SOLAR WATER PURIFICATION BY

USING THERMAL METHOD

CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO PARTICULARS PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. SYNOPSIS
2. INTRODUCTION
3. LITERATURE SURVEY
4. TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR
5. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION
6. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR PARABOLIC DISH
7. WORKING PRINCIPLE
8. DRAWINGS
9. CONTROL OF HEAT LOSS
10.ADVNATAGES
11.LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS
12.LIST OF MATERIALS
13.COST ESTIMATION
14.CONCLUSION
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY

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Chapter-1
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SYNOPSIS
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CHAPTER-1

SYNOPSIS

Solar water purification by using thermal method is used as a principle of solar

thermal heating system. Solar thermal systems convert sunlight into heat. "Flat-plate"

solar thermal collectors produce heat at relatively low temperatures (80 to 140F [27 to

60C]), and are generally used to heat air or a liquid for space and water heating or drying

agricultural products. Concentrating solar collectors produce higher temperatures.

They are most often used where higher temperature heat is desirable, there are

large thermal loads, and/or where there are limitations in the area available for installing

solar collectors, since they provide more energy per unit of collector surface area. They

can also be applied in the production or refining of chemicals and fuels or to produce

mechanical or electrical energy. The following is a discussion of concentrating systems

for space or water heating. Such collectors can also be used to produce heat for

absorption cooling.
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Chapter-2
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INTRODUCTION
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CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION

Parabolic trough technology is currently the most proven solar thermal electric

technology. This is primarily due to nine large commercial-scale solar power plants, the

first of which has been operating in the California Mojave Desert since 1984. Large fields

of parabolic trough collectors supply the thermal energy used to produce steam for a

Rankine steam turbine/generator cycle.

There are two basic types of parabolic trough solar heating collectors that have

been commercially developed: cylindrical parabolic troughs and compound water heaters.

A standard cylindrical parabolic trough has a fixed receiver/absorber positioned in the

middle of the trough at or slightly above the radius across the edges of the reflector. The

shape of the trough (rim angle) determines the focal point, and thus the position of the

receiver. The reflector surface is usually polished aluminum, aluminized plastic, silvered

glass, or stainless steal.

 The receiver usually has an absorber tube coated with a selective material that has

a high absorption for the solar spectrum and low emittance for infrared radiation. The

absorber tube may be enclosed in glass with a vacuum to reduce heat loss due to

convection and radiation. Receiver temperatures can reach 750F (400C).

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Chapter-3
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LITERATURE SURVEY
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CHAPTER-3

LITERATURE SURVEY

Man relied mostly on the sun for his energy needs. With increasing in population

of the world and especially our country, coupled with the desire for higher standard of

living and better quality of life, it is imperative that the basic energy needs are met.

However, about 250 years ago, the picture changed radically by the invention of

steam engine and the increasing use of fossil fuels for producing electricity and for

industrial purposes. The recent rapid escalation in the cost fossil fuels, the awareness

regarding environmental pollution issues, the finite size of the fossil resources, and the

ever increasing demand to satisfy better standard of living resulted in harnessing alternate

energy source to supplement and eventually replace fossil fuels. This is a rediscovery of

mans old concern. The number of conceivable ways to collect, store, convert, distribute

were carried out and finally the use of solar energy to immense.
 The origin to the solar energy utilization was initiated in the year 1800 by a

scientist Mr. CHARLES FRITTIS. The invention of light meter which is used for

determining the intensity of light was the initiative for solar energy utilization. This

meter was used in the field of photo graphics. This was implemented in practice at the

year 1930.

Later in 1954 the bell laboratories of U.S.A. made a research in generation of

electricity without any moving parts by using the principle of light meter. They were

successful in that research and there came the generation of electricity without any

moving parts, where sunlight was the main source for energy for generation of electricity.

In order to effectively harness the solar radiation one must know the spectral

distribution of sunlight to evaluate absorbing by the atmosphere and near by terrain and

the types of instruments used to measure different aspects of the solar flux.

Direct photo voltaic conversion of sunlight to electricity is a very enticing

prospect for clean production of electric power. This method is based on the use of solar

cell. The transfer of energy from the photons of solar light directly to electrons in a

potential semi conductor barrier layer without an intermediate thermal step is the photo

voltaic effect. The principle of the photo voltaic effect is closely associated with the

theory of diode and an introduction to the essential principle of the elements of

semiconductor physics is helpful in understanding the harnessing of solar energy. Useful

applications vary from production of few watts to several mega watts. It is successfully

exploited both in space and small scale applications on earth.

GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION:

The performance of any solar system requires information on the availability of

energy in direct beam, diffuse energy from the sky or the reflected energy from the

ground and other objects.

For empirical estimation, solar radiation of possible sun sine and cloud are used

from meteorological exist data, and at location where no measured data a linear

interpolation is made by using total horizontal data from the nearest location.

SOLAR RADIATION DATA:

Many countries through networks under meteorological organizations record and

maintain solar radiation data mostly in long leys received on a horizontal surface in

different observations centers. Data are available for daily or hourly solar radiation, wind

velocity, temperature and duration of sun sine and cloudiness for over three decades.

This information are available in different forms and they are to be used carefully
because the records may provide bean, diffuse or total radiation, instantaneous values

integrated over an hour in a day, measurements in incline or fixed slope or normal, daily

measurements averaged by month and hourly average by month.

Average solar radiation data provide information about general trends. Based on

accurate values of daily means of solar radiation at one location, solar radiations for

every month in different parts of the world are complied. The daily average total fluxes

for sunlight on a horizontal surface for the month of June, in various parts of the world

are given. The greatest amount of solar energy is found around the earth between the 15

degree and 35 degree north and south parallels, where there is a minimum monthly mean

radiation of 20MJ/m/day. These regions are on the equatorial side of the worlds arid

deserts. In some of the areas there is usually over 3000 hrs sunshine/year, over 90% of

which come as direct radiation.

The next favorable region for solar energy applications is in the belt between 15

degree north and 15 degree south parallels. The scattered radiation is high with about

1500 hrs sunshine/year. The influx of solar radiation ranges from 12 to 20MJ/m/day.

Between 35 degree and 45 degree parallels, at the edge of deserts the solar radiation

averages 16 to 20MJ/m/day. The regions beyond 45 degree north to 45 degree south are

limited in their year-round direct use of solar energy. More than 80% of the worlds
inhabitants live between 40 degree latitude in about 14MJ/m/day. In U.K. the average

daily total solar radiation is about 16 MJ/m/day, in summer and about 2 MJ/m/day in

winter. The total on a horizontal surface is about 3500 MJ/m/year.

On the other hand, Australia which is enjoying quite the opposite weather and

vegetation receives about 6500MJ/m/year nearly twice as much.

Because of the inclination of the earth axis to the plane of its orbit, the maximum

altitude of the sun and the length of the day vary substantially with latitude and season.

This effect can be seen in the measurements of solar radiation over the seasons for

various latitudes. In summer they are compensating so that the on a clear day the total

energy falling on a horizontal surface is 30MJ/m/day at all latitudes up to the polar area.

The distribution of the total duration of bright sunshine in India ranges form 2500

to 3600hrs/Year. The global solar radiation of nearly 27 MJ/m/day is available on a

horizontal surface over arid and semi arid regions. During monsoon and winter months

the global solar radiation falls to 10 to 20 MJ/m/day. Nearly 10% of area of the country

receives global radiation exceeding 20 MJ/m/day and about 70% of the area 17 to 20

MJ/m/day. These are favorable regions for harnessing solar radiation.

 The desert zones of the earth are having highest insulation. Arid and semi arid

regions of the country comprise 10% and 30% respectively of the area of the whole

country.

The average solar radiations (MJ/m/day) in some cities in India are given.

STATION WINTER SUMMER MONSOON POST

DEC-FEB MAR-MAY JUN-SEP MONSOO
N
OCT-NOV
19.2 25.2 18.2 18.3
PUNE
18.9 24.3 19.9 16.6
CHENNAI
15.7 21.6 16.4 16.1
KOLCUTTA
15.2 24.1 20 17.6
NEW DELHI

INDIAN SCENARIO IN THE SOLAR FIELD:

India lies between 7 N and 37 N latitudes, and the prospects of using solar energy

here is very bright. The average intensity of solar radiation in India is 500-600 cal/cm

per day, and the solar energy annually received by it is 5 x 10 KWH. If India can tap
one percent of the incident solar radiation, it can generate many times the energy of its

actual requirement at present.

A study of the average solar radiation falling on major Indian cities in different

months of the year shows how easily Indian cities receive a huge quantity of solar energy

at practically no cost. This free and easy availability of solar energy has forced India to

develop its use. As a result, in the fifties, Indian government laid stress on the

development of devices which used solar energy to meet specific needs. Scientists at the

national physical laboratory in New Delhi devised solar cookers, water heaters and water

pumps among other things, for the use in the country.

In the seventies, a committee headed by the energy and petroleum ministry

recommended that basic research on solar energy by carrying out in all universities and

frontal research organization. Several universities and institutes such as central building

research institute, Tata energy research institute and IITs subsequently took up research

work on the development of solar energy technologies. The main thrust was application

of solar energy in rural sector and supplementing commercial energy in urban areas.

In the eighties the department of non conventional energy sources was assigned

the main responsibility for advancement of solar energy utilization. A 1991-1992 report

published by the ministry of non conventional energy sources revealed that despite head
way made in India in the utilization of solar energy, the ratio of energy used to energy

available, was extremely low. India annually received 5 x 10 / 15 KW hr. of solar

Energy, but utilizes only 13 x 10/7 KW hr., or 0.0000026% of it.

How ever there has been a significant growth in the use of solar heating systems in

India, in the form of solar water purification by using thermal methods, domestic and

industrial solar cookers, solar crop diverse, kilns, desalination, systems etc.

India is now in touch with many developing countries for the development of

renewable energy. It coordinates the applications of solar energy among G-15 countries,

and provides fellow ships to scientists from those countries. Solar shops that sell solar

energy appliances are coming up fast. One example is Aditya, owned by the Delhi

energy development agencies. It has branches in Kolkata, Trivandrum, Bhuvaneshwar,

Bhopal, Jaipur, Patna, Baroda and Chandigarh. In Kerala, ANERT is doing well in solar

energy products.

We get both light and heat from the sun, these can be converted into other forms

of energy.(a) light from the sun can be directly converted in to electricity with the help of

solar cells, by photo voltaic (PV) effect which was first discovered by Beckured in 1839.

The cells are usually made of crystalline silicon, a substance found abundantly in earths

crust. Solar cells have many potential uses. They can run machines ranging from pocket
calculators to water pumps of 230 V/60W. The cost and efficiency depend on the

material used.

In India the PV program started in 1976, while the commercial production of solar

cells started in 1984. India ranks high among the worlds producers of PV systems.

Indian companies produce 40% of the worlds supplies. According to the MNES sources,

until 1995, 1 lakh PV systems were I operation in India. MNES had setup a target of

operating 1, 50,000 lanterns, 5000 house hold lights and 3000 solar water pumps. Solar

PV has been projected as the energy source of the future. The progress of the PV

program has been hindered by the high cost of these systems. Amoco-Envon solar power

development (A joint venture by 2 American multinationals) proposed to MNES to setup

a 2400MW solar PV power plant in the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, which enjoys Indias

highest solar radiation of 2173 KWH/M/year, and the highest sunshine hours at 3285 a

year.

The plant would start with a production of 10 MW and increase it to 100MW

annually. In west Bengal, a 50MW solar plant went in to operation on Mausuni Island in

sundarban area on March 4, 01. The plant which cost RS.1.5 crore to setup, could

supply power to 400 houses on the island, and is reported to be the largest of its kind in

India by WBREDA. It has plans to augment this plant and supply power to all 4000

houses there. WBREDA established a 26 KW solar power plant at Mrityujpur in 1998,

and has supplied power generated from solar energy to 2 villages-kamalpur and South
Haradanpur. In October last year, a 2.2 KW solar power plant was inagurated at a height

of 14,000 feet in the Himalayas, near the Sikkim border.

The plant was designed by WBREDA and executed by exide at a cost of RS.15

lakhs, provided by MNES. The power generated here utilized by the trainees of the

Himalayan mountaineering institute at their base camp. This plant is the first in the world

to be at such a high altitude.

In UP, there were plans to setup 2 large solar power plants of 100MW capacity

each, at Kaluanpur and Surat village, to supply power to 400-600 houses in the locality.

At Borodia, on the UP-MP border, a solar power plant of 4KW power capacity has been

established by UPENDA for domestic supply and street lighting.

From the above mentioned details, it is clear that India has tremendous potential to

lap the solar energy.

There are many scattered villages without electricity. These villages need water

pumping and electrification. Due to the location of the villages remote from the cities, a

conventional power plant may be too costly because of the length of transmission lines.

Diesel generators also need transports of fuel and maintenance. In such circumstances

photo voltaic generation of electricity for pumping water will be a most economical

method.
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Chapter-4
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TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR

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CHAPTER-4

TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR

Not only are there many different ways that solar energy can be applied, but there

are also many different methods for collecting the solar energy from incident radiation.

Below is a listing of some of the more popular types of solar collectors.

Glazed flat-plate solar collectors

Unglazed flat-plate solar collectors

Unglazed perforated plate collectors

Back-pass solar collectors

Concentrating solar collectors

Air based solar collectors

Batch solar collectors

Solar cookers

Liquid-based solar collectors

Parabolic dish systems

Parabolic trough systems

Power tower systems

Stationary concentrating solar collectors

 Vacuum tube solar collectors

1. Glazed flat-plate collectors

Glazed flat-plate collectors are very common and are available as liquid-

based and air-based collectors. These collectors are better suited for moderate

temperature applications where the demand temperature is 30-70C and/or for applications

that require heat during the winter months. The liquid-based collectors are most

commonly used for the heating of domestic and commercial hot water, buildings,

and indoor swimming pools. The air-based collectors are used for the heating of

buildings, ventilation air and crop-drying.

In this type of collector a flat absorber efficiently transforms sunlight into heat. To

minimize heat escaping, the plate is located between a glazing (glass pane or transparent

material) and an insulating panel. The glazing is chosen so that a maximum amount of

sunlight will pass though it and reach the absorber.

2. Unglazed flat-plate solar collectors

Unglazed flat-plate collectors are usually made of black plastic that has been

stabilized to withstand ultraviolet light. Since these collectors have no glazing, a larger

portion of the suns energy is absorbed. However, because they are not insulated a large

portion of the heat absorbed is lost, particularly when it is windy and not warm outside.
They transfer heat so well to air (and from air) that they can actually capture heat during

the night when it is hot and windy outside!

3. Unglazed perforated plate collectors

The key to this type of collector is an industrial-grade siding/cladding that is

perforated with many small holes at a pitch of 2-4 cm. Air passes through the holes in the

collector before it is drawn into the building to provide preheated fresh ventilation air.

Efficiencies are typically high because the collector operates close to the outside air

temperature. These systems can be very cost-effective, especially when they replace

conventional cladding on the building, because only incremental costs need be compared

to the energy savings.

The most common application of this collector is for building ventilation air

heating. Other possible components for this system are: a 20-30cm air gap between the

buildings, a canopy at the top of the wall that acts as a distribution manifold and by-pass

dampers so that air will by-pass the system during warm weather.

4. Back-pass solar collectors

Air-based collectors use solar energy to heat air. Their design is simple and they

often weigh less than liquid-based collectors because they do not have pressurized

piping. Air-based collectors do not have freezing or boiling problems. In these systems, a

large solar absorber is used to heat the air. The simplest designs are single-pass open
collectors. Collectors that are coated with a glaze can also be used to heat air for space

heating.

This type of collector may be integrated in the building and combined with

thermal mass such as in the Trombe wall described at the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory.

5. Concentrating solar collectors

By using reflectors to concentrate sunlight on the absorber of a solar collector, the

size of the absorber can be dramatically reduced, which reduces heat losses and increases

efficiency at high temperatures. Another advantage is that reflectors can cost substantially

less per unit area than collectors.

This Glass of collector is used for high-temperature applications such as steam

production for the generation of electricity and thermal detoxification. These collectors

are best suited to climates that have an abundance of clear sky days and therefore are not

so common in Canada. Stationary concentrating collectors may be liquid-based, air-

based, or even an oven such as a solar cooker.

There are four basic types of concentrating collectors:

Parabolic trough

Parabolic dish

Power tower
 Stationary concentrating collectors

6. Air based solar collectors

The energy collected from air-based solar collectors can be used for

ventilation air heating, space heating and crop drying. The most common application in

Canada is for ventilation air heating. Three types of air-based collectors and their

corresponding suitably for three applications are listed:

Type of collector Ventilation Air Heating Space Heating Crop Drying

Unglazed perforated plate Very Good Poor Very Good
Glazed flat-plate Good Poor Good
Back Pass Fair No Fair-Good
Trombe wall No Good No

Designs for the first three collector types are simple. The collectors usually weigh

less than liquid-based collectors because they do not have pressurized piping. Another

advantage of air-based collectors is that they do not have freezing or boiling problems.

All four of these air-based collectors can be integrated into buildings and form part of a

buildings envelope

7. Batch solar collectors

One hundred years ago, water tanks that were painted black were used as simple

solar residential water heaters.

 Today their primary market is for residential water heating in warm countries. In

Canada, they can be effectively used in campgrounds and for residential water heating in

temperate climates such as Vancouver Island; during winter the tanks must be protected

from freezing or they must be drained.

Modern batch collectors have a glazing that is similar to the one used on flat plate

collectors and/or a reflector to concentrate the solar energy on the tank surface. Because

the storage tank and the solar absorber act as a single unit, there is no need for other

components. On an area basis, batch collector systems are less costly than glazed flat-

plate collectors but also deliver less energy per year.

8. Solar cookers

Though there are many types of solar cookers, all of them have a couple of basic

components:

concentrator or lenses to increase the available solar energy and

Insulation to reduce heat loss.

Often there is also an oven type cavity to place food into for cooking. Hot dog

cookers, which do not need an 'oven, can also be made. Solar cookers are commonly

able to reach cooking temperatures of 90-150 C (200-300 F) and some can even reach

230 C (450 F)! With these temperatures, it is possible to cook virtually any food as long

as it is sunny outside.
9. Liquid-based solar collectors

Liquid-based collectors use sunlight to heat a liquid that is circulating in a "solar

loop". The fluid in the solar loop can be water, an antifreeze mixture, thermal oil, etc. The

solar loop transfers the thermal energy from the collectors to a thermal storage tank.

The type of collector you need depends on how hot the water must be and the local

climate. The most common liquid-based solar collectors are:

Glazed flat-plate

Unglazed flat-plate

Vacuum tube

Batch collector

Concentrating

10. Parabolic dish systems

A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has

mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker.

A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the sun and concentrate the sun's

rays onto a receiver located at the focal point in front of the dish. In some systems, a heat

engine, such as a Stirling engine, is linked to the receiver to generate electricity. Parabolic

dish systems can reach 1000 C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for

converting solar energy to electricity in the small-power capacity range.

Parabolic trough system

Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter u. The troughs

concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of the

trough. Sometimes a transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat

loss.

Parabolic troughs often use single-axis or dual-axis tracking. In rare instances,

they may be stationary. Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400 C and produce steam

for generating electricity. In California, multi-megawatt power plants were built using

parabolic troughs combined with gas turbines.

Power tower system

A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large

absorber located on a tower. To date the only application for the heliostat collector is

power generation in a system called the power tower.

A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun's path across the sky.

The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on top of a high tower. A computer keeps

the mirrors aligned so the reflected rays of the sun are always aimed at the receiver,

where temperatures well above 1000C can be reached. High-pressure steam is

generated to produce electricity.

Stationary concentrating solar collectors

Stationary concentrating collectors use compound parabolic reflectors and flat

reflectors for directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture through a

wide acceptance angle. The wide acceptance angle for these reflectors eliminates the need

for a sun tracker. This Glass of collector includes parabolic trough flat plate collectors,

flat plate collectors with parabolic boosting reflectors, and solar cookers. Development of

the first two collectors has been done in Sweden. Solar cookers are used throughout the

world, especially in the developing countries.

Vacuum tube solar collectors

Vacuum (also evacuated) tube solar collectors are amongst the most efficient

and most costly types of solar collectors. These collectors are best suited for moderate

temperature applications where the demand temperature is 50-95C and/or for very cold

climates such as in Canadas far north. Like with glazed flat-plate solar collectors,

applications of vacuum tube collectors include heating of domestic and commercial hot

water, buildings, and indoor swimming pools. Due to their ability to deliver high

temperatures efficiently another potential application is for the cooling of buildings by

regenerating refrigeration cycles.

Vacuum tube solar collectors have a selective absorber for collecting sunlight that

is in vacuum-sealed tube. Their thermal losses are very low even in cold climates.
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Chapter-5
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COMPONENTS AND
DESCRIPTION
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 CHAPTER-5

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The main components of this project are,

Solar Kettle

Reflector

Tilting Mechanism

Cooker

Frame stand

Filter

1. SOLAR KETTLE:-

The most common types of concentrating solar thermal heating collectors are

based on the parabolic trough. Parabolic troughs are U-shaped, concentrators that focus

sunlight onto a linear receiver tube located along the focal line of the trough. The receiver

may be enclosed in a transparent glass tube to reduce heat loss from the absorber and

maximize absorption of solar energy. They generally have single-axis tracking.

 Other types of concentrating systems have an array of reflectors that individually

track the sun and focus sunlight onto a central receiver located on a tower. Development

of these systems has focused on electric power generation. There are two basic types of

parabolic trough solar heating collectors that have been commercially developed:

cylindrical parabolic troughs and compound water heaters.

In our project, the type of concentrating system that is possible to use in a heating

application is the parabolic dish. This has a bowl shaped reflector that focuses the sun

onto a relatively small receiver. For optimum performance they require dual axis tracking

and the receiver moves with the reflector. This complicates their practical application for

water and space heating. Most parabolic dish systems are very sophisticated systems used

for electricity generation or very simple systems for cooking food on a small-scale.

The dish can be oriented east to west or north to south. They are typically single-

axis tracking. In our project, the type of tracking is single axis (east to west). Most

applications of tracking parabolic troughs are relatively large systems to supply heat for

domestic water and space heating in commercial and institutional buildings.

2. REFLECTOR:-

One side coated glass mirror is used as a Reflector. The reflector is used to

reflecting the sun rays to the collecting chamber. The Glass thickness is 2.4 mm. The

Glass is one side coated by the mercury.

3. TILTING MECHANISM:-

There are two types of tilting mechanism are used for solar thermal heating

system. They are,

Single axis Tracking (From east to west)

Double Axis tracking (East to west or north to south)

The tilting mechanism is having central pipe, guide bush and nut. The parabolic

disk is tilted in one direction from ease to west.

4. COOKER:-

The cooker is fixed to the center of the parabolic dish collector. This is made upof

aluminium materials. The reflected sun rays are concentrated on this center of the cooker,

so that the substance is heating efficiently. The clamp is used to hold the cooker.

5. FRAME STAND:-

Frame stand is made upof mild steel round pipe. The diameter of the pipe is 50

mm. The total height of the stand is 900 mm.

6. FILTER:-

A water filter removes impurities from water by means of a fine physical barrier, a

chemical process or a biological process. Filters cleanse water to various extents for

irrigation, drinking water, aquariums, and swimming pools.

METHODS OF FILTRATION
 Filters use sieving, adsorption, ion exchanges and other processes. Unlike a sieve

or screen, a filter can remove particles much smaller than the holes through which the

water passes.

TYPES OF FILTRATION

Water treatment plant filters

Types of water filters include media filters, screen filters, disk filters, slow sand

filter beds, rapid sand filters and cloth filters.

Point-of-use filters

Point-of-use filters for home use include granular activated carbon filters (GAC)

used for carbon filtering, metallic alloy filters, microporous ceramic filters, carbon block

resin (CBR) and ultrafiltration membranes. Some filters use more than one filtration

method. An example of this is a multi-barrier system. Jug filters can be used for small

quantities of drinking water. Some kettles have built-in filters, primarily to reduce

limescale buildup.

Portable water filters

Water filters are used by hikers, by aid organizations during humanitarian

emergencies, and by the military. These filters are usually small, portable and light (1-2

pounds/0.5-1.0 kg or less), and usually filter water by working a mechanical hand pump,
although some use a siphon drip system to force water through while others are built into

water bottles. Dirty water is pumped via a screen-filtered flexible silicon tube through a

specialized filter, ending up in a container.

These filters work to remove bacteria, protozoa and microbial cysts that can cause

disease. Filters may have fine meshes that must be replaced or cleaned, and ceramic

water filters must have their outside abraded when they have become clogged with

impurities. These water filters should not be confused with devices or tablets that are

water purifiers, some of which remove or kill viruses such as hepatitis A and rotavirus.

Homemade water filters

Water filters can be made on-site using local materials such as grass, charcoal (e.g.

from burned firewood), and sand. These filters have been used by soldiers and outdoor

enthusiasts.[2] Due to their low cost they can be made and used by anyone, including the

poor, who often do not have access to safe drinking water. Regrettably such filters do

little if anything to mitigate against pathogens and other harmful constituents and can

give a false sense of security that the water so produced is potable.

Water polishing

The term water polishing can refer to any process that removes small (usually

microscopic) unwanted material from a portion of water. The process and its meaning

vary from setting to setting: a manufacturer of aquarium filters may claim that its filters
perform water polishing by capturing "micro particles" within nylon or polyester pads[3]

just as a chemical engineer can use the term to refer to the removal of magnetic resins

from a solution by passing the solution over a bed of magnetic particulate. [4] In this sense,

water polishing is simply another term for water filtration

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Chapter-6
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BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR

PARABOLIC DISH
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CHAPTER-6

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR PARABOLIC DISH

FOCUSSING TYPE SOLAR COLLECTORS:-

These collectors are not generally used in domestic application. However, to

achieve high temperatures and to meet thermal energy requirements these systems can

also find place in near future for domestic application. Based on the present trend in

research taking place, a brief description may help readers to absorb the basis for better

understanding. A focusing collector is a special device where the surface of the collector

is so modified to reflect or refract the falling radiation on to the absorber which is situated

either along the focus line or at the focal point. But in case of flat plate collectors of water

or air heating systems, the absorber is just below the glass panel (collector) all along,

where collector (panel) and absorber are flat.

 These focussing collectors can increase radiation effect on absorber from as

low as 2 times to 10,000 times of the incident radiation. At this absorber point, a suitable

device to hold a pot can be fitted to receive the concentrated radiation cook or to boil

water. However, the same radiation can be carried away by heat transfer in a tube

containing water/ liquids on circulation basis.

The structure of the reflector can be divided into two parts as (a) the shell- the

supportive structure & the living area exposed to sun.

(a) The shell must be strong to withstand various environmental factors like

wind, seasons, etc., to maintain its required shape. This shape decides

efficiency of the whole system supported by selective lining.

(b) The lining of the parabolic surface plays major role on over all efficiency of

the system. In fact, achieving near 100% smooth and uniform surface is

advised to avoid spreading of beam due to micro-roughness/undulations. For

doing so, coating with aluminium foil with minimum 80-85% reflectivity is

recommended. Even silver coating of the source reflectivity will do the job.

However, alluminium having lighter thermal conductivity may constitute to

the heat losses due to conduction. To avoid this very thin foil is

recommended to minimize the losses.

Selective coating of reflector surface with black crome (Cr Ox) is more attractive and

cost effective. This can be electroplated on various metallic surfaces like steel,

alluminium & copper. This black crome can also withstand above 100%C operating

temperatures.

Basic principle of solar concentrators:-

In a laymans language, when the surface of a reflector has curvature

indicates that, reflector surface is optical in nature, depending on the degree of curvature.

Solar rays reach and fall on earth at an angle on any given point. As shown in the

picture, the sun rays falling on a point (A)of the parabolic concentrator form an image of

the sun at the focal point of the. This means, the receiver or absorber which is at the

point / center of such image will have maximum intensity as in the case of sun. The

concentrating nature of the reflector thus increases the temperature at its focal point. This

basis principle is employed in designing various types of solar concentrator to suit end-

use requirements.

As seen in the picture, the radius is the focal point and the diameter of the rim of

the reflector is the area exposed to sun. This is referred as aperture (a) or opening. In the

case of parabolic structure the extent of diameter is the opening for sun and in case of

cylindrical concentrators, the extent of width is the opening for the sun. The aperture (a)
determines the total radiation received by the reflector per unit area, whereas the focal

length determines the size and sharpness of the images of sun. As a result the ratio of a/f

is the index of energy flux concentrated at the focal point /on receiver. To increase the

intensity of energy flux on receiver, one should know the other physical relationship

exists between aperture and receiver. This is known as Concentration Ratio

(CR) = (Aa) / (Ar)

Where,

Aa - Area of the concentrator aparature

Ar - Area of the receiver absorbing the energy

This relationship determines the effectiveness of the concentration.

Design aspects:-

Sun rises from east and sets on west. During this travel intensity of sun on earth

also varies. Under these circumstances, the design of the focussing concentrators must

suit these phenomena. If the field view of the concentrator is much larger than the angular

size of the sun, then there is no need to follow the travel path (tracking) of sun. Designs

based on this are known as non-tracking concentrators.

 In non-tracking concentrators ratio Aa/Ar is less when compared with tracking

systems. Based on these facts, a wide range of solar focussing concentrators are being

designed to provide heat energy ranging from 100 C to 500 C.

Economics: This depends on advantages and disadvantages of the system.

A. Out of the total radiation, only beam (direct) radiation is collected on

concentrators.

B. In small stationery systems, the absorber also should be small to

accommodate tracking the sun; otherwise constant manual

tracking/adjustment is required.

C. In addition to this, the reflector coating or lining must be durable and

needs less maintenance.

D. The flux on the absorber is not uniform in non-tracking systems when

compared to flat plate systems.

Designs keeping the above in mind to minimize losses will become more

popular, since focussing collectors collect more solar energy per unit area compared to

flat plate collectors. Already these focussing collectors are employed in various hostels,

hotels and institutions for cooking purpose.

FINANCIAL MATTERS

The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) was

established in March 1987, as a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control

of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES).The main objective of this

IREDA is to administrating a revolving fund to promote, develop and finance renewable

energy technologies. IREDA has completed 11 years of service in MNES activities.

IREDA is also involved in activities like

(1) Energy conservation and environment.

(2) Financial resource mobilization (both external and internal)

(3) Dissemination of information of NRSE activities

(4) Development of institutions to MNES activities

(5) And promotional schemes to adopt NRSE systems in various walks of life.

FINANCING SOLAR COOKERS

This program was launched in 1982-83 with subsidy of Rs.150/- per cooker.

Later in due course of time, subsidy was withdrawn and loans are arranged through

nationalized banks at zero % interest.

 This concept increases the area of operation for the State Nodal Agencies and

popularization is also increased since banking industry is involved. Funds are also made

available for manufactures for market development, organizing cooking demonstrations,

training; for establishing sales centers, repair and maintenance and the like. Based on the

identification of potential and recommendations made by the State Nodal Agencies, Non-

Governmental Organization (NGOs) and manufactures are eligible for this financial

incentive. There are 39 active manufactures in the country with the manufacturing

capacity of 95,000 box type cooker per year and as of now 4,43,000 Nos. of cooker are in

use.

(A) Awareness program in Institutions like schools, colleges, universities,

anganwadis, etc.

Considering that teachers / students of schools, colleges, universities,

anganwadis, etc., are the potential users / promoters of solar cookers, provision of

providing one cooker in such institution will continue. The financial assistance from

MNES will be to the extent of Rs-1,000/- per cooker or the actual price after state subsidy

whichever is less. Balance cost if any will be ment by state nodal agency or the

concerned institution State nodal agencies will provide necessary literature in solar

cooking to these institutions and will also monitor their activities on training in cooking.

Only one cooker will be supplied to each institution. If a cooker has already been
supplied in previous years, the institution will not be eligible for a cooker in the current

financial year.

(b) Solar food restaurants:

The concept of establishing solar food restaurants will continue during

the year. The restaurants will be run / managed by the implementing agencies. They will

be established at prime locations where people gather in large number during lunch time

or early evenings e.g. office complexes / commercial places. The restaurants could be

run on subsidized / on profit no loss basis depending on the involvement of state Govt.

funds MNES will provide Rs-50,000/- per restaurants as one time grant towards rent for

hiring a place, solar cookers, establishment etc.

(c) Quality control and eligibility for financial support / incentives to manufactures
& SEWs.

To ensure quality product in the market, it has been decided to make

BIS approval on solar cooker mandatory for manufacturers and SEWs for availing any

incentive from MNES/ States. The standards have been revised by the BIS and could be

obtained from their Regional offices established all over the country.

These standards are:

1. IS 13429 (Part1 Requirements):2000Solar Cooker-Box Type-Specification;

2. IS 13429 (Part2 Components): 2000Solar Cooker- Box Type-Specification;

3. IS 13429 (Part3 Test Methods):2000Solar Cooker-Box Type- Specification;

In the scheme of IREDA, the same interest subsidy loans as offered by MNES through

Nationalized Banks are also made available. However, to ease the operation and

maintenance of loan records, only bulk purchasers are encouraged availing this loan.

These include private or public sector corporate bodies, public institutions, cooperative

societies and the like. State Renewable Energy Agencies, non-profit making institutions

also can act as financial intermediaries to IREDA for on-lending loans to above said

institutions or for individuals.

This arrangement also covers the concept of supply solar cookers on lease / hire

purchase basis. These loans from IREDA are to be repaid in two years on quarterly

installment basis with six months initial period as moratorium. IRDEA also offers soft

loans at lower rate of interest to the manufactures for purchase of equipments/ machinery

and related cooker activities.

Range of solar Thermal Devices Eligible for Loans:

Based on the range of temperatures, these systems are classified as:

S.No Grade T C Application

1. Low thermal system Below 100 C For water heating, air heating

(drying and space heating) and

desalination of water.

2. Medium thermal systems 100 C-300 C For cooking , steam generation

in industries, water pumping

3. High grade thermal Above 300 C For generation of grid quality

systems power

In the present context, category Iis more importance since these are aid at

general public. There are seven regional test centers and 22 manufacturers having ISI

certificates for their products. At the end of March, 1998, 5, 20,000m of collector area

equivalent has been installed. Under MNES scheme of interest subsidy nationalized

banks are involved in extending loan facilities to individual or institutions. For the

systems more than 2000 litres per day capacity, IRDEA extended soft loans @ 8.3 %
interest, with repayment period extended up to 7 years, with 100% depreciation benefit to

tax paying institutions and the like.

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Chapter-7
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WORKING PRINCIPLE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-7

WORKING PRINCIPLE

In our Project, the type of concentrating system that is possible to use in a heating

application is the parabolic dish. This has a bowl shaped reflector that focuses the sun

onto a relatively small receiver. The glazing is chosen so that a maximum amount of

sunlight will pass though it and reach the absorber.

For optimum performance they require dual axis tracking and the receiver moves

with the reflector. This complicates their practical application for water and space

heating. Most parabolic dish systems are very sophisticated systems used for electricity

generation or very simple systems for cooking food on a small-scale. Other types of

concentrating systems have an array of reflectors that individually track the sun and focus

sunlight onto a central receiver located on a tower. Development of these systems has

focused on electric power generation.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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DRAWINGS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTROL OF HEAT LOSS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-9

CONTROL OF HEAT LOSS

Losses may be divided into three categories

i) Optical losses

ii) Radiation losses.

iii) Conduction and convection losses.

Conceptual methods of controlling these losses are listed and discussed the

following sections.

1. OPTICAL LOSSES

Optical losses are defined here as those, which reduce the amount of, heat being

absorbed by the collector. They are off the top as apposed to the heat loss after the

absorption by receiver

Optical losses are reduced by

LOW REFLECTIVITY COVERS

At normal incident glass reflects about 4.3% of the incident solar radiation at each

glass to air interface and 1.3% is absorbed in the glass. Reflection losses are doubled

when incident is 60 above from the normal. This can be controlled by light etching may

thus only 2 or 3 percent of incident radiation is reflected.

HIGH TRANSMISSIVITY COVERS

Green tinted glass may leave extinction co-efficient of 0.8 per inch, which means

10% energy will be absorbed in 8 inch of glass. However clean glass has 0.2 per inch

i.e., 25% absorbed.

This may double at incidence of 60% and thus increased absorbed energy of the

collector plate is not considered as a loss, but the increased temperature of the glass plate

prevents loss of heat from the collector.

HIGH ABSORPTIVITY COVERS

Absorptivity of the collecting surface is the weighted average of energy absorbed

at all wavelength of the incident solar radiation. Absorptivity a is related to reflectivity

r by
 a=1-r

The absorbed energy is increased by the reflection of glass. Fraction of normally

incident radiation.

Fe = 1.008 Ta

Where T-effective transmittance of cover plate.

and should made closed unity and effort should not be taken to increase

beyond 0.95 where may be only 0.8. The Absorptivity of the plates may be high. But

consideration should be taken to reduce the emissivity.

2. RADIATION LOSSES

Methods used to control radiation loss may be classified as spectrally selective

surfaces, radiation trapping surfaces and radiation shielding.

SPECTRALLY SELECTIVE SURFACES

For any material under monochromatic radiation the sum of Absorptivity (or

emissivity )
 The absorbing plate must be perfectly opaque (= 0) so only (or) need to be

defined overall wavelength of interest. A selective surface is one for which Absorptivity

and emissivity differs with respect to the wavelengths of solar radiation (shorter than 2 or

3 microns) and the wavelength of intra red radiation (longer than 2 or 3 microns). Thus, a

surface may have an infra red emissivity much lower than solar Absorptivity, when

reduced will is also reduced so, to produce a selective surface.

THIN FILMS

High reflectivity material of one visible light wave length (0.5 microns). The

thickness is sufficient to absorb visible light efficiently and reflect long wavelength

thermal radiation.

GEOMETRIC TRAPPING

A metallic surface is polished on 5 microns wavelength but pitted on the scale of

0.5 micron. So, it absorbs visible light.

A carbon black surface have = 0.95, = 0.95. But a selective surface example

Nickel black has

= 0.94

= 0.97 is very good for application.

RADIATION TRAPPING SYSTEMS

The losses can be controlled by use of honeycombs and cellular structure

effectively increases Absorptivity and reduces effective emissivity. We corrugations

increase Absorptivity by requiring the sunrays to undergo two or more reflections.

RADIATION SHIELDING

The principle method of radiation shielding is the use of multiple cover plates

between a hot surface and cold surface there is an effective heat transfer resistance, which

depends on the emissivity and temperature of two surfaces. Some plastics may be more

important in controlling convection loss than is controlling radiation losses.

3. CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION LOSS

When radiation loss from the collector is reduced convection quickly becomes

dominant loss. Convection loss control unless plate to plate is reduced one half inch is

less, and then conduction losses are dominant. The following concepts of conduction

convection losses can be employed to control the heat loss.

MULTIPLE GLAZINGS

It can be closely placed in the order of one centimeter. However when air is

stagnant in the air gap convection across gap ceases and only conduction remains. A

small gap will stand a higher gradient before convection sets in, but conduction losses are

inversely proportional to the width of the gap.

HONEY COMBS OR CELLS

The honeycombs are useful in the control of convection losses as well as radiation

losses. In practice air gaps are of about 1.25 cm or less for temperature differences an

order of 50 C. Experiments have shown that a 1cm calls just suppresses convection.

Therefore the cells can be mode narrow C to prevent convection) and long (to reduce

conduction).

EVACUTION

At pressure in the range of 10 to 10 atmosphere convection is suppressed and

the heat transfer is determining by conduction. However the thermal conductivity of air

is not reduced until path of molecules becomes comparable to wall spacing. As a result

for vacuum 10 to 10 atm thermal conductivity is reduced about 10% for another decade

reduction in pressure (10 mm of Hg). The conductivity is about 1% of that of air at 1

atm.
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Chapter-10
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ADVANTAGES
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-10
 ADVANTAGES

Economical aspect:

Least maintenance cost.

No transportation from long distance

No rent for electricity utilized

No fuel required for operation

Technical aspect:

No moving parts, thus long life

Noiseless operation

No person required to operate the system

Manufacturing aspect:

Simple in construction, so easy to fabricate

No heavy materials are used

Safety aspect:

Pollution free

Less chance of accidents

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 Chapter-11
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-11

LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

LIMITATIONS:-

High initial installation cost

Care should be taken for Cooking

Need large size of solar panel area for high power output.

APPLICATIONS:-

Domestic Applications

Industrial thermal heating Applications

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Chapter-12
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-12

LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl. No.
Name of the Parts Quantity Materials
1 Cooker 1 Aluminium
2 Reflector 1 Glass
3 Bottom plate 1 Mild Steel
4 Net 5 Kg G.I
5 Top Pipe 1 Mild Steel
6 Bush 4 Mild Steel
7 Frame Stand 1 C.R Pipe
8 Cooker clamp 1 Mild Steel
9 Bolt and nut - Mild steel
10. Filter 1 Silver

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Chapter-13
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-13

COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIAL COST:-
Sl. No.
Name of the Parts
1 Cooker
2 Reflector
3 Bottom plate
4 Net
5 Top Pipe
6 Bush
7 Frame Stand
8 Cooker clamp
9 Bolt and nut
10 Filter
TOTAL
Quantity Materials Amount (Rs)
1 Aluminium
1 Glass
1 Mild Steel
5 Kg G.I
1 Mild Steel
4 Mild Steel
1 C.R Pipe
1 Mild Steel
- Mild steel
1 Silver
=

2. LABOUR COST:

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES:

The overhead charges are arrived by Manufacturing cost

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

=
=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=

TOTAL COST
Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges
=
=

Total cost for this project =

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Chapter-14
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-14

CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use

our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning,

purchasing, computing and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the

project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully.

The Solar water purification by using thermal method is working with satisfactory

conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and

also quality. We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available

facilities.
 In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our

impression project work.

The chief advantage of our system is that, simple portable type low cost solar

water purification by using thermal method when compared to other solar collectors

which are available in market. Operating principle of solar water purification by using

thermal method is also very easy. We can move the solar water purification by using

thermal method from one place to another place very easily.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBILOGRAPHY
1. BASIC HEAT TRANSFER FRANK KREITH

WILLIAM Z.BLACK

2. SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING RICHARD S.GREELEY

OF BUILDINGS ROBERT P.OUELLETTE

PAUL N.CHEREMISIONOFF

3. SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING R.PATTON

OF BUILDINGS

4. BASIC HEAT TRANSFER J.P.HALMON.

5. HAND BOOK-SOLAR RADIATION ANNA MANI &

OVER INDIA S.RATHAKRISHNAN.

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PHOTOGRAPHY
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