Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Signature : _____________________________
APRIL 2010
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis entitled “OPTIMAL SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM” is the
result of my own project except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been
accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other
degree.
Signature : ………………………………………
Name : MOHAMAD KASYFI BIN
SAMSUDDIN
Date : 30 APRIL 2010
iii
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
Solar energy is the least polluting and most inexhaustible of all known energy
sources. The sun bathers the earth with more energy each minute then the world
consumes in one year. In Malaysia, the sun intensity does not vary by season. It is a
suitable place to develop the solar cell system. Fossil fuels are a relative short-term
energy source and to overcome this problem the uses of alternative sources such as
solar energy are becoming more wide spread. To make solar energy more efficient,
the solar panel system must be maximized. This project is regarding the development
of a sun tracking solar system. This system is a simple tracking solar system using a
dc motor and light sensor. The solar tracking system used in this method could
increased the power collection efficiency by developing a device that can tracks the
sun to keep the panel at a right angle to its rays. As the plane of the solar panel is
always maintained normal to the sun's rays, maximum power is generated by the
array. A solar tracking system is designed, implemented and experimentally tested.
The design details and the experimental results are shown promising result.
vi
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES xiv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Project 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Scope of Project 3
1.4 Outline of Thesis 4
viii
2 LITERATURE RIVIEW 5
2.1 Fundamental of Photovoltaic System 5
2.1.1 Photovoltaic 5
2.1.2 The Photovoltaic Effect 6
2.2 Efficiency 8
2.3 Types of System 10
2.4 Previous Study 11
2.4.1 Microcontroller Automatic Sun Tracker 11
2.4.1.1 System Description 11
2.4.1.2 Control Implementation 13
2.4.1.3 Test result 14
2.4.2 Implementation Solar Tracking System 16
2.4.2.1 System Description 16
2.4.2.1 Solar Tracker Verification and Testing19
2.5 Control System 20
2.6 Operation of 555 timers 21
2.6.1 Pin Configurations of the 555 Timer 21
2.6.2 Monostable Operation of the 555 Timer 23
3 METHODOLOGY 25
3.1 Development Process 25
3.1.1 Phase 1 26
3.1.2 Phase 2 26
3.1.3 Phase 3 28
3.2 Electronic control system 29
3.3 Hardware development 30
3.4 Electronic Design 30
3.4.1 Sensor Control Tracking System 31
3.4.2 Photo-Sensor 31
3.4.3 The 555 Timer 33
3.4.4 Relays 34
ix
REFERENCE
APPENDICES
x
LIST OF TABLE
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF SYMBOLS
R - Resistor
C - Capacitor
Vcc - Voltage supply
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
INTRODUCTION
. In Malaysia, the sun is always directly overhead and its intensity do not
varies by season. This give a lot more advantage for us to use solar power compare
with the place that have season. There are two most common type systems that
always use for small building generated system:-
The solar thermal system operate by convert the radiant energy of the sun into
heat then use that heat to provide useful electric energy.
On other hand, the photovoltaic system converts directly the sun radiant into
useful electric energy, which can be used as most electrical energy in used today.
2
Fixed photovoltaic panel do not aim directly to the sun due to the constant
motion of earth. As the result, the power produce by the system is less then it capable
producing. To overcome this problem, the tracking system can be installed in order
that the panel continually adjusts so that the panel is always aim directly at the sun.
As the result, Photovoltaic panel are able to collect the maximum amount of sunlight
and produce the most power possible.
1.2 Objective
Mechanical part: The panel or the place that the solar cell hook up is designed that it
can move from right to left or from left to right. The panel movement is controlled by
string attached to the dc motor. The panel is designed to operate with single axis
only. Two sensors are placed at the east side and west side. Both sides also have reset
switch to limit panel movement.
Electronic Part: The circuit function is to control the motor movement determined by
the location of the sun ray. The 555 timer is used to control the system. Input control
is using LDR. The sensitivity of the circuit is control by potentiometer. Dc motor is
connecting to the relay and the circuit function is to trigger the relay to made dc
motor move.
4
This thesis consists of five chapters. In the first chapter, it will discuss about
the objective and scope of this project along with a summary works. While Chapter 2
will discuss more on literature reviews that have been done.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Photovoltaic panel are made of the natural element which becomes charged
electrically when subjected to sunlight. Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light
into electricity at the atomic level. The panel works on the principle of the
photovoltaic (PV) effect. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially
treated to form an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other.
2.1.1 Photovoltaic
When light energy strikes the PV cell, electrons are knocked loose from the
atoms in the semiconductor material and start travel from the PV cell, through
electronic circuit to the load. Then, they return to the PV cell where the silicon
recaptures the electrons and the process is repeated. The photovoltaic itself is a p-n
junction, which through the process of electron dropping and this produces a current
in proportion to the solar radiation. If electrical conductors are attached to the
6
positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be
captured in the form of an electric current and produce electricity. This electricity
can then be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool [1].
SUNLIGHT
Figure 2.1 illustrating the emission of electrons from a metal plate, requiring energy
gained from absorb sunlight radiation to be more than the work function of the
material.
The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV cell
converts sunlight into electricity .Sunlight is composed of packets of solar energy.
These sunlight radiations contain different amounts of energy that correspond to the
different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may
be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through. The absorbed photons
generate electricity. The photovoltaic cells generally consist of two thin regions, one
above the other, N-type and P-type. This two region structure, called a p-n
junction. The collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a
7
movement of electrons to the n-type side and holes to the p-type side of the junction.
When open circuit, carriers are prevented from leaving the solar cell, then the
collection of light-generated carriers causes an increase in the number of electrons on
the n-type side of the p-n junction and a similar increase in holes in the p-type
material. This separation of charge creates an electric field at the junction which is in
opposition to that already existing at the junction. Under short circuit conditions, the
minority carrier concentration on either side of the junction is increased and the drift
current, which depends on the number of minority carriers, is increased. In
equilibrium (in the dark) both the diffusion and drift current are small [2].
N-type
P-type
LIGHT
N-type
P-type
LIGHT
N-type
P-type
2.2 Efficiency
On a bright, sunny day, the sun's rays give off approximately 1,000 watts of
energy per square meter of the planet's surface. If we could collect all of that energy,
we could easily power our homes and offices for free. However, in practically the
maximum allowed by the law of physics is between 30% and 40%. The efficiency of
photovoltaic cells can be very tricky to figure out and many of the companies that
produce them take different routes when manufacturing their products. Different
companies will use different materials and as the technology improves, the efficiency
of the solar paneling options will also improve. There are basically 3 different types
of solar panels on the market today, each of which has a different efficiency rating.
The following are the 3 types and their efficiency ratings [3]:
9
In cloudy condition
The module is in the shade
Pointed away from the sun
In space, the output is more higher due to the solar radiation is much stronger
compare at the earth. Approximately, the power density is around 1365 watt per
square meter.
10
Basically, there are three main systems that commonly use in photovoltaic
system. It’s come with several configurations for difference use.
There are two reviews that use as example before build optimal solar tracking
system. Both review using difference method to track the sun position.
In 2004 F. Huang, D. Tien and James Or had complete the paper about
microcontroller based automatic sun tracker combined with a new solar energy
conversion unit. This sun tracker had developed in order to increase the efficiency of
the solar panel. The control system that developed base on automatic sun tracker that
used was implemented with a dc motor and a dc motor controller. The energy
conversion unit in this tracker system that created had an array of solar panel, a step-
up chopper, a single-phase inverter, an ac main power source and a microcontroller
based control unit. This tracker was not uses any sensor to detect the location or the
angle of the sun. In this tracker, Maximum Power Point (MPP) detector was use. In
simple, the array of solar was set up as sensor. It was operated to find the angle that
can provide the highest solar energy and assume that was the most direct angle with
the sun. The operation was started by search MPP location. The position and value of
MPP will set as reference for find new angle.
The system was designed at 500W using 10 solar panel connected in series
and in parallel. The output voltage output collected was 40 to 100 volt. The system
12
was design to disable if the voltage drops below 40 volt. Set-up chopper was used to
convert the voltage collected to a higher voltage. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) was then used as inverter to convert the dc voltage from the chopper main
supply.
The system was designed to active when the panel voltage higher than 40
volt. There also had function to set the time interval for the panel to rotate. The time
interval used can be set 5 or 10 minutes. The system was designed to rotate at P
position first then move toward P2 position. The system compares the panel voltage
that was collected. When voltage panel at P2 was greater than P position, the panel
was set to move further until the voltage panel less than previous panel.
MPP detection and the control of power conversion unit were controlled by
single circuit. The input of the control circuit was the feedback signal from the panel
voltage and the output was a current source to drive the power transistor in the
chopper circuit.
At the beginning, S1 was kept close and S2 was kept opened. The time
constant, T = RC was designed to be 10 milisecond. The two darlington transistor
TIP 112 and TIP 117 function as voltage to current source converter. The increases
of the voltage at the base of the TIP 112 result in increase of the current at the
collector of the TIP 117. After that, the microcontroller start obtained the information
of the panel voltage.
Once the detection mode complete, the conversion mode will be initiated.
The voltage from detection mode was set as reference in conversion mode. In
conversion mode, S1 and S2 kept open. TIP 112 and TIP 117 were now functioning
as switching mode. The panel voltage was sample every 5 micro second and this
14
voltage (actual panel voltage) was compare with the reference voltage that collected
from detection mode.
When the actual voltage was higher than the reference, the logic high was
produce at the microcontroller. When the actual voltage falls below the reference
voltage, the logic low was produce. The logic low then switches off the power
transistor. The MPP condition was controlling the on-off duration of the power
transistor.
The subject was test with two solar panels connected in series. In this review,
there were 4 test results collected from the project. First and second results were
about the waveform of the panel voltage, current and power of illumination level.
The other two were about the voltage across the solar panel when the panel was
controlled.
The H-bridge was constructed using four transistor 2N2222, four diodes
1N4148 and two 10K resistor. There also additional component, variable resistor
bank used to reduce motor rotation. The system was designed to obtain its data from
LDR. When light falls on its surface, the LDR produce low resistance. The data
collected then send to PIC and process. Then, the PIC gives the output to control the
motor movement. In simple, when both LDR receive equal illumination, their
resistance level will be the same. With an error margin +/- 10 point, the PIC will not
generate any output. However, when LDR receive difference illumination level, the
PIC will generate output to control the motor [13, 14, and 15].
17
The testing was conducted to verify the functionality of LDR. There were two
situations that used in this testing. First situation when one LDR cover by shadow
and other when both LDR were under shadow.
Figure 2.16 Signal generated when one LDR was under shadow
Figure 2.17 Signal generated when both LDR in same illumination level
20
This tracking system use feedback control system. There are two main types
of feedback control systems: negative feedback and positive feedback. In a positive
feedback control system the set point and output values are added. In a negative
feedback control the set point and output values are subtracted. As a rule negative
feedback systems are more stable than positive feedback systems. Negative feedback
also makes systems more immune to random variations in component values and
inputs. The control system that use was negative feedback system due to stability and
immune to random value.
Base from figure 2.18, the position reference actually is sun position. When sensor
detect sun location, it will give signal to run the motor (Pin) to move the panel to sun
location. Position output is representing the actual position of the photovoltaic panel.
If the position output is not directly with position reference, Pin is not equal to zero
21
and this will give the signal to move until Pin equal to zero or mean position
reference equal with position output [10].
Trigger (Pin 2): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set
the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high.
Output (Pin 3): Output high is about 1.7V less than supply. Output high is
capable of Isource up to 200mA while output low is capable of Isink up to
200mA.
Reset (Pin 4): This is used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state.
The reset is an overriding function. When not used connect to V+.
Control (Pin 5): Allows access to the 2/3V+ voltage divider point when the 555
timer is used in voltage control mode. When not used connect to ground through
a 0.01 uF capacitor.
Discharge (Pin 7): This is the open collector to Q14 in figure 4 below.
V+ (Pin 8): This connects to Vcc the NE555 version is 3V - 16V DC.
23
The circuit is called a bistable because it is stable in two states: output high
and output low. It is also known as a 'flip-flop’. Base from figure, the 555 timer is
composed of the voltage comparators, the flip-flop and the transistor for the
discharge. The monostable mode (one shot) which requires only two external
components, Ra and C. Time period is determined by T period = 1.1 (Ra C).
Three resistors are connected with the inside in series and the power supply
voltage (Vcc) is divided in 3. 1/3 of power supply voltage is applied to the positive
input terminal of the comparator (COMP1) and the voltage of 2/3 is applied to the
negative terminal of the comparator (COMP2).
24
When the voltage of the trigger terminal (TRIGGER) is less than 1/3 of the
power supply voltage, the output of the flip-flop becomes high level and a flip-flop is
set. When the voltage of the threshold terminal (THRESHOLD) is more than 2/3 of
the power supply voltage, the R terminal of the FF becomes H level and an FF is
reset.
The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be
cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low
and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should
be connected to +Vcc [8].
Other than that, the threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across
C1 and when this reaches 2/3 Vcc the time period is over and the output becomes low.
At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor
ready for the next trigger. The time period of the pulse given by, T period = 1.1 (Ra C)
[9].
METHODOLOGY
The objective of this project is to develop the control system that can manipulate
the solar panel to move constantly with sun movement. In order to complete this
objective, the method and technical strategies implied is the most important
disciplined need to look at. Therefore, this project is divided into phase by phase.
The main objective for divided into phase is to detect any problem at early stage. It is
much more organized to do the job one by one according to their respective phase.
There are two phase of development that use to complete the project:-
3.1.1 Phase 1
Mechanical design is one of the major phases in the development of the solar
tracking system. This part contributes to what the solar panel control would look like.
The skeleton of the panel is designed and constructed in this phase. Few sketches
have developed and one of the best had been chosen. The purpose of the skeleton is
to provide a place to mount the electronics component such as:-
DC motor
Sensor (LDR)
Push button
Potentiometer
Solar cell
String
3.1.2 Phase 2
Electronic Control development process is the main part of the project. The
second phase involves the development of control system. Base from the circuit of
Monostable Operation of the 555 timer, the circuit that can control motor movement
had been developed. There are few adjustments and some modification, so that the
circuit can operate accordingly. After that, numerous tests on the designed circuit are
performed on the prototyping board. The circuit is then constructed on PCB board
using Portel Software. There are two circuits that have been designed for this control
system:
Circuit A
Circuit B
27
Circuit A and B are similar but each circuit controls different part in the system.
Circuit A control east side and circuit B control west side. Below is the diagram of
one part of the circuit.
Sensor (LDR)
Push button switch
20k ohm potentiometer
C1 (0.01 microfarad)
C2 (3.3microfarad)
R1 (47k ohm)
R2 (1M ohm)
Relay 12v core- Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
IC 555 timer
DC motor
12 volt power supply (Lead Acid Rechargeable Battery).
3.1.3 Phase 3
In order to combine the circuit part A and B with mechanical system, the
circuit test need to be to make sure it will follow the sun constantly. Few adjustments
and modifications need to be done before the system can work smoothly. Every
condition and situation needs to be looked carefully.
29
The block diagram shows how the electronic control system was developed
and how they communicate with each other. There are 10 block of the block diagram
and each block represents the component with its function to control the system.
There are 2 blocks that represent the sensor that are used to detect the position of the
sun. One at the east and the other at the west similar to the sun movements, that
move from east to west. That sensor will provide signal to the 555 timer when the
sun position is varied. The timer 555 will decide the motor movement base on the
input that they received from the sensors. After the DC motor moves the panel, the
30
sensor will reconfigure the sun position and give new signal to timer 555. The
process is repeated until both sensors give the right position of sun.
3.4.2 Photo-Sensor
A polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube with 6cm length is placed on each photo-
sensor to minimize the effect of sunlight diffusion. The diffuse radiation that is not
directly from the sun will be blocked by the tube. This will increase the sensitivity of
the photo-sensor.
The LDR1 is placed at the east part of the solar panel and the LDR2 is placed
at the west part of the solar panel. Both will act as a sun position detector. Then the
signal goes to the 555 timer.
32
Sun light
2.5
cm
6cm
0
90
The 555 timer is one of the most important components in this electronic
circuit. 555 timer is the heart of the solar tracking system. 555 timer in this design
has 8 pins and every pin have their own function. It acts as the central data
processing unit, responsible for the fundamental operation of logic. In this design, the
555 timer will pick up the input from LDR and give output to the DC motor. The
timer chip are wired for monostable “one shot” operation. It will give output high
when receive low voltage from LDR. The timed interval is controlled by a single
external resistor and capacitor network.
When the trigger input falls below the trigger level, the flip-flop is set and the
output goes high. If the trigger input above the trigger level and the threshold input is
above the threshold level, the flip-flop is reset and the output is low. The reset input
can override all other input and can be used to initiate a new timing cycle. When
reset goes low, the flip-flop is reset and the output goes low.
The output from the 555 timer will go to the relay before to DC motor. In this
design, there are two circuit that use to control the motor and each circuit have the
555 timer. Each timer receives input from difference LDR and this two 555 timers
connect to relay and both relay connect to the same motor.
3.4.4 Relays.
Relays are used as remote control switch. Relays which come in different
sizes, rating, and application, are used as remote control switches. Basically, relays
are remote control electrical switches that are controlled by another switch, such as
power train control module. Relays allow a small current flow circuit to control a
higher current circuit. In this circuit, SPDT Relay with 12v coil is use. SPDT stand
for single pole double throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total. All relays operate
using the same basic principle. The control circuit has a small control coil while the
load circuit has a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch.
Current flowing through the control circuit coil creates a small magnetic field
which causes the switch to close. The switch, which is part of load circuit, is used to
control an electrical circuit that may connect to it. Current now flow through pins to
load.
35
When current is stops flowing through the control circuit, the relay become
de-energized. Without the magnetic field, the switch opens and current is prevented
from flowing through pins. The relay now OFF
In this tracking system, both relay set as ground when not function. When
sensor detects sun movement, it will give signal to the 555 timer. Then, the 555 timer
will trig relay to control the motor.
3.4.6 DC Motor.
In this project, DC motor is used to move the solar panel. The DC motor is
connecting with string and attach to the panel. When motor rotate, it will move the
panel and that movement will relocate the angle of the LDR sensor. The LDR sensor
will send back the signal of sun location and the motor stopped when the right angle
was founded. It all depends from the input provided by sensor.
DC motor type that use in this project is from SPG30-20k series. This type of
series use 12 volt input and available to produce maximum 1.1 watt power as
mention in data sheet. A DC motor required at least one electromagnet. This
electromagnet switches the current flow as the motor turns, changing its polarity to
keep the motor running. The motor rotate from positive terminal to negative
terminal.
The combination of all components will create the control circuit. Every
component has own rule in the system. However, the system needs the chassis to
complete the prototype. The chassis developed is used to place the electronic
component at the right place and also to make it move freely from east to west and
back to east again.
There is little part that critical that influences the movement of the chassis of
the solar panel. There are push buttons that limit the cassis movement. There also a
string that connects the motor with panel where the circuits are placed. The panel
also places the sensor to detect sun position. The DC motor is placed at the center
bottom of the cassis. The panel movement will be control by DC motor via timing
belt. The LDR will give information about panel position and the direction the motor
should move. The limit switch connects to pin number four and act as a limit for
panel movement. S1 connect to circuit 1 at east side and S2 connect to circuit 2 at
west side. S1 part represent east part and S2 part represent west.
3.5.2.1 Stage 1
3.5.2.2 Stage 2
3.5.2.3 Stage 3
Stage three happen when the panel at the west limit and touch SW2 or at east limit
where it touch SW1.
At east limit: when S2 detect the light, motor move to west.
At west limit: When S1 detect the light, motor move to east.
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction
Indoor analysis
Outdoor analysis
Base from the table, when light strike at LDR S1, the input in pin two
of the 555 timer 1 become low. This produce high output at the 555 timer 1
and move the motor to the east. Same happen when LDR S2 receives the
light. The difference between this two are the motor movement. The motor
movement control by input from LDR sensor.
37
These tables are proving of function reset pin in IC 555 timer. When
the panel move and touch the push button that place at the limit range of
panel, the reset function at pin 4 of 555 timer will trigged. This function is
active low, mean when it receives voltage below 0.7 volt, the function
trigged.
In this stage 2 analyses, the LDR sensor both uncover to same light
intensity. This analysis objective is to observe whether the system can stop
moving when the solar panel perpendicular with sun position. Beside,
observe what happen to the system at night.
In this stage, the analysis is about the control system that already at
the limit switch but the receiver the light form the other side. For example,
the panel already moves until west limit and the system stop moving due to
reset function. However, went sun rise again from east, the LDR S1
received the light and that will move the motor to the east. The reset
function not influences the system because the system that actually reset is
the 555 timer 2. The LDR S1 only trigged the 555 timer 1. The same thing
happened if the opposite side tested.
40
Figure 4.1 Time line from no light to both LDR receive light
41
Figure 4.2 Time line from motor on to motor stop due limit switch to
motor on
42
Time 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sun Position 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 170 180
(degree)
Angle 45 45 45 45 70 85 90 100 110 135 135 135 135 135
perpendicular
with solar
panel
(degree)
200
180
160
140
120
100 Sun Position
80
60 Angle perpendicular with
40 solar panel
20
0
9:00AM
6:00AM
7:00AM
8:00AM
1:00AM
2:00AM
3:00AM
4:00AM
5:00AM
6:00AM
7:00AM
10:00AM
11:00AM
12:00AM
The line chart shows the different of actual sun position with the
position that detect by the system. The limits of the system are limited at 45
degree and 135 degree. Even the sun going more than 135 degree or less
than 45 degree, the system cannot follow more than the limit angle. There
also other things that influence the panel movement such as shade area
produce by cloud, building and other thing.
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Conclusion
The objective of the project has been achieved. The Optimal Solar
Tracking System was able to constantly follow the sun movement. To
conclude, the system design that use in the project can brings a lot of
function and other application. Still using the design, with a little bit
modification such as change the sensor to temperature sensor, the system
that tracks the heat can develop. Other application such as tracking signal
also can use and develop from this sample electronic design. The
knowledge and skill from this project will give more experience for student
in electronic field.
45
5.2 Recommendation
There are still a lot of space for improvement and enhancement for
this Optimal Solar Tracking System. Optimal Solar Tracking System covers
a large field which required creativity, talent and dynamic mentality to fully
optimize the technology, knowledge and inspiration of the nature. The
prototype of solar panel is a mechanical design while the sensor used was
LRD. The mechanical design of thesis of the system can only operate in
single axis only. In order to increase the efficiency and responsive of the
system, double axis should be used.
REFERENCE
3) Eric Anderson, Chris Dohan, Aaron Sikora. (2003) Solar Panel Peak
Power Tracking System, Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
12) R.M Hilloowala and A.M. Sharaf, ‘” A rule based fuzzy logic
controller for a PWM inverter in photo-voltaic energy convsion
scheme,” in Conf. Rec. of the IEEE Industry Applications Society
Annual Meeting, New York, 1992, V01.1,p.762-9.
15) Steven, Fred. (1997). Getting started with PIC microcontrollers, Ch.
1, pg 5-6. A. L. Stevens
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APPENDICES
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62