EXAM TOPIC

1. Gametogenesis and source of variation

2. Errors in Meiosis-Nondisjunction-Syndromes
3. Asexual Reproduction
4. Sexual Reproduction
5. Human Reproduction-Organs/Menstrual
Cycle/Hormonal Control
6. Embryonic Development

REVIEW QUESTION-KEY
1) Offspring of sexual reproduction are genetically different
from their parents and one another.

Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

When aligned during metaphase I of meiosis, the side-by-side orientation of each
homologous pair of chromosomes is a matter of chance.

Random Fertilization
A human egg cell is fertilized randomly by one sperm, leading to genetic variety
in the zygote. The random nature of fertilization adds a huge amount of potential
variability to the offspring of sexual reproduction.

Crossing Over
Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding
segments and genetic recombination, the production of gene combinations
different from those carried by parental chromosomes, occurs.

2) Gametogenesis is a process in which sex cells like egg and sperm are
formed in the male and female gonads(testes and ovaries).

A main comparison of spermatogenesis and oogenesis provides evidence for

major differences in the timing of production, number and size of gametes.

SPERMATOGENESIS
1 It occurs in the testes
2 A primary spermatocyte
divides to form 2 secondary
spermatocytes
3 A secondary spermatocytes
OOGENESIS
It occurs in the ovaries
A primary oocyte divides to form one
polar body and one secondary oocyte
A secondary oocyte divides to form
 divides to form 2 spermatids.
4 A spermatagonium forms 4
spermatoza
5 It is generally completed in the
testes and thus mature sperms
are released form the testes
3)
4)
one ovum and one polar body.
An oogonium forms only one ovum
It is often completed in female
reproductive tract or in many
mammals in water because oocytes
are released from the ovaries.
5) In nondisjunction,

the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate at

anaphase,
producing gametes with an incorrect number of
chromosomes.
Nondisjunction can occur during meiosis I or II.

In meisos 1, homologous chromosomes fail to seperate

In meisosis 2, sister chromotids fail to seperate

nondisjunctions in nondisjunctions in
meiosis 1 meiosis 2

n+1, n+1, n-1,n-1 n-1, n-1, n,n

6) During reproduction, if a zygote receives a third copy of a chromosome from the gamete,
it becomes trisomic. This leads to autosomal nondisjunction.

7) Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder in which an individual has an

extra chromosome 21, and it is called "trisomy 21". Down syndrome occurs when
an individual has a full or partial extra copy of chromosome 21.This additional
genetic material alters the course of development and causes the characteristics
associated with Down syndrome. The Symptoms;

Low muscle tone

Small stature
Heart defects
Respiratory disease
Short life span

8) Possible syndromes of gonosomal nondisjunction are Kleinfelters, Turner,

Super Male, and Super Female.

The symptoms of Kleinfelters (XXY)

Affect male sex organs like testerone

Develop more feminine body characteristics
Breasts or breast growth

Less assertive or self-confident

The symptoms of Turner's Syndrome (XO)

Genetically female but not mature sexually during puberty and sterile.
heart conditions
kidney abnormalities
98% of fetuses die before birth.
Hearing loss

The symptoms of Super Female (XXX)

Some may experience no noticeable effect. Others may have mild symptoms

Infertility or menstrual irregularities

Abdominal pains
 Heart abnormalities

The symptoms of Super Male (XYY)

Newborns with XYY syndrome don't display noticeable physical

characteristics.The most common physical trait is being tall.

Comparatively low weight relative to stature

Lightly lower IQ than normal

Learning disabilities and delayed development of speech and language

skills

Behavior and emotional difficulties

Delayed development of motor skills, such as sitting and walking

9) Sexual Reproduction : is a reproduction where two gametes fuse together

involving a female's large ovum (or egg) and a male's smaller sperm.

Asexual Reproduction : is a reproduction by which offspring arise from a

single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only.

10) The types of Asexual Reproduction

Binary Fission: the parent organism is replaced by two daughter

organisms. Only prokaryotes (the archaea and the bacteria) reproduce
asexually through binary fission
Budding: New Organisms arise as an outgrowth from the parent
organism. Examples Include; Potatoe, Yeast, Sponges, Corals and Jellyfish
Regeneration: This refers to the ability of some animals to re-grow lost
or damaged body parts. Segmented Worms and Sea Stars
Vegetative Reproduction: New plants develop from the roots, stems, or
leaves of the parent plant. Strawberry, onion,patatoe
Parthenogenesis: Offspring can arise from unfertilized eggs. Includes
some Fish, Reptiles, and Amphibians.
Spore Formation : Many multicellular organisms form spores during their
biological life cycle in a process called sporogenesis. Fungi , some algae
and plasmodium.

11) The advantages of asexual reproduction

Quick, efficient if suited to the environment

Rapid populating
No mates required
 In case of emergency, plants and organisms can keep themselves alive.

12) The disadvantages of asexual reproduction

No diversity
Slow to adapt if the environment changes
Prone to extinction

13) In binary fission, the parent organism is replaced by two daughter

organisms. Only prokaryotes (the archaea and the bacteria) reproduce asexually
through binary fission.

14) In budding,new organisms arise as an outgrowth from the parent

organism. It is seen Seen mostly in marine animals.

15) Plants can reproduce asexually through vegetative reproduction. New plants
develop from the roots, stems, or leaves of the parent plant.

16) Bees reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. In this process,

offsprings (male bee) can arise from unfertilized eggs via haploid development.
That is why this reproduction is considered as asexual.

17) This refers to the ability of some animals to re-grow lost or damaged body
parts. Regenerations is not normally considered as a reproduction type. It is a
renewal. However, some organisms like sea star and planarian can grow new
organisms from damaged or lost parts. Accordingly, regeneration is kind of
asexual reproduction for these organisms.

18) Sexual Reproduction : is a reproduction where two gametes fuse

together involving a female's large ovum (or egg) and a male's smaller sperm.

19) The advantages of sexual reproduction

Offsprings are genetically unique

Better adaptation to changing conditions
Slower rate of reproduction but faster evolution
Lower extinction rates
Fast removal of bad mutations
Offsprings are dispersed widely to end up in different places from their
parents

20) The disadvantages of sexual reproduction

Need two parents

Genetic recombination is counter productive if conditions are stable
Only half the individuals are producing offspring.
Less efficient at passing on genes
21) Haplontic life cycle, diplontic life cycle, alternation of generationi and
conjugation.

In haplontic life cycle the mature organism is haploid and the zygote is the only
diploid stage

The organism is diploid and the gametes are the only haploid stage

Alternation of generation; the organism passes through haploid and diploid

stages that are both multicellular. Moss, fern
Conjugation ; is a process where donor bacteria transfer some or all of their
genome to recipient bacteria via a cytoplasmic bridge called the pilus

22) cevab 21.soruda var

23) Offspring:
Sporophyte is a phase which produces spores. Then these spores develop in
gametophytes.

Gametophyte is a phase which produces gametes that includes sperms and eggs. Then
these eggs and sperms grow in sporophytes.

Type of reproduction:
Sporophyte is a phase where asexual reproduction is done.

Gametophyte is a phase where sexual reproduction is done.

Chromosomes:
Sporophyte are usually diploid,
Gametophyte is mostly haploid

Occurrence:
In sporophyte, there is the formation of zygote thats why they are diploid i.e. 2N.

In gametophyte, there is the process of meiosis that occurs due to which they are haploid

Cellular division:
Sporophyte is a phase which reproduces through a process called meiosis.

Gametophyte is a phase which reproduces through a process called mitosis.

24) Conjugation is a process where donor bacteria transfer some or all of their genome to
recipient bacteria via a cytoplasmic bridge called the pilus. Bacteria, and paramecium

25)

26)
27) Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, and the
ovaries control female reproduction and development of secondary
sexual characteristics.

At about 10 years of age, the hypothalamus begins to secrete more GnRH, which
in turn stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce LH and
FSH.

At puberty, the ovaries synthesize estrogens in response to FSH.

a.Estrogens are responsible for the female secondary sexual

characteristics, such as breast development, increased adipose tissue deposition,
and increased vascularization of the skin.

b.Ovaries also secrete progesterone, which triggers uterine changes during

the menstrual cycle.

1.The menstrual cycle is characterized by monthly changes in the uterine lining

that lead to menstrual flow as the endometrium is shed.

2.A menstrual cycle is started by FSH, which stimulates the maturation of a

follicle in the ovary.

3.Follicular cells surrounding the developing oocyte secrete estrogen, which is

responsible for maintaining secondary sexual characteristics as well as the
thickening of the uterine lining.

4.Ovulation is triggered by a mid-cycle surge in LH.

5.Following ovulation, follicular cells turn into a glandular corpus luteum that
secretes increasing amounts of estrogen and progesterone.

6.If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, hormone levels
decline, and the uterine lining disintegrates and is shed.

7.During the cycle, estrogen and progesterone inhibit the increased release of FSH
and LH; when estrogen and progesterone levels fall, the secretion of FSH and LH
increases

28) During menstrual cycle, before ovulation small amounts of estrogen are
secreted from the ovary. Estrogen stimulates the release of GnRH from the
hypothalamus and LH from the anterior pituitary. Slightly eleveated estrogen
causes inhibiting FSH secretion. LH, in turn, causes release of additional estrogen
from the ovary. The levels of GnRH and LH increase in the blood due to this
positive feedback.

After ovulation, the corpus luteum is formed in the ovary, and begins to secrete
progesterone in response to LH. Progesterone inhibits the release of GnRH from
the hypothalamus and LH from the anterior pituitary. Blood levels of GnRH and LH
decrease because of negative feedback.

29) Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, and the
testes control male reproduction and development of secondary
sexual characteristics. Hypothalamic and Pituitary Hormones (p. 528)

1.At the time of puberty, the hypothalamus controls the many changes that lead to
the development of a reproductively functional adult.

2.The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which

triggers the production of the gonadotropins, luteinizing
hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the
anterior pituitary.

a.LH promotes the development of interstitial cells of the testes and they, in turn,
secrete male hormones (testosterone).

b.FSH stimulates the supporting cells of the seminiferous tubules.

c.FSH and testosterone stimulate spermatogenesis

30)
4. After fertilization, the zygote moves along the
Fallopian tube to the uterus, the zygote
divides again and again to form a ball of cell,
called embryo.
5. When the embryo reaches the uterus, it
implants itself into the thick uterine lining. This
process is called implantation.
6. After implantation, embryonic membranes
develop to enclose the embryo in a double-
layered capsule, called the amniotic cavity.
The amniotic cavity is filled with a fluid
known is the amniotic fluid.
7. The amniotic fluid helps to support the embryo
and protects it from shock and injury.
8. Finger-like villi will grow from the embryo into
the uterine wall. The villi contain the blood
vessel of the embryo.
9. The villi together with the part of the uterus in
which they are embedded form a structure
known as the placenta
10. The embryo is attached to the placenta by
tube, called the umbilical cord
11. Function of placenta and umbilical cord :
a. Transfers dissolved nutrients, antibody and
oxygen from the mothers blood into that of
the embryos
b. Transfer metabolic waste product (carbon
dioxide and urea) from the embryos blood
into that of the mothers
12. About eight weeks after fertilization, when all
the main organs are formed, the embryo is
called a fetus.
13. The period between fertilization and the birth
of the fetus is known as gestation period.
Human have a gestation period about 38 to
40 weeks.
14. During birth, the uterine walls contract and
help to push the fetus out through the vagina.