because Cc not between 1 and 3).
Fine 0.42-0.074 No. 40-No. 200 C: dirty (more than 12% finer than 0.074 mm); plas-
Fines Less than 0.074 No. 200 tic clayey fines ( I p greater than 7%, also plots
(Silt size) 0.074-0.002 above A-line in plasticity chart).
(Clay size) Less than 0.002 M: dirty (more than 12% finer than 0.074 mm); non-
plastic siltyfines ( I p less than 4%, or plots below
* ASTM D422. A-line in plasticity chart).
(After USBR 1974). The soils are represented by symbols such as GW or
Sl? Borderline materials are represented by a double sym-
any system of classification based on grain size alone is bol, as GW-Gl?
likely to be misleading, because the physical properties The fine-grained soils are divided into three groups:
of the finest soil fractions depend on many factors other inorganic silts (M), inorganic clays (C), and organic silts
than grain size (see Article 4). For example, according and clays (0).The soils are further divided into those
to any one of the commonly used classifications, a soil having liquid limits lower than 50% (L), or higher (H).
consisting of quartz grains of colloidal size should be The distinction between the inorganic clays C and the
called a clay, whereas in reality it does not possess even inorganic silts M and organic soils 0 is made on the basis
a remote resemblance to clay. Hence, if the words silt of a modified plasticity chart (Fig. 8.2). Soils CH and
or clay are used to express grain size, they should be CL are represented by points above the A-line, whereas
combined with the word size, as in the expression clay- soils OH, OL, and M H correspond to positions below.
size particle. The termfine is often used to describe the Soils ML, except for a few clayey fine sands, are also
fraction of a soil that passes the No. 200 sieve (0.074 represented by points below the A-line. The organic soils
mm), and the term clay-size fraction (CF) the fraction 0 are distinguished from the inorganic soils M and C by
with sizes smaller than 0.002 mm. their characteristic odor and dark color or, in doubtful
instances, by the influence of oven-drying on the liquid
8.3 Unified Soil Classification System limit (Article 7). In the field, the fine-grained soils can
The unsatisfactory nature of systems of soil classification
based on grain size alone led to a critical review of
the problem (Casagrande 1948) and the proposal of the
Unified Soil Classification System, adopted in 1952 by
the U.S. Corps of Engineers and Bureau of Reclamation,
and subsequently by many other organizations (USBR
1963).
According to this system, all soils are divided into three
major groups: coarse-grained, fine-grained, and highly
organic (peaty). The peaty soils are readily identified
by the characteristics listed in Article 2. The boundary
between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils is taken
to be the 200-mesh sieve (0.074 mm). In the field the
L iquid L lmit wp
distinction is based on whether the individual particles
can be seen with the unaided eye. If more than 50% of Figure 8.2 Modified Plasticity Chart for use with Unified
the soil by weight is judged to consist of grains that can Soil Classification System. Soils represented by points within
be distinguished separately, the soil is considered to be shaded area are considered borderline and are given dual sym-
coarse-grained. bols (after USBR 1974).
 ARTICLE 9 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ADEQUATE SOIL DESCRIPTION 29
be differentiated by their dry strength, their reaction to variety of properties and, furthermore, every soil can
the shaking test, or their toughness near the plastic limit occur in the field in very different states. In order to
(Article 7). The pertinent characteristics are indicated in distinguish among the individual members of each group
Table 8.2. Borderline materials are represented by a dou- and the different states of each member, two different
ble symbol, as CL-ML. procedures can be used. Either the principal groups can
The Unified Soil Classification System permits reliable be subdivided further, or else the group name can be
classification on the basis of relatively few and inexpen- supplemented by numerical values representing the perti-
sive laboratory tests. With experience it also provides a nent index properties.
practicable basis for visual or field classification. Like The first of these two procedures is suitable for classify-
all procedures based on grain size or the properties of ing the soils within geographically limited districts,
remolded materials, it cannot take into consideration the because within such districts the number of different types
characteristics of the intact materials as found in nature. and states of soil is likely to be fairly limited. Conse-
Hence, it can serve only as a starting point for the descrip- quently, the method is used extensively and to advantage
tion of the engineering properties of soil masses or soil by local construction organizations such as state highway
deposits. departments. However, attempts to use a similar proce-
dure for establishing a universal system of soil classifica-
Selected Reading tion have little prospects for success, because the required
terminology would inevitably be so complex that it would
The definitive discussion of soil classification, as well as lead to ultimate confusion.
the basis for the Unified Soil Classification System, are The second procedure, on the other hand, can be used
contained in Casagrande, A. (1948). Classification and profitably under any circumstances, provided those index
identification of soils, Trans. A X E , 113, pp. 901-992. properties that are indicative of the essential physical
For a more detailed discussion, see ASTM D2487. characteristics of the soil are chosen. The properties
required for adequate description of the various types of
ARTICLE 9 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS soil are summarized in Table 9.1. The soils listed in this
FOR ADEQUATE SOIL DESCRIPTION table have been described in Article 2, which contains
all the information required for at least a tentative classifi-
In Article 8 suitable procedures were described for divid- cation of the soil. After the type has been recognized, the
ing soils into several large groups on the basis of their engineer turns to Table 9.1 and performs all the soil tests
grain-size characteristics and their plasticity. If the group prescribed for this type. The test results represent the
to which a given soil belongs is known, the more outstand-
criteria for distinguishing among different soils of the
ing physical characteristics of the soil are also generally
same type.
known. However, each group includes soils with a great
With the exception of till, hardpan, and peat, all the
soils listed in Table 9.1 consist either exclusively of coarse
Table 8.2 Classification of Fine-Grained Soils Unified grains such as sand and gravel, or exclusively of fine
Soil Classification System grains having the size of silt or clay particles. Soils that
consist of a mixture of these ingredients are regarded as
Reaction to Toughness composite. To describe a composite soil, it is first neces-
Dry Shaking at Plastic sary to determine the natural void ratio e, the natural
Group Strength Test Limit water content w, and the grain-size distribution. The soil
is then divided into two parts, one consisting of all the
grains larger than about 0.07 mm (width of the openings
ML None to Rapid to slow None
in the 200-mesh sieve), and the other of the remainder.
very low
None to very Medium The coarse fraction is submitted to the classification tests
CL Medium to
high slow prescribed for sand and gravel, and the remainder to those
OL Very low to Slow Slight for silts and clays.
medium If the soils encountered on a given job are submitted
MH Very low to Slow to none Slight to to tests other than those listed in Table 9.1, the signifi-
medium medium cant results of these tests should be included in the
CH High to None High record. Since soil strata are seldom homogeneous, even
very high an apparently homogeneous soil stratum cannot be
OH Medium to None to very Slight to considered adequately described unless the index proper-
high slow medium ties of several samples from the stratum have been
determined. The record should also contain a brief
30 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Table 9.1 Data Required for Soil Identification

Results of Classification Tests

General
Information Intact SamplesI Disturbed Samples
-

e,
@

TYPe
-
m
v)
Y

5
of Ea
I
Y

5
Y

Soil C C
0 2 8
x .-M e,
Y
u 0 m

-6s
C C
m 3
-n
Y
m
.I
.-
Y

5
e
4
0

- -
Hardpan I X X
Sand, gravel X -
Inorganic silt X X
Organic silt X X
Clay X X
Organic clay X X
Peat X X
Till X X
Tuff, fine-grained X X
LoessI6 X X
Modified loess X X
Adobe X X
Marl X X
Lake marl X X
Gumbo X X
-
I If no undisturbed or tube samples were obtained, use the spoon samples (Article 11.3.2).
* If the odor is faint, heat the sample slightly. This intensifies the odor.
Describe appearance of fresh fracture of intact sample (granular, dull, smooth, glossy). Then rub small quantity of soil between
the fingers, and describe sensation (floury, smooth, gritty, sharp). If large specimens break up readily into smaller fragments describe
appearance of walls of cracks (dull, slickensided) and average spacing of cracks.
Perform shaking test, page 4.Describe results (conspicuous, weak, none) depending on intensity of phenomena observed.
Describe shape (angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded, well rounded) and mineralogical characteristics of macroscopic soil
particles only. Mineralogical characteristics include types of rocks and minerals represented among the grains as far as they can
be discerned by inspection under the hand lens. Describe rock fragments (fresh, slightly weathered, or thoroughly decomposed;
hard or friable). If a sand contains mica flakes, indicate mica content (slightly, moderately, or very micaceous). In connection with
peat, the term grain properties refers to the type and state of preservation of the predominant visible remnants of plants such as
fibers, twigs, or leaves.
Crush dry fragment between fingers and indicate hardness (very low, low, medium, high, very high).
'If no undisturbed samples were obtained, substitute results of standard penetration test (Article 11.3.2) or equivalent.
Applies only to clay and fine silt at a water content above the plastic limit.
Prepare sample as described on page 20.
l o Determine as described on page 20 for sands or gravels, or for other materials by means of Proctor method, page 312.
I ' If soil may be organic, determine w Ifirst in fresh state and then after drying in oven at 105C.
'*In addition to numerical value of wp,state whether threads were tough, firm, medium, or weak.
"Present results either in form of semilogarithmic graph, or else by numerical values of Dlo and Cu = D&Di0 (Article 5)
accompanied by adjectives indicating the type of grain-size grading (see Fig. 5.2.)
 ARTICLE 9 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ADEQUATE SOIL DESCRIPTION 31

l 4 Calcium carbonate content can be detected by moistening the dry material with HCl. Describe result of test (strong, weak, or
no effervescence).
l5Add to data on texture a description of general appearance, structure, and degree of cohesiveness of chunks in fresh state and
after soaking in water.
Add to data on texture a description of the macroscopic features of the loess, such as diameter and spacing of root holes.

statement of whatever can be learned about the geologi-
cal history of the stratum.
Most large engineering construction organizations,
such as the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army,
the United States Bureau of Reclamation, and many state
highway departments, maintain soil laboratories in which
classification tests are made routinely. However, the
results of these tests are of such practical importance that
they should also be made by every engineer who deals
with soils. The performance of the tests increases familiar-
ity with the various properties of the soils and the test
results greatly increase the value of the engineers field
records.
After personally testing several dozen samples of soil
from one locality, the engineer can estimate the index
properties of most of the soils from that locality without
any tests and can discriminate among different soils or
different states of the same soil which previously
seemed identical.
Every engineer should develop the habit of expressing
the plasticity and grain-size characteristics of soils by
numerical values rather than by adjectives. The grading
of a sand should be expressed by the estimated value of
the uniformity coefficient, Cu = D6dDl0(Article 5 ) and
not by the words well graded or poorly graded. The
degree of plasticity should be indicated by the estimated
value of the plasticity index I,, (Article 7) and not by the
words trace of plasticity or highly plastic. This habit
is so important that it should be encouraged from the
beginning by the instructor in the classroom. The use of
the numerical system prevents misunderstandings and is
an incentive to check from time to time the degree of
accuracy of the estimates. Without occasional check tests
the progressive deterioration of the ability to estimate
may pass unnoticed.