Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Review

Pedagogical pathways for Indigenous education with/in

teacher education
Brooke Madden
Department of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia, Canada

h i g h l i g h t s

23 studies of teacher educators' perspectives on Indigenous education are analyzed.

Analysis of assumptions, purpose, goals, central themes, and pedagogical methods is featured.

Four pedagogical pathways that wind, meet, and diverge are organized.

Implications of a tracing a fulsome network of Indigenous education are highlighted.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This manuscript explores the central question: According to teacher educators, what are prevailing
Received 30 September 2014 pedagogical pathways to engage Indigenous education with/in Faculties of Education? Review of 23
Received in revised form studies that represent international perspectives anchors analysis of the underlying theoretical as-
11 May 2015
sumptions, purpose, and goals of teacher educators' approaches, as well as the central themes and
Accepted 13 May 2015
Available online 2 June 2015
pedagogical methods that are featured. Four pedagogical pathways that wind, meet, and diverge are
organized and examined: Learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching, Pedagogy for
decolonizing, Indigenous and anti-racist education, and Indigenous and place-based education. The
Keywords:
Indigenous education
implications of tracing a fulsome network of Indigenous education for programs of teacher education and
Teacher education in faculties of education research in this emergent eld are highlighted.
Pedagogical pathways Crown Copyright 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction: Indigenous education with/in faculties of
education
Indigenous1 scholars have long appealed for changes to educa-
tion systems that accommodate and support the educational needs
of Indigenous students and their communities (e.g., Cajete, 1994;
Hampton, 1995; Kawagly & Barnhardt, 1998). In their seminal
piece focused on higher education, Kirkness and Barnhardt (1991)
maintain that such a system would be grounded in the four R's:
respect for Indigenous knowledge and traditional approaches to
teaching and learning; integration of content that is relevant to, and
builds upon, Indigenous students' relational views of human, nat-
ural, and spirit worlds; reciprocal teaching and learning relation-
ships that disrupt a teacher/student hierarchy; and the teaching
that, with knowledge, comes responsibility to one's relations,
including future generations.
Those who might be positioned as critical and Indigenous
(Denzin, Lincoln, & Smith, 2008) scholars2 have exposed the
exploitative history of education institutions' impact on Indigenous
peoples, knowledges, and communities that include those beyond
the human world (e.g., Bishop, Berryman, Cavanaugh, & Teddy, 2009;
Grande, 2008; Marker, 2004; Smith, 1999). Consequently, they have
called for Indigenous education that works both within and against

E-mail address: brookemadden.ubc@gmail.com.

1
This manuscript reects global Indigenous perspectives to consider the broad-
reaching nature of research being done in Indigenous education in Faculties of
Education. Accordingly, the author utilizes the term Indigenous throughout. When
drawing on the scholarship of others, the original discursive practices remain. As
such, the terms Indigenous, Aboriginal, and Native American are utilized in
conversation.
2
I draw on the title of the 2008 SAGE handbook to resist the tendency to position
Indigenous scholarship as but one example of critical scholarship. I aim to highlight
the distinct and nuanced historical, political, legal, and cultural contexts from which
Indigenous scholarship emerges, as well as the tensions that often surround this act
of subsumption.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.05.005
0742-051X/Crown Copyright 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
colonial systems and frameworks through a focus on revealing,
examining, and challenging the ways colonial relations of power
continue to construct and uphold ideologies that produce multiple
oppressions (e.g., white European supremacy and Eurocentrism in
schools, Battiste, 2005; St. Denis, 2007). According to Tuck and Yang
(2012), Indigenous education must move participants to action,
specically the type that results in the repatriation of Indigenous
land and life (p. 1) (see also, Alfred, 2009; Grande, 2008). This nal
tenet signals the central role of land in Indigenous constructions of
knowledge that are sublimely ecological and place based (Marker,
2006, p. 482). Further, focus on repatriation highlights the unique
colonial histories of Indigenous peoples including their status and
rights as First Peoples (e.g., United Nations Declaration on the Rights
of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), Aboriginal title).
Archibald (as cited in Amos, 2010) highlights the dual role Fac-
ulties of Education play in both modeling what it might mean to
respond to the educational needs of Indigenous students and
communities in post-secondary institutions, as well as preparing
pre-service and practicing teachers to carry on similar work, albeit
differently, in schools. As evidenced by the literature reviewed
herein, many Faculties of Education are demonstrating their
commitment to taking up this doubled task through introduction of
a required or elective course in Indigenous education in programs
of formal teacher education. Ma and Russell (2012) situate teacher
educators at the center of Indigenous education with/in Faculties of
Education3 as they negotiate integration of Indigenous knowledges
and pedagogical methods in their own teaching, while preparing
teachers to do the same. They argue this involves the foundational
work of supporting both Indigenous and non-Indigenous teachers
to see themselves as affected by, implicated in, and accountable for
shifting education towards local Indigenous priorities and solu-
tions. Ma Rhea and Russell also ag this role as precarious, attrib-
uting teacher educators the responsibility for facilitating the
construction of knowledge about Indigenous-non-Indigenous re-
lationships; as well as Indigenous peoples, perspectives, and pri-
orities in a manner that challenges the academy's longstanding
history of marginalizing, appropriating, and/or distorting Indige-
nous knowledges (Battiste, 2008; Smith, 1999).
This manuscript contributes to this distinct, emergent, and
complex area of teacher education through exploring the central
question: According to teacher educators, what are prevailing
pedagogical pathways to engage Indigenous education with/in
Faculties of Education? Review of literature from Canada, the
United States of America, Australia, and New Zealand anchors
analysis of the underlying theoretical assumptions, purpose, and
goals of teacher educators' approaches, as well as the central
themes and pedagogical methods that are featured. Four peda-
gogical pathways that wind, meet, and diverge are presented:
Learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching, Pedagogy
for decolonizing, Indigenous and anti-racist education, and Indig-
enous and place-based education.
2. Methodology and method
2.1. The tracing of pedagogical pathways and the pursuit of
pedagogy
Working the conceptual space between the relational ontologies
3
The use of with/in is an attempt to hold the tension between a course with
distinct theoretical underpinnings, pedagogical methods, and commitments typi-
cally offered as one component of a teacher training program, whose purpose and
goals may, at times, be incommensurate or antithetical to notions of (critical and)
Indigenous education explored in the introduction.
theorized by Cajete (1994) and Deleuze and Guattari (1987),
pedagogical pathways are understood as congurations that guide
the constraints and potentialities shaping the movement of peda-
gogy. Consider a hiking trail formed by the relationships among
communities of animals, trees, rocks, streams, and earth; trail
markings; a specied distance and level of difculty described on a
website; and the promise of a spectacular view. Similarly, as-
sumptions about education and teaching, associated purposes and
goals, central themes, and pedagogical methods comprise a peda-
gogical pathway that shapes, but does not determine, the learning
journey. Some elements of the pathway remain constant while
others uctuate, and the journey is continuously contextual,
distinct, relational, and unforeseeable.
Pedagogical pathways are commonly thought to lead to a
transformative destination (Ahhh e that spectacular view!). For
example, Indigenous education pursues particular individual and
systemic shifts likely to result in educational change that improves
schooling for Indigenous students and communities.4 Within this
inquiry, the term pedagogy refers to the ow of movement that
may produce these transformational shifts. Moreover, like a hike
rerouted due to weather, injury, blockage, or curiosity, pedagogy
generates immeasurable, unpredictable, additional productions.
Pedagogy, distinguished from pedagogical pathways, always
already exceeds pathways in ways that, at once, may be considered
productive and problematic.
My fascination with pedagogical pathways is rooted in the
desire to explore the space between poststructural theories of
discourse and teaching subjects (i.e., subjectication, Britzman,
2003) and prevailing subject positions of teacher/student pre-
sented within Indigenous theories of education (e.g., Archibald,
2008; Battiste, 2013; Donald, 2014). I am also curious how Indige-
nous conceptions of education and educator align or misalign with
the norms that circulate in larger teacher training programs. My
current role as an early-career researcher and teacher educator
working with practicing teachers who have participated in cour-
sework on this topic, illuminated a spectrum of understanding of
what counts as Indigenous education and the role of teacher
therein. Teachers' (un)doing of Indigenous educator/ion resonated
with my own struggles to negotiate contending versions of signi-
ed Teacher, including the inability to see myself as either an
Indigenous teacher or allied non-Indigenous teacher. Neither
category of personal-professional identity reected my experience
learning about my Aboriginal and European ancestry as an adult,
within a university community. Nor did they teach me how to
honor my relations and deconstruct my family's (often silenced)
colonial histories and my complex positioning.
I looked to teacher educators engaging Indigenous education
with/in Faculties of Education as fertile ground for exploring
sources of knowledge and methods of knowing about Indigenous
education. Congurations of guiding constraints that comprise
pedagogical pathways might better position me to examine how
teachers' (often excessive) relationships with pathways were
shaping their own sense of professional identity and practice, as
well as constructions of Indigeneity and (de)colonization.
Pedagogical nodes (e.g., reported student learning/resistance)
animate discussion of how pathways have the potential to direct
particular pedagogical productions with greater intensity than
4
Pursuit of improved schooling for Indigenous students does not ensure this goal
will be achieved. As is illustrated within this review, the assumption that teachers
will make sense of Indigenous content shared within a Faculty of Education and
then successfully apply their understandings in classroom practice can be awed
and the process complex. Further, that teachers' attempts to model Indigenous
approaches to teaching and learning will resonate with Indigenous students and
families is not guaranteed.
 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
others. Tracing a fulsome network of Indigenous education with/in
Faculties of Education provides the foundation for an exploration of
subjectication, as well as for mapping the movement of
knowledge-practice associated with Indigenous education within
and between Faculties of Education, schools, and transitional
spaces (e.g., teaching practicum). Linking pathways, by highlighting
their complementarities, tensions, and combined pedagogical
openings, supports the creative production of possibilities for
Indigenous education, ultimately offering new approaches that
work towards preparing teachers to support the educational needs
of Indigenous students and communities.
2.2. Producing pathways: selection and analysis of studies about
teacher educators' approaches to Indigenous education
The search for relevant literature included the period from
2000 to 2012. 2000 onwards represents the period that Indige-
nous education with/in Faculties of Education emerged as a
distinct area beyond, although remaining connected to, contem-
porary liberatory education initiatives informed by multicultural,
antiracist, and postcolonial theories. 2012 marks the last complete
year before this review was undertaken. Two search engines
(Summon and Google Scholar) were utilized through a variety of
key terms (e.g., Indigenous, Aboriginal, teacher education, Indigenous (Archibald, 2008; Cajete, 1994), decolonial (Battiste,
pre-service teachers, teacher educators) to locate potential
articles for review. I also manually surveyed two journals that
focus on teacher education (Teaching and Teacher Education;
Teaching Education), three journals that focus on Indigenous ed-
ucation (Canadian Journal of Native Education; The Australian
Journal of Indigenous Education; Journal of American Indian Ed-
ucation), and one journal that focuses on decolonization (Decol-
onization: Indigeneity, Education & Society). Three special journal
issues on Indigenous education (Canadian Journal of Environ-
mental Education Special Issue 17 - Decolonizing and Indigenizing
Environmental Education; Review of Education, Pedagogy, and
Cultural Studies Special Issue 33(4) e Racism, Colonialism, and
Film in Canada; In Education Special Issue 17(3) e Indigenous
Education) were also surveyed.
In total 36 studies were reviewed, and selecting those relevant
to pedagogical pathways engaged by teacher educators in Indige-
nous education, 135 of them were not analyzed for this inquiry. The
remaining studies (N 23) were taken as the basis for analysis.
Conceptions of Indigenous education presented within these
studies were examined with regard to their (a) purpose and goals,
(b) assumptions, (c) central themes, and (d) pedagogical methods
(See Tables 1e4). While the same analysis was not completed for
the 13 additional studies reviewed, they played a signicant role in
informing and guiding analysis. Students engaged in Indigenous
education with/in Faculties of Education included pre-service
teachers, as well as practicing teachers pursuing graduate studies
and/or additional qualications. As such, the term teachers is
utilized throughout for ease. When referring to particular studies,
the discursive practices of the authors are maintained and include
pre-service teachers, teacher candidates, practicing teachers, and/
or teachers.
Based on their focus of attention, the studies that were sys-
tematically analyzed can be divided into four pedagogical pathways
that reect the diversity of theories and approaches being utilized
5
Several studies were not included because they focused on: public reconcilia-
tory pedagogies (Gaztambide-Fern andez, 2012; Jiwani, 2011; Regan, 2010), peda-
gogical pathways for engaging Indigenous education in informal (Belczewski, 2009;
Higgins, 2011, 2014) and school settings (Bishop et al., 2009; Dion, 2009; Kanu,
2011; Tupper, 2011; Van der Wey, 2001) as opposed to Faculties of Education, or
I was unable to obtain them for review (Mackinlay, 2005; Walker, 2000).
3
to engage teachers in university-based Indigenous education:
1. Learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching (Anuik &
Gillies, 2012; Brayboy & Maughan, 2009; Phillips & Whatman,
2007; Sanford, Williams, Hopper, & McGregor, 2012; Styres,
2011; Tanaka, 2009; Tanaka et al., 2007);
2. Pedagogy for decolonizing (Chinnery, 2010; Dion, 2007; den
Heyer, 2009; Iseke-Barnes, 2008; Oberg, Blades, & Thom,
2007; Wolf, 2012);
3. Indigenous and anti-racist education (James, Marin, & Kassam,
2011; Mackinlay, 2012; Mackinlay & Barney, 2012; O'Dowd,
2010; Strong-Wilson, 2007; Tompkins, 2002);
4. Indigenous and placed-based education (Chambers, 2006;
Korteweg, Gonzalez, & Guillet, 2010; Scully, 2012; Van der
Wey, 2001).
It is important to highlight the winding nature of the pathways
(Marker, 2011) that often meet, as well as diverge (e.g., decolonizing
and place-based pedagogies differently consider current disputed
and deleterious relationships with land when conceptualizing
transformation). Similarly, I recognize teacher educators' capacities
to travel on, as well as connect multiple pathways in responding to
particular education contexts and goals. I draw on a wide body of
2012; Bishop et al., 2009; Grande, 2008; Smith, 1999), anti-racist
(Dei, 1996; Lawrence & Dua, 2011; St. Denis, 2007), and critical
place-based scholarship (Greenwood, 2006, 2012) respectively to
support discussion of how, and to what end, these theories have
been translated for work in Indigenous education with/in Faculties
of Education.
3. Results
3.1. Learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching
In general, the studies that comprise this pathway demonstrate
possibilities for teacher education, and by extension schooling for
Indigenous students, that emerge when courses are structured to
provide teachers the opportunity to experience rsthand how
teaching and learning occur in an Indigenous world (Williams,
2006, as cited in Tanaka, 2009, p. 19). This pathway6 is grounded in
what has been referred to as traditional knowledge, oral knowl-
edge, [and] Indigenous knowledge (Kirkness & Barnhardt, 1991, p.
4). It is important to stress that Indigenous knowledge is not a
uniform concept across Indigenous peoples (Battiste & Henderson,
2000, p. 35). Indigenous knowledge might instead be thought of as
knowledges that are informed and infused by place. Particular
philosophies and practices emerge through longstanding meta-
physical relationships with land that is situated in diverse and
complex geographical, historical, spiritual, and political contexts
(Cajete, 1994; Donald, 2012; Marker, 2011).
Cajete (1994) shares that traditional models of teaching occur in
living place (p. 33) according to local protocols that involve the
learner's family, clan, and tribe in social, environmental, and spiri-
tual forms of integrated learning. He distinguishes between informal
learning as a day-to-day process of constructing traditional and
empirical knowledge, and formal learning in which revealed
6
Some might consider learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching a
version of culturally responsive schooling (Brayboy & Castagno, 2009) that has
been translated for use with teachers in Faculties of Education. Attention to
translation and the differences that matter (explored further in the body of the
manuscript) is necessary as this community- and culture-based approach was
designed to respond to the schooling needs of Indigenous children and youth in the
USA.
4 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15

Table 1
Learning from indigenous traditional models of teaching.

Author and year Purpose/goals Assumptions Central themes Pedagogical methods

Anuik & Gillies,
Indigenous teachings activate
Cognitive imperialism has largely
Emotional and mental reasoning
Talking circle to resolve
2012 connections between the heart excluded Indigenous knowledges are intimately linked problems/concerns
and mind to enable unique forms (IKs) from education systems in
Each student has a purpose and a
Emotional reasoning exercises
of inquiry and learning Canada learning spirit; the job of a
Sharing stories

IKs are needed to nurture each teacher is to recognize, validate,
Exploring dissonance and conict
learner's gift so they can fulll and nurture students' gifts so that as gifts that generate creativity
their unique purpose they can fulll their purpose for and growth

IKs that pertain to learning have the good of the community
been shared and can be used by
those who are not knowledge
holders
Brayboy &
Indigenous knowledge systems
Diverse knowledge systems
IKS are formed within and
Community co-learning/
Maughan, 2009 (IKS) are historical, complex, should be equally considered in through relationships; they are investigation of what is needed
dynamic, and powerful; they (Indigenous) teacher preparation enacted in processes in order to be considered an
represent a valid alternative to
Efforts to guide teacher effective teacher involves part-
knowledge systems typically candidates in negotiating IKS nerships with Elders, teacher
upheld within the academy and standard curricular candidates, cooperating teachers,
documents and teaching and practicum supervisors
practices are required
Teacher candidates are viewed as
having expertise and encouraged
to share their gift with the group
Phillips &
Indigenous standpoint pedagogy
ISP repositions IKs from a
Indigenous epistemologies
Indigenous community
Whatman, 2007 (ISP) centres and embeds IKs in location of disadvantage or
Cognitive imperialism participation
teacher education challenging equity to the core of curriculum.
Cultural location
Learning from Indigenous
colonial approaches to education Engaging teacher education
Teaching and learning identity standpoints
through Indigenous
Cultural studies modules that are
epistemologies acts in designed to explore intersections
recognition, response and of students': a) social location/
resistance to colonialism (p. 5) individual identity; b) individual
and collective cultural identity;
and c) teacher identity
Sanford et al., 2012
Lil'wat principles can reshape
Teacher education is founded on
Kamcwkalha e energy that
Working with Indigenous Elders,
understandings and practices of Eurocentric values and structures indicates a communal purpose knowledge holders, and artists
teaching and learning
Structural changes introduce
Celhcelh e responsibility for
Hands-on experiential learning
teacher candidates to the ways one's own learning through mentorship and
in which learning and teaching
Kat'il'a e seeking spaces of apprenticeship
in an Indigenous world (p. 9) stillness
Community learning where each
opens up possibilities for
A7xekcal e contributing one's member takes personal
rethinking education expertise to the group responsibility and contributes

Cwelelep e value in learning their gift to the group
from dissonance and uncertainty
Alternative teaching practicum

Emhaka7 e do one's best at each
Day of stillness
given task
Styres, 2011
Grounding learning interactions
Land informs pedagogy through
Land as pedagogy/land as rst
(unspecied) Land-centred
in relation to land as rst storied relationships between teacher activities
teacher opens up the possibility humans, other than humans, and
Circular storying
Course design and assessment
for (Aboriginal) teacher more than humans. In relation, informed by land as rst teacher
candidates to (re)member, (re) one may gain a sense of identity,
claim, (re)construct, and (re) positioning/belonging, and
generate (p. 722) pedagogies representation.
that ground and shape the
transmission of IKs
Tanaka, 2009
Teacher candidates and graduate
The experience may give rise to
Traditional Indigenous ways of
Working in small groups
students experiences of how critical thinking about teaching and learning include alongside Indigenous artists and
teaching and learning occur in an Eurocentric models of education \mentorship and apprenticeship; knowledge holders to create
Indigenous world opens up and transformation of associated learning by doing; learning by natural textile pieces (e.g., button
possibilities for education educational theories and deeply observing; learning blanket, Metis sash, cedar bark
approaches through storywork and songs; basket) that were placed on a

Transformed pedagogy positively and learning as a contributing mural
impacts the schooling member of a community
Witnessing the pedagogical
experiences of Indigenous and process in accordance with local
non-Indigenous students alike protocols
Tanaka et al., 2007
Teacher candidates and graduate
The experience may give rise to
Kamcwkalha e energy that
Working in specialized groups
students experiences of how critical thinking about indicates a communal purpose alongside an Indigenous artist
teaching and learning occur in an Eurocentric models of education
Celhcelh e responsibility for and knowledge holder to
Indigenous world opens up and transformation of associated one's own learning within a construct a Thunderbird/Whale
possibilities for education educational theories and community house pole
approaches
Kat'il'a e seeking spaces of
Installing the house pole in

Transformed pedagogy positively stillness accordance with local protocols
impacts the schooling
Cwelelep e value in learning
experiences of Indigenous and from dissonance and uncertainty
non-Indigenous students alike
 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
knowledge e that which is understood to be spiritual in origin
(Castellano, 2000, p. 24) e is transferred through ceremony. Cajete's
notion of ceremony illustrates the holistic and dialogic (between
human, natural, and spiritual worlds) characteristics of Indigenous
knowledges, ceremony was a lifelong introduction to sacred
and environmental knowledge, graduated so individuals were pre-
sented new levels of knowledge when they were physically, psy-
chologically, and socially ready to learn them (p. 33). He identies
a quest for self, individual and community survival, and wholeness
in the context of a community and natural environment (p. 33) as
the purpose of Indigenous traditional models of teaching.
Sanford et al. (2012) assert that learning from Indigenous
traditional models of teaching in teacher education represents a
signicantly different approach than the colonizing model of
teacher education that operates through cognitive imperialism.
Cognitive imperialism is understood to be the imposition of one
worldview on a people who have an alternative worldview, with
the implication that the imposed worldview is superior to the
alternative worldview (Battiste, 2000, pp. 192e193). Teacher ed-
ucators who are guided by this pathway assert that introduction to
an Indigenous worldview opens up space within the academy and
schools to conceptualize education differently. For example, Tanaka
et al. (2007) argue that norms of education regulated through
cognitive imperialism such as individualism, competition, meri-
tocracy, singular Truths, anthropocentrism, unidirectional learning
(i.e., teacher educator / teacher / student), and disciplinary
boundaries are disrupted through an Indigenous traditional model.
This approach ultimately works towards expanding un-
derstandings, models, and practices of teaching and learning so
that they better align with local Indigenous conceptions. Reshaping
notions of education positions and supports teachers to respond to
the diverse educational needs, including learning styles, of Indig-
enous students and their communities.
One study (Anuik & Gillies, 2012) emphasizes that Indigenous
knowledges that pertain to teaching and learning are a gift inten-
ded for sharing. Accordingly, the authors suggest, one does not
necessarily need to be a culture bearer to engage Indigenous
knowledges and pedagogical methods respectfully, in relation, and
through appropriate protocols. For example, let us consider how a
teaching common to many Indigenous cultures e that the primary
responsibility of the teacher is to recognize, validate, and nurture
students' learning spirits to support them in using their unique gifts
to fulll their purpose for the good of the community (Musqua, as
cited in Knight, 2007) e is enacted through one approach to
storywork. Archibald (2008) exploration of the promise of Indige-
nous storywork for understanding and transforming contemporary
schooling challenges, offers teachers the opportunity to learn to
respectfully use some Indigenous traditional stories and stories of
experience in their classrooms. She positions Indigenous storywork
as capable of educating the heart, mind, body, and spirit (p. 144)
by providing Indigenous and non-Indigenous children and youth a
place to think and feel. In cases where listeners who are ready [to]
unfold meanings in relation to their personal lives (p. 124), stories
are a powerful tool for teaching, learning, and healing, becom[ing]
a philosophical guide for change (p. 124). Marker (2011) adds that
creation stories, a genre of traditional stories, dene the meaning
of the local geography [and] are told in ways that expose deep
truths about the people's responsibilities and relationships to the
land (p. 99).
Archibald (2008) shares that traditional stories are taught using
methods that are distinct from Eurocentric approaches. For
example, using a talking circle for perspective sharing after stu-
dents have had time to make their own meaning with little guid-
ance or explanation from the teacher, grants stories and students
agency. She also explains that engaging local protocols (e.g., using a
5
talking stick to signal the storyteller has been given time to share
her or his knowledge through oral tradition, p. 16) and observing
rules pertaining to the telling of stories (e.g., some stories can only
be told during particular seasons) are important components of
storywork. Following these guides demonstrates that one is pre-
pared to make meaning with the stories (p. 83). The communal
principle of storytelling is that a listener is or becomes a member of
the community (p. 26). This is signicant because being part of a
community involved in storywork entails responsibility on the part
of the listener. For example, Archibald observes that Elders rarely
dene terms because it is assumed that listeners know, or should
know, what they mean. If they do not, then there is an expectation
that you will nd out (p. 90).
Despite the claim that one does not need to be a culture bearer to
employ traditional models of teaching, most studies considered
(Brayboy & Maughan, 2009; Sanford et al., 2012; Tanaka, 2009;
Tanaka et al., 2007; see also Dion, 2007) relied heavily on Indige-
nous Elders, knowledge holders, and artists to facilitate co-learning
and investigation that activates living Indigenous knowledges
through traditional approaches. Reliance on those who might be
considered cultural knowledge holders suggests that teacher edu-
cators may not feel philosophically, professionally, and/or practically
prepared to work with Indigenous knowledges; or perhaps they
view it as disrespectful to attempt to travel a traditional pathway in
the absence of Elders or knowledge holders. Brayboy and Maughan
(2009) explain that Indigenous knowledges are formed within and
through relationships. They suggest that, individuals live and enact
their knowledge and, in the process, engage further in the process of
coming to be - of forming a way of engaging others in the world (pp.
4e5). Whereas teacher educators may feel condent in their ability
to (teach how to) integrate Indigenous knowledges, perspectives,
and pedagogical methods, they may not view themselves as keepers
of the knowledge and thus appear to seek support in culturally
appropriate and respectful ways.7
For example, in one Bachelor of Education course offered
through the University of Victoria, Lil'wat scholar Dr. Lorna Wil-
liams and Songhees Master Carver Clarence Butch Dick mentored
a group of 36 pre-service teachers in the construction of a Thun-
derbird/Whale protection and welcoming pole and its installation
in accordance with local protocols. Students worked as a commu-
nity of carvers, comprised of ve specialized student groups: lm,
print, website, ceremonies, and education. Student authors from
the print group (Tanaka et al., 2007) detailed their understanding
and appreciation for how four Lil'wat principles reshaped their
conceptions and practices of teaching and learning: (a) Kamcw-
kalha e honoring the energy force that signies synergy among
human, natural, and spirit worlds and the surfacing of a communal
purpose; (b) Celhcelh e embracing responsibility for one's own
learning within a community of learners; (c) Kat'il'a e seeking
7
Bridging a variety of approaches presented within the studies analyzed sug-
gests that engaging in a culturally sensitive manner may involve: teacher educators
rst accessing the local community for support in determining an appropriate
knowledge holder to invite into the class; blocking off sufcient class time for the
sharing; arranging for appropriate compensation (e.g., honorarium) and accom-
modations (e.g., transportation) for the knowledge holder; and, depending on the
topic, taking the necessary precautions to be prepared for emotional responses that
may arise as a result of difcult content (e.g., ensure tissues and water are available,
arrange for counseling support if required). Local protocols (e.g., smudging, wit-
nessing) might be engaged to prepare teachers to receive the knowledge holder's
teachings in a good way; to express respect, responsibility, and appreciation for
knowledges shared; as well as demonstrate the resilience and survivance of
Indigenous cultural practices. Teachers should also be made aware of ways of
interacting that support the involvement of knowledge holders in Faculties of Ed-
ucation (e.g., how to listen respectfully and not dominate the conversation or push
the presenter inappropriately).
6 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15

Table 2
Pedagogies for decolonizing.

Author and year Purpose/goals Assumptions Central themes Pedagogical methods

Chinnery, 2010
Fostering a critical historical
Learning from the past, as
consciousness is one approach
to learning from and attending to
our relationships with the past
Dion, 2007
A pedagogy of remembrance
Most Canadians occupy the
assists teachers to examine and
transform their biography of
relationships with Aboriginal
peoples and Indigenous
knowledges
den Heyer, 2009
Identify teacher educators'
The inclusion of Aboriginal
animating questions and
complex responses surrounding
revised Canadian provincial
curricular documents that call for
the inclusion of Aboriginal
perspectives on the themes of
identity and citizenship
Iseke-Barnes, 2008
Pedagogies for decolonizing
Revealing historical and ongoing
reveal systemic structures of
colonization, including
education, and offer strategies for
decolonizing
Oberg et al., 2007
Through creative dialog focused
Non-Aboriginal faculty members
on dilemmas involved in cross-
cultural understanding, non-
Aboriginal teacher educators im-
age a world enhanced by the in-
clusion of multiple
epistemologies and expressions
of authentic humanity
Wolf, 2012
Theatre represents an alternative
Inhabiting the lived experiences
pedagogy for engaging students
in critical research about
historical Aboriginal events in
Canada
opposed to about the past, has
the potential to unsettle taken-
for-granted understandings of
ourselves and the world and
encourage accountability for the
ethical demands the past makes
on us here and now (p. 398) for
the future
position of the perfect stranger
to Aboriginal peoples

A pedagogy of remembrance (re)
introduces teachers to
Aboriginal peoples and
knowledges, countering
dominant discourses (e.g.,
stereotypical representations, the
perfect stranger) to open up
possibilities for transformative
teaching
perspectives on the themes of
identity and citizenship
represents a signicant challenge
to teacher educators and
candidates as they often have
limited personal or formal
education of Aboriginality.
Further related topics are
associated with difcult
emotions that reect ongoing
colonial legacies and fraught
Aboriginal-non-Aboriginal
relations
colonial experiences, processes,
and effects provides a context
from which to examine the
integrated systemic structures of
colonization. Knowledge of how
systems work is vital when
engaging in practices that
challenge colonial relations of
power and dismantle structures
of colonization
struggle philosophically,
professionally, and practically
with policy aimed at promoting
Aboriginal education in Faculties
of Education, while recognizing
the importance of such work
of another through participation
in theatre teaches that
oppression is not a generalized,
naturalized, and eternalized
manifestation of life in the
civilized world in the 21st
century (p. 47). The social
imagination is engaged as
teachers re-vision, re-purpose,
and re-humanise education

Critical historical
Indigenous testimony and counter-
consciousness narratives (largely through literature

Ethical accountability and some work with Elders and residen-
tial school survivors)

document analysis

Indigenous-non-
File of uncertainties (engages teachers in
Indigenous relationships a dialogic exploration of the connections

Aboriginal between public and personal memory)
representation and
Learning from a community of Aboriginal
identity scholars and contemporary artists

Learning from Indigenous stories (Elders,
lm subjects)

Sticky points
Group open-ended research conversa-

Curriculum-as-encounter tions (i.e., teacher educator conversations

Politics of clarity were transcribed and emergent themes
were analyzed by the group)

Learning from Aboriginal stories and
perspectives shared by a faculty
member and through documentary lm
(during course work with teacher
candidates)

Systemic structures of
Circle work
colonization
Integrating ceremony into learning (e.g.,

Decolonization smudging)

Self-determination
Learning from contemporary Indigenous

Indigenous resistance artists, activists, and scholars
and resurgence
Analyzing (mis)representation of
Indigenous peoples

Learning as a community alongside
Indigenous Elders

Cross-cultural
Creation of a four-act play inspired by
understanding group dialog on issues of respect, re-

Dreamcatcher sponsibility, and (mis)representation

Transformation when attempting to include Aboriginal
epistemologies, methodologies, practices,
ontologies, and protocols (p. 112)

Classroom- and school-
Learning from Indigenous stories (Elders,
based events in residen- lm subjects)
tial schools
Primary source document analysis (e.g.,

Federal and provincial analysis of maps, interview transcripts,
Indian/Aboriginal government reports) with support from
education policy the Northern Studies Resource Centre

Aboriginal resistance
Ethnographic interviews with Elders

Citizenship
Reconstruction of a historical event in a

Empathy one-act play

Learning from trickster

spaces of stillness as a component of coming-to-know; and (d)
Cwelelep e valuing the learning, and harnessing the creative po-
tential, that emerges from dissonance and uncertainty. The integral
role of Indigenous knowledge holders in this case illustrates how
learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching creates
opportunity for advancement of Indigenous leadership within the
academy. Sanford et al. (2012) stress that capacity is strengthened
when systemic supports such as funding for honoraria; long-term
contracts; welcoming environments; and specialized, self-
determined programs are in place. In instances where structural
accommodations for Indigenous education are not considered, and
there is heavy reliance on the knowledges and efforts of Indigenous
 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
Table 3
Indigenous and anti-racist education.
Author and year Purpose/goals
James et al., 2011
Cultural media, videos, and lm
are pedagogical tools that enable
innovative and analytical ways of
critically examining how
individual, institutional, and
structural factors shape society,
with a focus on the lives of
racialized youth
Mackinlay, 2012;
PEARL, political, embodied,
Mackinlay & Barney, active, reective, and lifelong
2012 learning prepares teachers who
are committed to social justice
and democracy
O'Dowd, 2010
Ethical positioning is an effective
pedagogical strategy for
examining implications of and
shifting suppressed racist values,
enabling teacher candidates to
move beyond non-Aboriginal
ethnocentricity
Strong-Wilson, 2007
Moving and decolonizing storied
horizons involves eliciting those
touchstone stories invisibly
shaping their [teachers']
perceptions of self and other (p.
116), and confronting touchstone
stories with counter-stories
Tompkins, 2002
Investigating the implications of
power and privilege through
examining ones' social location
has the potential to transform
teachers' educational thinking
about Indigenous education in
the racialized context of rural
Nova Scotia
leaders without appropriate acknowledgment and compensation,
this is a form of institutionalized appropriation and neocolonialism
(see Newhouse, 2008).
Grounding teacher education in Indigenous knowledges that
pertain to teaching upholds some of the connections between
knowledges and the modes through which they have traditionally
been transmitted (e.g., intergenerational learning, experiential
learning, learning through ceremony, learning in Indigenous lan-
guages). I do not intend to suggest that traditional models of
teaching are replicated in this context. Rather, they are often
modied signicantly when translated for use in universities and
schools. As in the Faculty of Education example presented above
(Tanaka et al., 2007), an Elder might lead up to 40 teachers at one
time compared to two or three learners, within time/space con-
straints that are much more rigid than they would be in a tradi-
tional teaching and learning context. Similarly, some of the studies
reviewed gesture towards teachers' involvement in ceremony, but
7
Assumptions Central themes Pedagogical methods
Cultural media, videos, and lm provide
Racialization
See assumptions
access to:
Racism and

The realities/stories/perceptions of colonialism
racialized youth;
Assimilation

Teach students to critically question/
Anti-racism
analyze/interpret representation,
Anti-colonialism
ideology, identity, bias;

Provide platforms for difcult/taboo
discussions;

Disrupt stereotypes and challenge
reductive notions of identity;

Elicit embodied and emotional
engagement and active thinking

The bridging of critical pedagogy and
Whiteness
No examples given beyond
a critical race agenda enables an
Colonialism reection, holistic exploration,
exploration of, and action against,
Social justice and interrogation
relations of power that produce
Praxis
inequities

Colonial and Aboriginal histories
Social Justice
Ethical positioning which
challenge a sense of a white rural
Racism engages students in reecting
[pioneer] identity (p. 30)
Equity on their views in terms of

Building on their positive rural
Ethical action and consequences for justice at an
national identity, as opposed to social justice individual level for herself and
dismantling it, presented a
Australia's colonial the other, and then from a
foundation for discussing ethical history community, national, and
action, social justice, and their role as international level
transformative educators
Engagement in debate with
others about differing ethical
positions

Colonial knowledge remains
Constructions of
Teacher literature circles
embedded, though often overlooked, difference involving critical memory work
in stories that form white subjects'
Decolonization of formative stories
perceptual horizons
Touchstone stories
Individual interviews with

White teacher is nearly synonymous
Counter-stories teacher educator-researcher
with resistance to acknowledging the
signicance of race and the ways they
are implicated within systems of
power, including racialization

Systemic racism in schools is a
Equity
Trust-building activities
signicant contributing factor to the
Social justice
Cooperative learning in small
underachievement of Mi'kmaw and
Racism groups selected by teacher
African Nova Scotian students educator

Anti-racist education has the
Narrative and autobiographical
potential to deconstruct and writing
transform teachers' problematic
Large group discussions and
practices sharing of experiences

Guest speakers

Films

Reading anti-racist literature

Talking circles

Red stockings

Talking Webs
the authors do not write about their own or teachers' experiences
with revealed knowledge. This reminds us that some teachings are
incompatible with the academy's focus on that which can be
written/represented; to x Indigenous knowledges in these ways
would be to transform [them], to endanger [them] and ultimately
may serve to deactivate [them] (Haig-Brown & Dannenmann,
2002, p. 454). As a rst step, discussing translations and modi-
cations that occur in formal education environments with teachers
may counter misunderstanding and appropriation.
Learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching up-
holds the holistic and relational characteristics of Indigenous
knowledges. However, this pathway does not explicitly explore
Indigenous knowledges and Indigenous-non-Indigenous colonial
relationships through a focus on relations of power and pro-
ductions of privilege. As a result, this pathway may permit some
teachers to reason that they are not responsible for Indigenous
education because they identify as non-Indigenous and/or they do
8 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15

Table 4
Indigenous and Place-based education.

Author and year Purpose/goals Assumptions Central themes Pedagogical methods

Chambers, 2006
Introducing teacher candidates to the
places where wisdom sits (p. 32)
brings students in relation with the
past and invites them to renew an
enhanced relationship to the present
Korteweg et al.,
Children's literature presents
2010 opportunities to dialog about
environmental formations e their
[readers'] ways of being and relating
to the land and its people (p. 332) e
and explore constructions of
Indigeneity

Decolonizing non-Indigenous teach-
ers can transform their environ-
mental formations through
identifying and challenging their own
formative stories of, and relation-
ships with, land.
Scully, 2012
Local, place-based education is a
pedagogical approach that fosters
Indigenous-non-Indigenous un-
derstandings of shared histories and
contemporary realities
Van der Wey, 2001
Through active critical engagement,
place-based experiences can become
meaningful events that stimulate
further learning

Visiting and feeding (p. 34)
oksisawaat) places awakens an
(a
awareness of the relationship
between people, places and
beings, as well as the
precariousness of life (of the
Other) and one's responsibility to
ensure that it continues

Land-based stories by Indigenous
authors reclaim traditional and
experiential stories, land, and
cultural ways of knowing; while
countering colonial narratives
within, and beyond
environmental education

Investigating a physical location
common to Indigenous and non-
Indigenous peoples grounds
learning in teacher candidates'
experiences. This opens up pos-
sibilities for knowing and fosters
a sense of competency and
agency in the learner.

Although experience may well
be the foundation of learning, it
does not in itself lead to it; there
must be active critical
engagement with it (p. 51).

Indigenous identity and Learning from and through:
knowledge is
Writing-On-Stone
inseparable from place
Blackfoot Crossing
(Soyoo
hpawahko)

Ridge under water

Medicine wheel and cairn near
Majorville

The buffalo jumps, pisskan

Oldman (Na api) River

Fort Whoop-Up and Fort Kipp

Signicant sites on the Blood
Reserve (e.g., the site of the
annual sun dance, the cairn of
Many Spotted Grey Horses, the
old St. Mary's residential school)

Relationality of self
Autoethnography of individual
ecommunityeland and group reader responses to a
eCreator collection of children's literature

Environmental by Indigenous authors; responses
formations focused on remembering and re-

Decolonization storying environmental

Reconciliation formations

Decolonization
Land-based experiences

Reinhabitation
Field-trips

Reconciliation
Knowledge holders from local
Indigenous communities

Local assignment

Experiential knowledge
Use of locally-developed text
and learning -books and newspapers

Field trips

Reading YA literature set in a
nearby city (i.e., Kamloops
Indian Residential School)

Knowledge holders from local
Indigenous communities

not teach Indigenous students (Higgins, Madden, & Korteweg,
2015; Wolf, 2012). It may also run the risk of romanticizing and
depoliticizing Indigenous knowledges, as well as conveying the
impression that Indigenous knowledge holders are required for
Indigenous education. Unexpected contexts and needs may arise as
pedagogy produces, and for these reasons teacher educators could
remain on the lookout for occasions to temporarily journey on
other pathways.
3.2. Pedagogy for decolonizing
In general, the studies that comprise this pathway maintain that
a signicant component of Indigenous education is examining,
learning from, and challenging historical and ongoing colonial
structures and relationships. Witnessing Indigenous counter-
narratives of resistance and cultural regeneration encourages
accountability for the ethical demands the past makes on us here
and now (Chinnery, 2010, p. 398). Drawing on the discursive
practice of Iseke-Barnes (2008), I refer collectively to studies that
attend to and challenge ongoing colonial systems as pedagogy for
decolonizing. This is intended to highlight this pathway's potential
to support decolonial goals, as opposed to presenting a framework
for teacher education that achieves decolonization or produces
decolonized teachers.
The term decolonization can mean many things; it continues to
be utilized as a verb and, often problematically, a metaphor across
diverse elds of study and for various purposes (Tuck & Yang,
2012). To counter this conation and the possibility of misunder-
standing, I recognize the need to theoretically position the studies
analyzed, within the specic context of teacher education in Fac-
ulties of Education. I suggest that the pedagogy for decolonizing
studies can be understood in terms of an Indigenous framework for
decolonizing educator/ion that involves the two-prong process of
deconstructing and reconstructing (Battiste, 1998, 2012). Decon-
struction involves examining colonization and colonial strategies
that continue to be utilized by settlers to exploit and justify what
many, myself included, regard as the theft of Indigenous lands and
resources (e.g., government policy; Eurocentrism in schools;
research on, and resulting misrepresentations of, Indigenous peo-
ples). Reconstruction centres Indigenous epistemologies and on-
tologies in working towards education and research priorities as
outlined by local Indigenous communities. Tuck and Yang (2012)
assert that if a project is to be deemed decolonial, the repa-
triation of Indigenous land and life (p. 1) must be pursued. This
reects the foundational positioning of land when understanding
colonial strategies, and the regeneration of Indigenous knowledges
and communities, towards Indigenous futurity and sovereignty. In
general, repatriation of land does not appear to be a central goal in
 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
the studies considered. However, an understanding of community
that includes human, natural, and spirit worlds, and considers
other-than-human beings as agential knowers is often embraced.
According to the studies analyzed, pedagogy for decolonizing in
teacher education (re)introduces teachers to Indigenous commu-
nities and knowledges through experiential storywork, residential
school survivors' testimony, and revisionist histories of colonial
productions that challenge stereotypical, appropriated, and/or
censored (mis)representations. For example, the teachers who
worked with Dion (2007) studied contemporary Aboriginal art
works, while the pre-service teachers in Wolf's (2012) course
interviewed Elders on the topic of historical Aboriginal events.
These experiences provided opportunities to analyze the ways that
history, place, and colonization are entangled, differentially
inecting Indigenous knowledges and producing diverse colonial
positions, happenings, and confrontations.
In general, the studies argue that revealing multiple historical
and ongoing colonial experiences, processes, effects, and modes of
resistance provides a context for teachers to examine and under-
stand some of the complex systems of colonization. This pathway
teaches that oppression is not a generalized, naturalized, and
eternalized manifestation of life in the civilized world in the 21st
century (Wolf, 2012, p. 47). Further, it provides teachers with the
opportunity to explore how they are connected to, participate
within, and gain privilege as a result of colonial systems, specically
in their profession. Knowledge of how oppressive systems function,
alongside Indigenous priorities and methods of resistance and
resurgence, is vital when engaging in decolonial practices that
challenge colonial relations of power and work to dismantle
structures of colonization. As teachers gain awareness of Indige-
nous visions for self-determination in various facets of life,
including education, they can begin to learn how to position
themselves in relation; as Indigenous teachers or non-Indigenous
teacher-allies. Within education, it has been argued that this
positioning involves supporting the re-visioning, re-purposing,
and re-humanizing of public schooling (Wolf, 2012, p. 47) ac-
cording to local Indigenous priorities.
For example, in Wolf's (2012) required Aboriginal Education
course at Lakehead University, pre-service teachers' nal project
was to write and perform a 20-min, one-act play representing a
historical Aboriginal event in Canada about which little was pre-
viously known. Many of the play topics selected by students were
connected to education including classroom-based events (e.g.,
Eurocentric curriculum), school-based events (e.g., rst days of
residential school when students' hair was cut, clothes were
burned, and children were bathed in turpentine), federal or pro-
vincial education policy-based events (e.g., Indian Control of Indian
Education; Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper's apology to
residential school survivors), and events representing Aboriginal
resistance to Canadian national narratives (e.g., maintenance of
traditional models of teaching in Aboriginal communities).
Research was conducted by pre-service teachers in order to write
their plays and included: document analysis of primary sources
(e.g., maps, interview transcripts, government reports), learning
from Indigenous stories (e.g., lm, literature), and conducting
ethnographic interviews with local Elders employed by the uni-
versity. Wolf (2012) states that reconstruction of a historical event
from an Aboriginal perspective in a one-act play was not intended
for students to memorise dates and events. I asked them to
develop an understanding of evidence, signicance, continuity and
change, empathy/perspective-taking, and agency (p. 42). She
employs Seixas' (2006) denition of agency when referring to the
capacity for preparing non-Aboriginal pre-service teachers as
allies: agency is the potential for particular groups to shape and
reshape the course of events in history, as they come up against the
9
structural constraints that have been handed down from the past
(p. 42). Wolf argues that as students learned about interconnected
colonial structures (e.g., The Indian Act, residential schools, reli-
gious institutions and the role of missionaries) through plays that
represent Aboriginal resistance to national narratives, they engaged
their social imagination in envisioning possibilities for trans-
formative teaching that supports a decolonizing agenda.
It is important to note that developing empathy and perspective
taking is but one component of the reconstructive work for
decolonizing. Some scholars theorize the limits of empathy as a
pedagogical tool in Indigenous education, arguing that it has the
potential to inhibit engagement with difcult knowledge, avoid
sometimes necessary conict, and position non-Indigenous peo-
ples in problematic ways (Dion, 2009; Regan, 2010; Schick, 2000;
Schick & St. Denis, 2005). For example, in her school-based study
of the use of Aboriginal counternarratives, Dion (2009) explains
that the cultivation of empathy created the conditions for students
to overlook their participation in ongoing colonial relations. They
learned to see themselves as compassionate and honourable (p.
127) in that they were able to develop appropriate attitudes
regarding the suffering [of Aboriginal peoples subject to multiple
colonial oppressions], arriving at judgments about fairness, and
learning the right rules of moral behaviour (p. 138). Moreover,
Dion (2009) observed that students' preoccupation with feeling
sorry for the pitiful [Aboriginal] victim obscured examples of
resilience and agency present in counternarratives. It is argued that
pedagogical methods intended to foster empathy (e.g., letter
writing to residential school survivors) may also reinscribe colonial
ways of knowing about Aboriginal-non-Aboriginal relationships, if
Aboriginal peoples are continually positioned as victims provided
solutions and support by the all-knowing non-Aboriginal
rescuers.
Along with a colleague (Madden & McGregor, 2013b), I explore
some of the limits of pedagogy for decolonizing by drawing on a
shared experience of participating in a doctoral seminar. We argue
that while pedagogy for decolonizing enables, its guiding con-
straints also result in additional pedagogical productions that are
often under-theorized. Unlike the studies analyzed in this inquiry
that focus on the ow of movement resulting in a decolonial
transformational shift, we explore three excessive moments
(Orner, Miller, & Ellsworth, 1996) also produced by this pathway:
(a) eliciting non-Indigenous students' stories of their relationships
with Indigenous peoples that failed to make connections to colo-
nization and, in some cases, re-centred whiteness, reied stereo-
typical notions of Indigenous peoples, and essentialized and/or
appropriated Indigeneity; (b) the impossibility of preparing for
contextual elements that direct what is sayable and doable in a
specic context (Orner, 1992, p. 81), for example emotions,
memories, and relational engagements elicited through pedagogy
for decolonizing; and (c) reducing student engagement through
reliance on the binary opposition Indigenous/non-Indigenous,
which simultaneously collapsed differences between students
who identied with one category or the other, as well as dissuaded
participation from those who did not see themselves reected in
either totalizing term.
Despite the unexpected, and perhaps even undesired, peda-
gogical productions that resulted from this pathway, we do not
advocate for the rejection of pedagogy for decolonizing. The op-
portunity for teachers to engage in deconstruction and recon-
struction is far too valuable. Pedagogy for decolonizing encourages
the exploration of how colonial systems shape historical and
ongoing colonial relationships; teachers' connections to, partici-
pation within, and privilege accrued as a result of such systems; as
well as how, specically as professionals, they might recongure
their biography with Indigenous peoples to work together to
10 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
dismantle oppressive colonial structures and productions for
Indigenous self-determination.
Based on the studies reviewed, I would argue that pedagogy for
decolonizing does not necessarily draw on Indigenous traditional
models of teaching. However, through an historical examination of
colonization and incorporation of Indigenous counternarratives,
this pathway creates space for Indigenous knowledges and per-
spectives in education settings. It also endeavours to disrupt colo-
nial structures in order to open up space to integrate Indigenous
knowledges in the academy towards enacting education differently.
3.3. Indigenous and anti-racist education
In general, the studies in this pathway focus on deconstructing
problematic perceptions of racialized and Indigenous peoples and
groups. The phrase racialized and Indigenous is utilized to signal
the intersection of two categories of identity, as well as gesture
towards the diversity housed within the grouping Indigenous (i.e.,
one who identies as Indigenous may not necessarily identify as
racialized and/or may acknowledge white skin privilege, Cottell,
2004; Richardson, 2006). It is argued that problematic percep-
tions are largely shaped by colonial narratives/mythology and
ensconced through ongoing colonial effects, including fractured or
antagonistic Indigenous-non-Indigenous relationships (Dion,
2009; Donald, 2009; Francis, 1992; O'Dowd, 2010). The studies
analyzed emphasize that while teachers are often positioned as the
central focus of exploration and agency through reexive activities
and the sharing of counternarratives, this pathway requires inves-
tigation of the relations between individuals and interconnected
systems of oppression.
This pathway draws on tenets of anti-racist education, however,
translation for Indigenous education with/in Faculties of Education
necessitates deconstruction that is rmly anchored in the colonial
context. Briey stated, Dei (1996) argues that anti-racist education
is founded on the assumption that institutional structures that
advance racial discrimination and ethnocentrism exist, resulting in
the marginalization of racialized peoples and groups, while
privileging those who are white. Anti-racist education addresses
race and challenges racial ideologies and discrimination that
maintain racialized, classed, gendered, and heteronormative hier-
archies (Ladson-Billings, 2000; Sleeter, 2010). Pedagogical methods
contribute to the development of a counter-hegemonic discourse
in the academy through privileging individual and grouped ex-
periences of racialization, often through the use of counterstories
and activities that name, examine, and seek to recongure privilege
(e.g., restructuring teaching practicum to include urban settings
with racially diverse student populations, Ladson-Billings, 2000).
Indigenous critiques of anti-racist education have illuminated
race-based misconceptions (e.g., reliance on the myth of the van-
ishing Indian and the assumption that racism begins with slavery)
and charged antiracism with the exclusion of Indigenous agendas
focused on regeneration of knowledges and repatriation of land
(Lawrence & Dua, 2011; St. Denis, 2007). The studies reviewed in
this pathway both draw inspiration from anti-racist education, and
take seriously the call to consider how race, racialization, and
colonialism are entangled. They focus on how problematic per-
ceptions of racialized and Indigenous peoples are reinforced
through institutional structures, resulting in the marginalization of
particular students and the privileging of others.
For example, youth, family, and community accounts of public
education reect negative experiences of racism and exclusion of
Indigenous knowledges in schools that cannot be disentangled
(Madden, Higgins & Korteweg, 2013a; Bishop et al., 2009; Friedel,
1999; Hare & Pidgeon, 2011; Kanu, 2002). Donald (2011) sheds
light on these accounts by illuminating the decit view of culture,
held by some teachers and administrators, as something possessed
by uncivilized people who are bound by tradition. Indigenous
culture, Donald argues, is at times being used as code for race or
problematic differences that produce individuals who do not
value education and/or cannot comprehend in schools due to a
mismatch in worldviews. He extends Tuck's (2009) consideration
of the long-term impact of damage-centered research in Indige-
nous communities to include education policy concerned with
closing the gap through cultural programming. Questions are
raised about what this discourse and policy produces and silences
for students, for teachers, and for education institutions, particu-
larly in the absence of attention to historical and contemporary
Indigenous-non-Indigenous relationships.8
Indigenous education that addresses racialization and racism
as colonial productions challenges taken for granted un-
derstandings of what constitutes racism towards Aboriginal peo-
ple and reshape[s] views of what it means to be racist (O'Dowd,
2010, p. 38). The studies that comprise this pathway engaged a
number of pedagogical methods to dismantle colonial racism
including: (a) investigation of structural factors in situated con-
texts to provide a basis for understanding individual and group
practices of those involved in the struggles of subjugated pop-
ulations in their Indigenous homelands (Jiwani, 2011, p. 340); (b)
interrogation of teachers' privilege and views of racialized and
Indigenous students that connects individuals and interconnected
systems of oppression; and (c) integration of multiple, nuanced
representations of Indigenous histories, peoples, cultures, per-
spectives, and priorities.
For example, drawing on Thobani's (2007) theory of exalted
subjects, James et al. (2011) argue that providing pre-service
teachers access to the stories of racialized youth in lm opened
pedagogical spaces to critically question, analyze, and interpret
intersections of racialized ideologies, perceptions, biases, and
representations:
We reect on the racialized norms within these lms noting the
particularity of their storylines: their starting points, assump-
tions, and agendas; how they employ examples; their moral
undertone; and the roles of the antagonists. We discuss the
extent to which the videos reinscribe or challenge existing im-
ages of racialized youth, and/or provide critical insights into the
colonization and racialization process. (p. 355)
They assert that lm provided a platform for disrupting ste-
reotypes, challenging reductive notions of identity, and making
connections between individuals and systems. These skills formed
a foundation to support pre-service teachers in identifying their
problematic perceptions of racialized and Indigenous youth, and
exploring how these perceptions are reproduced and normalized
through education structures and discourses.
Like pedagogy for decolonizing, Indigenous and anti-racist ed-
ucation does not explicitly integrate Indigenous knowledges into
university settings. However, studies that comprise this pathway
provide multiple, diverse opportunities to learn from the voices,
stories, and perceptions of racialized and Indigenous peoples.
Indigenous knowledges are both implicit and explicit within these
perspectives, and thus, an anti-racist approach has the potential to
prepare teachers that resist colonial racism and cultivate
8
I would argue that Donald is not questioning the value of integrating what he,
or other Indigenous and allied people, would view as Indigenous cultural knowl-
edges in schools. Rather, he is illuminating the ways in which colonial discourses
shape interpretations of Indigenous culture and produce cultural programming
towards assimilative ends.
 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
classrooms and schools that are more welcoming to Indigenous
families and traditional models of teaching.
The studies analyzed offer the following cautionary notes in an
attempt to work against reproducing dominant ways of knowing
about, and engaging, Indigenous-non-Indigenous and racialized/
white relationships. The central role of counternarratives in this
pathway has the potential to position racialized and Indigenous
narrators as primarily responsible for supporting and sustaining
white teachers' reexivity, with a focus on the exploration of
privilege. This may require negotiation alongside, or represent a
challenge to, coalition building and priority setting in accordance
with local Indigenous agendas (Dion, 2007; see also Ellsworth,
1989; Riviere, 2008). Likewise, white teachers may be given the
impression that they themselves are responsible for empowering
and liberating racialized and Indigenous youth. To counter this
misconception, teacher educators might ask: In which ways am I
reinforcing rather than disrupted existing colonial relationships
(e.g., employing a framework that strengthens the capacity of white
teachers; risking appropriation of stories/cultures/views; repro-
ducing problematic positions like white savior)? How are racial-
ized teachers benetting from this approach? How are Indigenous
teachers benetting from this approach? In which ways might I be
perpetuating violence in calling on racialized peoples to share
particular stories of marginalization? What supports do I have in
place to ethically account for the complexities that might arise from
anti-racist and Indigenous education?
This pathway works against the tendency to collapse difference
among and between racialized and Indigenous peoples. Amidst
multiple critiques, such attening has been accused of obscuring
settler (including those who identify as racialized) pursuit of
Indigenous land and resources (Grande, 2008; Lawrence & Dua,
2011), and ignoring the unique rights of Indigenous peoples
(Marker, 2006; St. Denis, 2011). A focus on how relations of power
position individuals and groups, as well as a move to multiplicity
and nuance with respect to counternarratives works towards a
fulsome notion of colonial racism that might attend to: gender,
class, sexuality, geographical location, local cultural/colonial prac-
tices and agendas, as well as consideration of Diasporic Indige-
neity9 (Adefarakan, 2011; Dei, 2011).
3.4. Indigenous and place-based education
The studies that comprise this pathway advocate for the intro-
duction of teachers to local places where wisdom sits
(Basso,199610 as cited in Chambers, 2006, p. 32). It is argued that
this approach brings teachers in relation with situated Indigenous
knowledges, as well as Indigenous-non-Indigenous histories and
contemporary realities that emerge from interconnected relation-
ships formed in and through place. Developing a renewed under-
standing of the places they inhabit positions teachers to regenerate
an enhanced relationship to the present in the spirit of reconcili-
ation (Korteweg et al., 2010).
In developing a framework for Aboriginal and placed-based
education (p. 148), Scully (2012) extends Greenwood's critical
pedagogy of place (2006) that focuses on two interrelated objec-
tives e decolonizing and reinhabitation e to include the third
objective of reconciliation. Greenwood's notion of decolonization
9
Dei (2011) argues that Diasporic Indigeneity is founded on the notion that
Indigenous knowledge can reside in bodies and cultural memories notwith-
standing global migrations, globalization and the emergence of Diasporic com-
munities (p. 26).
10
Although referenced by Basso (1996), he is sharing a teaching he received from
The Western Apache.
11
differs from Battiste's (2012) Indigenous theory of decolonizing
educator/ion, and focuses on learning to recognize disruption and
injury [to cultures alongside ecosystems] and to address their
causes (p. 9). Ecological reinhabitation involves learning to pursue
ways of being in places that have been exploited that are socially
just and ecologically sustainable (p. 9). Scully (2012) adds the goal
of reconciliation that, drawing on Indigenous scholar Simpson
(2011), she denes as involving more than revitalization of
Indigenous-non-Indigenous relationships within Canada to
encompass regeneration, namely [Indigenous] cultural generation
and political resurgence (p. 155).
Greenwood's critical pedagogy of place (2006) is rooted in
Freire's (1973/2000) critical pedagogy that engages learners in the
process of conscientizacao, learning to perceive social, political,
and economic contradictions, and to take action against the
oppressive elements of reality (p. 35). It is important to note that
while Freire's pedagogy was informed by the liberatory struggles of
an oppressed people, he claims that dehumanization marks not
only those whose humanity has been stolen, but also [and differ-
ently] those who have stolen it (p. 44) (see also Memmi, 1965/
1991). Accordingly, critical pedagogy has been extended for use in
Faculties of Education to prepare transformative intellectuals
(Giroux & McLaren, 1986) who may occupy positions of privilege to
varying degrees. Transformative intellectuals attempt to insert
teaching and learning directly into the political sphere (p. 216)
through continually reading the world (Freire & Macedo, 1987)
from their own situated experience. This involves both reection
and action e or praxis e to articulate and work towards emanci-
patory possibilities. One of these possibilities is preparing students
in schools, who may be struggling for humanity and against
oppressive elements of reality, as critical agents who are involved in
questioning knowledge production and distribution in working
towards similar emancipatory possibilities, albeit differently.
Indigenous and place-based education often takes place outside
of Faculties of Education. Guided by local Indigenous protocols,
teacher educators and teachers visit and feed (Chambers, 2006)
the places where knowledge sits as a form of renewing relation-
ships between place, peoples, and beings:
Like relatives, places must be fed and cared for. Like family and
old friends, places are visited and in return they care for us, they
may gift us with dreams and answers to our prayers. Stay
awhile; sit down; tell stories; eat and drink and offer something
to those who came before, those who shaped this landscape and
who were shaped by it; those who made our precious and
precarious life possible. (p. 34)
Elders often share the stories and teachings of place, in concert
with teachers from the natural and spirit worlds. For example,
Chambers and Blackfoot knowledge holder Narcisse Blood brought
pre-service teachers to the approximately 5000 year-old medicine
wheel near Majorville, Alberta. The medicine wheel, now bordered
by a fence and marked by a government plaque, has a central cairn
that sits atop a hill surrounded by 28 linear rays that extend from
the cairn and align with celestial events and sacred Blackfoot
geographical features such as Nnaiista ko (Chief Mountain).
Although few people know the Blackfoot name or stories of this
place, the group was gifted with teachings from a Blackfoot Elder
from Siksika (the closest reserve to the medicine wheel). He and the
place shared how the central cairn, once so high that if one stood on
top they felt they could almost reach the clouds traveling over-
head (p. 33), has shrunk over time and the rays have been
disturbed as visitors who are ignorant of the history and signi-
cance of the place have removed rocks as mementos.
The group engaged in the exploration of questions of/with place
12 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
that facilitate the type of learning that can lead to decolonization,
reinhabitation, and reconciliation:
What is the signicance of this landscape and what can it teach
us? What is the curriculum of these places? What knowledge is
held in there and here, and what if any is still accessible to us,
and what is gone? What are our responsibilities to these sites?
What can these places teach us, not just about the past, but
about now and two days from now?11 (p. 35)
Pre-service teachers consider how the disruption and injury to
the physical medicine wheel, and associated Indigenous knowl-
edges, are connected to the exploitation of this sacred place as a
result of its positioning as a tourist destination (i.e., an example of
Greenwood's decolonization). Learning to be differently in rela-
tionship with the land/place is guided by local and traditional
ways-of-knowing/-being/-doing that might be considered more
socially just and ecologically sustainable (i.e., Greenwood's rein-
habitation). Becoming a member of a community through learning
from Indigenous traditional stories entails responsibilities on the
part of the listener to use knowledges respectfully and responsibly
in order for their power to persist (Archibald, 2008) (i.e., reconcil-
iation). Scully (2012) asserts that learning about Indigenous peo-
ples and knowledges, as well as the effects of colonization, through
place, is part of regenerating the crucial understanding that people
are dependent on natural processes, and implicated in relation to
human and ecological communities (p. 151). The signicance of
this sentiment cannot be overstated and has been explored in
previous subsections that detail how Indigenous futurity and sov-
ereignty depends on nurturance of Indigenous land, so that balance
with the universe might be restored through dialog guided by
protocol in order for relational knowledge to persist (Archibald,
2008; Cajete, 1994; Marker, 2011; Tuck & Yang, 2012).
Based on an evaluation of over 400 assignments and instructor
evaluations, Scully (2012) states that the overwhelming majority of
pre-service teachers prefer this situated learning approach, We are
using what we know to see what we can learn. By using familiar
places, names, plants, stories a sense of competency is already in
place e this makes the new perspectives or knowledges more
accessible and gives more sense of agency to the learner (p.
154e155). While this pathway with theoretical underpinnings in
critical theory is emergent, important connections exist between it
and alternate pathways explored in this inquiry. Learning to prac-
tice Indigenous ways-of-being that improve the social (with con-
centration on Indigenous-non-Indigenous relationships) and
ecological life of places might be thought of as connecting and
extending Indigenous traditional models of teaching and pedagogy
for decolonizing.
In general, the studies reviewed did not take up the challenges
or pitfalls of Indigenous and place-based education (e.g., difcult
knowledge that may arise and conict with teachers' previous
understandings of place). However, Van der Wey (2001) does
provide the cautionary note that, although experience may well be
the foundation of learning, it does not in itself lead to it; there must
be active critical engagement with it [experience] (p. 51). This
notable absence generates several related and productive questions
to ask of this pathway: What might a pedagogical pathway that
centers being, rather than knowing, provide and prohibit? Is there
11
Leroy Little Bear says there are two kinds of time in the Blackfoot language:
The rst is the immediate present: which has a two-day limit: there is today,
yesterday and the day before yesterday; or today, tomorrow and the day after. And
then there is everything else. In the Blackfoot language the past and the future are
never more than two days away (Chambers, 2006, p. 31).
something pedagogically generative about a focus on nature, as
opposed to considering Indigenous-non-Indigenous relationships
through the lens of culture? And, what might an Indigenous and
placed-based approach allow non-Indigenous teachers to avoid?
This pathway requires that teacher educators attend to time and
space parameters that constrain when places can be visited and fed
(e.g., if prairie grass is tall, certain sections of the medicine wheel in
Majorville are not visible). Greenwood (2006) also cautions that
differing entanglements of social, cultural, and placed experiences
produce diverse and sometimes divergent conceptions of ecological
problems and priorities (e.g., some Indigenous Nations have signed
contracts with mining companies to, at last in part, secure jobs for
community members). Consequently, teacher educators should
recognize and honor the nuance involved in taking this pathway.
They might model the facilitation of critical conversations founded
in praxis that open up space for learners within, and beyond, Fac-
ulties of Education to examine various points of view and experi-
ences, rather than impose totalizing solutions/standpoints.
4. Discussion: winding pathways and pedagogical openings
This inquiry has offered a discussion of the shared and/or
complimentary characteristics, as well as divergences and potential
tensions, between four pedagogical pathways that guide teacher
educators. Learning from Indigenous traditional models of teaching
promotes Indigenous knowledges within Faculties of Education
through honoring both the teachings and the traditional modes
through which they are transmitted. This pathway presents op-
portunities to advance Indigenous leadership within and beyond
the university, provided adequate supports are in place. Unlike
decolonizing, anti-racist, and place-based pathways, a traditional
model does not explicitly explore the unique political position of
Indigenous groups as First Peoples or Indigenous-non-Indigenous
relationships through a focus on colonization, relations of power,
and/or privilege. This omission has the potential to leave unchal-
lenged the apathy or resistance from teachers who do not see
themselves as implicated in Indigenous education. Further, it may
enhance the conditions for appropriation of Indigenous knowl-
edges, or perpetuate colonial ways of knowing about Indigenous-
non-Indigenous relationships (e.g., Indigenous peoples and
knowledges are romanticized and/or relegated to the past).
Pedagogy for decolonizing, Indigenous and anti-racist educa-
tion, and Indigenous and place-based education have theoretical
roots in a critical paradigm. Each pathway is differently concerned
with the central task of reshaping contemporary Indigenous-non-
Indigenous relationships through teacher transformation. Diver-
gent pedagogical methods produce shifts in teachers' positioning
and practice that challenge interconnected systems of oppression
in schools, and respond to the needs of Indigenous students and
communities. In general, the studies considered assert that indi-
vidual and systemic transformation is supported through stories of,
and frameworks for, understanding: a) colonization and Indigenous
survivance; b) racism as an ongoing colonial strategy, and the
production of both marginalized and privileged groups; and c)
Indigenous relationships with/in place that continue to be dis-
rupted by neocolonial exploitation, respectively. Among critically
informed approaches, decolonizing and place-based pedagogical
pathways share the Indigenous notion of relational knowledge
constructed between human, natural, and spirit worlds. Both ap-
proaches focus on current, and often disputed and deleterious,
relationships with/in place when conceptualizing transformation.
Those who are guided by Indigenous and anti-racist education
appear to be beginning the work of taking Indigenous thought
seriously (Haig-Brown, 2008) through positioning land as central
to knowing-in-being. An anti-racist pathway supports the
 B. Madden / Teaching and Teacher Education 51 (2015) 1e15
exploration of connections that exist between colonization, raci-
alization, racism, and whiteness; whereas decolonizing and place-
based education explicitly, and a traditional model implicitly, fo-
cuses on Eurocentrism and often leaves race unexplored. More
attention to the shared spaces among race-based and (traditional,
decolonizing, anti-racist, and place-based) Indigenous theories
may reveal new understandings about the ways in which race
differently contributes to the production of privilege and margin-
alization in the ongoing context of settler colonialism. Further,
consideration of a diverse production of entangled colonial posi-
tions may aid in analysis of teaching across difference at systemic
and individual levels, both within and beyond the boundary of
Indigenous/non-Indigenous. Coalition building between groups
differently produced through de/colonization may also result.
Pedagogy for decolonizing calls for an action component that
supports the larger Indigenous decolonizing agenda striving for the
repatriation of Indigenous land and life (Smith, 1999; Tuck & Yang,
2012). The action component of Indigenous and anti-racist educa-
tion and Indigenous and placed-based education concentrates on
teacher-transformation that affects change in schools, notably
through the production of students as critical agents working to-
wards a more socially just and ecologically responsible way-of-being
in place. In general, these three pathways are subject to similar
critiques of the limitations of pedagogical methods that call for
voice including the desire for a stable, autonomous, unied,
knowable individual/community/identity that can be represented
and transformed, as well as reliance on binary oppositions (e.g.,
Indigenous/non-Indigenous, racialized/white) that position partic-
ipants in ways that both constrain and enable. Learning from
Indigenous traditional models of education is grounded in a rela-
tional ontology that nurtures spaces of differentiation, attends to
localization, and considers natural and spiritual beings as agential
knowers and thus differently produces and prohibits (e.g., potential
to be read as apolitical).
5. Concluding thoughts and future directions
This inquiry draws on the perspectives of teacher educators to
provide a comprehensive review of prevailing pedagogical path-
ways to engage Indigenous education with/in Faculties of Educa-
tion. Twenty-three studies were analyzed based on the purpose
and goals, theoretical assumptions, central themes, and pedagog-
ical methods featured in association with Indigenous education.
Based on analysis of these guiding constraints, four pedagogical
pathways were illuminated: Learning from Indigenous traditional
models of teaching, Pedagogy for decolonizing, Indigenous and
anti-racist education, and Indigenous and place-based education.
Each pathway was examined for guiding constraints that coalesce
and shape pedagogy in distinct ways that permit, produce, and
prohibit. The winding nature of pedagogical pathways that come
together and pull apart was explored through discussion that
highlighted complementarities, tensions, and combined pedagog-
ical openings among approaches.
As pointed to in the introduction, teacher educators12 are
involved in the doubled task of modelling what it might mean to
engage Indigenous education, while preparing teachers to carry on
12
I recognize that all teacher educators may not consider themselves (or in fact
be) responsible for engaging Indigenous education with/in Faculties of Education
through a holistic approach or a stand-alone course structure. However, I hold that
it is the responsibility of all teacher educators to familiarize themselves with, and
take into account, the framework for Indigenous education utilized within their
institution. This includes increasing their awareness of Indigenous theories of ed-
ucation and educator, and the theoretical underpinnings, pedagogical methods, and
commitments that undergird these conceptions.
13
similar work differently in schools. This continuous living and (un)
learning with teachers occurs in an often unfamiliar context where
Indigenous ways of knowing and being are centred. Modeling
should take the form of teacher educators seeking and sharing the
types of experiences, knowledges, processes, and relationships
produced through each of the pathways. Plurality is a resource that
provides in such shifting and unknowable contexts; thus, selecting
one pathway over another is not recommended.
Teacher educators are encouraged to connect pathways in
charting their own route, taking into account their unique place,
positioning, talents, students, and priorities. They are also urged to
learn from these tracings and adapt examples that have been
shared, as well as heed the warnings from those who have jour-
neyed beforehand. Often commensurate and complimentary,
pedagogical pathways differently offer teachers distinct gifts,
including challenges, in creating opportunities to improve
Indigenous-non-Indigenous relationships in general and schooling
for Indigenous students specically.
Tracing a fulsome network of Indigenous education with/in
Faculties of Education may provide analytical frames to examine
how pathways shape teacher identity and teachers' constructions
of Indigeneity and (de)colonization: What subjects positions are
produced and prohibited by particular pedagogical pathways? How
are these subject positions entangled with teachers' constructions
of Indigenous peoples, perspectives, and priorities, as well as their
perceptions of Indigenous-non-Indigenous relationships? What
does this mean for the educational needs of Indigenous students
and communities?
Similarly, a tracing of pedagogical pathways may support ex-
amination of the movement, and sedimentation, of knowledge-
practice associated with Indigenous education within and be-
tween Faculties of Education, schools, and transitional spaces. For
example, one might examine why it is that the sharing circle is
often presented as the approach to school-based Indigenous edu-
cation? What are the traces of this interpretation? How is this
linked to, yet deviates from, Indigenous traditional models of
teaching? How does this respond to the needs of Indigenous stu-
dents and communities? Analyzing movement and sedimentation
has applications within, but not limited to, discourse analysis,
document analysis (e.g., policy, curricular documents), and studies
of practicing teachers' pedagogical approaches.
This inquiry has also begun the work of bridging knowledge,
pedagogical methods, and cautionary notes across distinct peda-
gogical pathways towards innovative possibilities for considering
and involving teachers in Indigenous education. Consideration of
possibilities for engaging Indigenous education with/in higher ed-
ucation or school contexts, based on what has been learned from
teacher educators with/in Faculties of Education, may be an apt
extension of this work. How this theory building may aid in
(analysis of) teaching across difference both within and beyond the
boundary of Indigenous/non-Indigenous is also an area that has
been marked for further attention.
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