Standard Model 2012

Dr Peter A Boyle

February 5, 2012
Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Standard Model and our Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fundamental Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Timescales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Gauge groups of Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Symmetries of Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6.1 Exact symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6.2 Approximate quark flavour symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Free scalars, fermions, gauge bosons 5

2.1 Free fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Noethers theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Free field actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3 Global U (1) symmetry & Noether currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Abelian gauge theory 8

3.1 Local U (1) symmetry: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.1 Gauge action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Scalar electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Quantum electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Feynman rules 11
4.1 Path integral approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Toy model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.2 Free four point function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.3 Perturbative expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Feynman Rules and Feynman Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3.1 Full speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1
 4.3.2 Slow motion replay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3.3 Feynman rules for QED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3.4 External particles and external lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3.5 Dirac matrix manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3.6 Loop diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4 Lorentz invariant phase space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4.1 Cross-section phase space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.2 Decay phase space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Leading order processes 20

5.1 Compton Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.1.1 Step 1: Feynman graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.1.2 Step 2: Evaluate amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1.3 Step 3: Square amplitude and sum polarisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1.4 Step 4: Phase space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Review of Lie Groups 24

6.1 Generator of translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 Matrix exponentiation in SO(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2.1 Exponential of general Hermitian matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3 Generators of SU(N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3.1 SU(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3.2 SU(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4.1 Equivalence and reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.2 Singlet representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.3 Fundamental representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.4 Adjoint representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.5 Complex conjugated representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

7 Analysis of SU(3) 32
7.0.6 Construction of representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.1 Young Tableau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2 General Tableau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3 Tensor products of representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

8 Quark model 36
8.1 Representation theory of composite states of u, d, s quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.1.1 Meson octet/singlet:
33. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.2 Baryon decuplet/octet 3 3 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.2 Third generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
 8.3 Color charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9 SU(N) Yang-Mills theory 40

9.1 SU(N) Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

10 Quantum Chromodynamics 43
10.1 Asymptotic Freedom in QCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.1.1 The logarithmic scale dependence of the strong coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

11 Goldstones theorem 48
11.1 SSB in an U (1) scalar field theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
11.2 Generalisation to SO(N ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
11.3 Classical Goldstone Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

12 Higgs mechanism 52

13 Electroweak unification 54
13.1 Weirdness in the Weak sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13.2 Glashow-Salam-Weinberg Theory SU (2)L U (1)Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13.2.1 Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13.2.2 The gauge sector: Lgauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13.2.3 The Higgs sector: LHiggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.2.4 The fermion sector: Lfermion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
13.2.5 The Yukawa sector: LYukawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
13.2.6 Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.2.7 Lepton sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
13.2.8 The quark sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
13.3 Feynman Rules of fermion, gauge and Yukawa sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

14 Flavour Physics 66
14.1 Muon decay and the weak couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
14.1.1 Measuring the Fermi constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
14.2 CKM constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
14.3 Leptonic decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
14.3.1 Neutral pion decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
14.4 Semi-leptonic decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
14.5 Neutral meson mixing and CP violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
14.5.1 Wigner Weisskopf Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14.5.2 Time dependent mixing and mass difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
14.5.3 Indirect CP violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

15 Collider physics 76
 15.1 e+ e colliders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
+
15.1.1 QCD in e e collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
15.1.2 W, Z physics at e+ e colliders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
15.1.3 Higgs search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
15.2 (Large) Hadron colliders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
15.2.1 Parton model and proton structure functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

A Representations of SU(2) and spin 82

A.0.2 Matrix notation for spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A.0.3 Single particle operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A.1 SU(2) transformations of Pauli spinors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
A.1.1 Weyl homomorphism & Spin- 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
A.2 SU(2) transformations of multi-particle states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
A.2.1 Different multiplets do not mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
A.3 Generators for tensor product representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
A.4 Explicit spin matrix calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
A.4.1 Mapping out the possible states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

B Muon decay phase space details 88

 Learning outcomes
1. Understand Lie groups and their representations.
2. Learn SU(N) gauge theory
3. Understand the Standard Model particle content
4. Know the Standard Model Lagrangian and Feynman rules
5. Be able to evaluate the amplitude for leading order SM processes
6. Be able to integrate the cross section for 1 and 2 particle final states
7. Be able to perform spin and polarisation sums

8. Understand spontaneous symmetry breaking and Goldstones theorem

9. Understand the Higgs mechanism and the origin of mass
10. Understand the Cabbibo-Kobayashi-Maskawa quark mixing matrix
11. Understand CKM constraints and flavour physics
12. Understand the parton model of the protons and neutrons
13. Be able to compute leading order accelerator processes
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 The Standard Model and our Universe

A long time ago in a Galaxy far far away... something went Bang.

Epoch Time Theory

Planck Epoch (Bang) 1043 s TOE Gravi-Strong-Electro-Weak force (Strings???)

GUT Epoch 1036 s GUT Strong-Electro-Weak force (SU(5)??? )
Inflation + reheating 1032 s ?? Poorly understood
Electroweak Epoch 1012 s SM Electro-Weak force + Strong force
Quark Epoch 106 s SM Quark gluon plasma
Hadron Epoch 1s SM Bound quarks: neutrons, protons, baryogenesis
Lepton Epoch 10s SM Matter-anti-Matter annihilation & residual matter
Nucleosynthesis 20 m QCD nucleus formation
Photon Epoch 380,000 yr QED atoms
Gravity Epoch 150,000,000 yr GR+QCD Galaxy, star formation
Now 5 billion yr GR+QED Homo-sapiens, sheer dumb luck

TOE hypothetical unified theory of everything:

strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravitational forces
GUT hypothetical grand unified theory:
strong+weak+electromagnetic forces)
SM Standard Model: unified theory of electroweak forces
separate theory of strong force
GR General Relativity
classical theory of relativistic graviation
QCD Quantum chromodynamics
QED Quantum electrodynamics

Our knowledge of the universe is mostly based on the Standard Model of Particle Physics

1.2 Fundamental Particles

At the end of the 1940s, only p, n, , e, , e were known. The Standard Model developed in an incredible
period from 1955-1975 .
Up to now, all observed fundamental (not composite) particles in nature carry spin- 21 or spin-1. The Standard
Model predicts a fundamental spin-0 particle, the Higgs Boson.

1
 Fermions Bosons
matter fields, (half-integer spin) Higgs/interaction fields, (integer spin)
  Leptons
      quarks     Higgs Vector (or gauge) Graviton
e u c t h , W , Z 0 , gi=1,...8 G(?)
, , , ,
e d s b

[The field quantum related to the gravitational field, the graviton, carries spin = 2.]

1.2.1 Confinement

Free quarks are not observed and are confined in bound states called Hadrons

Baryons (bound state of 3 quarks) Mesons (quark-antiquark pairs: q q)

p, n, + , 0 , . . . , 0 , K , . . .

proton uud + ud
neutron ddu K+ u
s
+ uus
0 ssu

1.3 Timescales
Force Coupling Decay mode Lifetime
Strong s 1 1024 s
1
Weak
w 30 e e 2 106 s
2 g2
GF = 8 M 2 105 (GeV)2
W
1
Electromagnetic e 137 2P 1S 1015 s
Weak decays made very slow by electro-weak symmetry breaking: scale set by MW = 80GeV
Terms must be added to the action to describe the interactions of different particles. The theories become
non-linear and weak coupling perturbation is used. The interactions with matter fields that must be described
include:

2
1.4 Interactions

Relative strength
e p

a) Electromagnetic 102

e p

e p e
b) Weak W Z 105
,

e n e

u d

c) Strong q no free quarks seen! 1

confinement

u d

t b

d) Yukawa h









t b




not seen yet




t Z h h





e) Higgs h


,

t Z h h

We also find we must describe self-interactions for gauge bosons when treating non-abelian gauge groups
such as SU (N ).

3
1.5 Gauge groups of Standard Model
The gauge fields of the Standard Model include matrix valued Maxwell fields. These gauge field structure is
written as:

SU (3) SU (2) U (1)

Group Lagrangian fields After EWSB

SU(3) gluons gluons
SU(2) W1,2,3 W , Z
U(1) B A
In the above the labels SU (N ) refer to special unitary Lie groups. These are the groups consisting of N N
complex matrices g CN N with det g = 1. These are the groups describing the force carrying bosons for a
given fundamental force. It is therefore a necessary prerequisite to understand these groups.
The abelian U (1) group consists of the set of complex numbers ei lying on the unit circle. Quantum
electrodynamics is the U (1) gauge theory describing electromagnetism. The gauge bosons of QED are
photons.
Will consider QED first, then generalise to SU(N) gauge theory.

1.6 Symmetries of Standard Model

The Standard Model has a number of important approximate and exact symmetries. Certain symmetries
are almost held and these can lead to approximate relations or effective theories valid in certain limits.

1.6.1 Exact symmetries

The exact symmetries include invariance under Lorent transformations (momentum conservation, angular
momentum conservation, CPT invariance), invariance under gauge transformations (charge conservation).
Global U (1) invariance leads to charge conservation.

1.6.2 Approximate quark flavour symmetry

The masses of the up, down and strange quarks are almost identical (10-100 MeV).
SU (3)flavour matrix operations mixing the up, down and strange fields leave the action almost invariant.
If these quarks had identical masses this would become an exact symmetry. The representation theory of
SU (3) describes the structure of the meson and baryon spectrum very well.
The up and down masses differ by only a few MeV and results in the near degeneracy of the proton and
neutron, and of the three pions.

The SU(N) gauge group and flavour SU(N) symmetries are unrelated

4
Chapter 2

Free scalars, fermions, gauge bosons

Classical ~0 Quantum
Mechanics Mechanics

N c N c

Relativistic Relativistic
~0
Field Theory Quantum
Field Theory

where N is the number of degrees of freedom, c is the speed of light, and ~ is Plancks constant.
A field theory is a continuum generalisation of (discrete) point-particle mechanics

qi (t) with i 1, . . . , N generalised coordinate (x, t)

L
pi (t) = qi canonical momentum (x, t) = L

R 3
L(qi , qi ) Lagrange function L = d x L((x), (x))
Z
Action: S = d4 x L(, ) where L Lagrangian Density

2.1 Free fields

Minimising action means S = 0 under arbitrary change vanishing at infinity equations of motion:
Z     
L L L L
S = d4 x + = 0 =0
( ) ( )
where we give our conventions as

1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0
= , , a = g a , and g
0

x t 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

2.1.1 Noethers theorem

Symmetries of action conserved currents

5
A change in the field(s) induces a change in the Lagrangian.

= +

=
~ +
~

If the change in the field is chosen to be a symmetry of the Lagrangian invariance means

~ ,
0 = L = L ~ ,
~ ,
~ L ~ ,
~, ~
~ ,
This leads to
L L
L L

L = j +
j + j +

j
j j j j
L  L   L 
= j +
j
j +
j j j
L  L   L 
+ j +

j
j
j j j
 L   L 

j +

= j terms vanish due to the eqns of motion
j j
= J

J is a conserved current because Z Z

d3 x J = d3 xJ0 = 0
t

2.1.2 Free field actions

1. Real scalar field (spin-0 particles: 0 , Higgs boson, . . . )

1 1
L= m2 2 ( 2 + m2 ) = 0
2 2
2. Complex scalar field ( , K , . . . , spin-0 charged particles)

1 1
L= m2 ( 2 + m2 )() = 0
2 2
3. Maxwell field (spin-1 particles: , . . . )

1
L = F F F = 0
4
with

0 E 1 E 2 E 3
E1 0 B 3 B1
F A A =

E2

B3 0 B 2
E3 B 1 B2 0
and

E = A A and B=A
t
Note that using the equation of motion
and the Bianchi
identity, F

+ F + F = 0, we can

obtain Maxwells equations: E, B = 0, E, B = t B, E .

6
 4. Dirac field (spin- 21 particles: e , , quarks, . . . )

L = i/ m (i/ m) = 0
where


(x ),
0 and /

is a 44 matrix satisfying the Clifford algebra: , = 2g 11.
We will use the Pauli-Dirac representation for the :
     
0 112 0 0 5 0 11
= , = , =
0 112 0 11 0
with, 5 = 5 = i 0 1 2 3 and with Pauli matrices are defined as
     
1 0 1 2 0 i 3 1 0
= , = , =
1 0 i 0 0 1

2.1.3 Global U(1) symmetry & Noether currents

The complex scalar field and the Dirac field are symmetric under a global U (1) transformation. For any

= ei (2.1)
i
= e (2.2)

leaves the complex scalar field Lagrangian unaltered. For infinitesimal we have

0 = L = J = i ( ) (2.3)

and so
J = i ( ) (2.4)
Similarly,

= ei (2.5)
= e i
(2.6)

leaves the Dirac field Lagrangian unaltered with conserved current

J = (2.7)

2.1.4 Exercise

Derive the equations of motion for each of the Scalar, Maxwell and Dirac field cases from the Lagrangians
above. Derive the conserved current for the global U (1) symmetry of the complex scalar field and Dirac field
and the corresponding charge density operator.

7
Chapter 3

Abelian gauge theory

The free charged scalar/fermion fields Lagrangians are invariant under a global U (1) phase redefinition:

= g = g

where the group element g = eiq U (1) and R is a constant (a global parameter) and q is a scale
factor we will later identify with charge. The corresponding Noether Currents are:

JbKG

= iq((x) (x) (x) (x) )
JbD = q(x) (x)
These Noether currents and the respective time component charges are conserved due to the global symmetry.
We now generalise this to a local phase redefinition.

3.1 Local U (1) symmetry:

Now let (x ) such that (x ) and g(x) eiq(x) are functions of spacetime. This is a local U (1)
transformation. In the case of the complex scalar field

= eiq(x) = g(x)
= eiq(x) = g (x)

However, this does not allow L0KG to be invariant under local U (1) symmetry since


(x) = eiq(x)



= eiq(x) + iq (x)
6= eiq(x) which is needed for invariance

We need a covariant derivative that transforms non-trivially to absorb the additional (x) piece. If we
define the derivative such that:
D = g(x)D g (x)
then
D D = g(x)D g (x)g(x) = g(x)D
and the Lagrangian will be invariant. This can be achieved by adding a field A also transforming non-
trivially in a way that absorbs the (x) piece:

D = + iqA (x) (3.1)

Then


D (x) = + iqA (x) eiq(x) (x) (3.2)



= g(x) + iq[A (x) + ( (x))] (x) (3.3)

8
Thus, if we define the transformation law for A as

A (x) = A (x) (x) (3.4)

we obtain D = g(x)D as required.

This is just a gauge transformation of the vector potential A !

If we couple a globally U (1) symmetric theory to a gauge field A by this covariant derivative one ends up
with a locally symmetric U (1) theory. This way of coupling a gauge potential to a matter field is traditionally
called principle of minimal coupling. In the context of gauge theories it is deduced from the local invariance
property.
The free Klein-Gordon Lagrangian becomes

L0KG LKG = (D ) (D ) m2
= [( iqA ) ]( + iqA ) m2
= + iq( )A iqA + q 2 A A m2
= L0KG + LInteraction

where we define LInteraction as

LInteraction JbKG

A + q 2 A A
Now we see that our theory which is invariant under local gauge transformations is promoted to an interacting
theory. Hence we conclude locally symmetric theories induce uniquely defined interaction properties.

Local gauge symmetry matter-gauge field interaction

3.1.1 Gauge action

The dynamics of the gauge field A is induced in the standard way:

F = A A = (i/q)[D , D ] (tutorial)
1
LMaxwell = F F
4
where F is constructed to be gauge invariant as it is symmetric under a U (1) gauge transformation:
A A = A .

3.2 Scalar electrodynamics

The full Lagrangian to describe a free complex scalar field is thus given by

L = LMaxwell + LKG = LMaxwell + L0KG + LInteraction

This is known as Scalar Electrodynamics. It is the first example of a non-trivial field theory based on a
commuting symmetry group and is hence an example of an Abelian Gauge Theory.
R
The field equations are obtained by the principle of least action S = 0 from the action S = d4 x L . The
gauge covariant field equation for the complex scalar field is

(D D + m2 ) = 0
L

L
For the gauge field A we find from A = A

F = 2 A ( A ) = J ,

9
with
LInt
J =
A
= iq( D D )
= JbKG 2q 2 A
We see that J is the covariant generalisation of the Noether Current:

D
JbKG J
Along with the Bianchi Identity
F + F + F = 0
the gauge field equation of motion leads to Maxwells equations.

3.3 Quantum electrodynamics

We now consider the case of a fermion fields
(x) (x) = g(x)(x)

(x) (x) = (x)g (x)
along with the covariant derivative given in the last lecture
D = + iqA
The covariant Dirac field Lagrangian is
L0D LD = i D m
= i m + LInt
= L0D + LInt

LInt = J A with J = Q

As before the kinetic term for the gauge field is given by the Maxwell Lagrangian. The full locally invariant
Lagrangian is now
L = LMax + LD = LMax + L0D + LInt

The field equation for the Dirac field is

(iD
/ m)(x) = 0

and as before the gauge field equation is,

F = 2 A ( A ) = J .

Remarks

1. To solve 2 A ( A ) = J we cannot invert the operator and thus we must introduce a

gauge-fixing term:
LG.F. = ( A )2 (see tutorial)

2. We are unable to add a photon mass term since it is not gauge invariant
1 2 A =A 1 1
Lmass = m A A m2 (A A 2A + A ) 6= m2 A A
2 2 2
Mass terms of gauge bosons destroy gauge invariance !!!

10
Chapter 4

Feynman rules

Feynman rules generate a perturbative expansion of the theory around the non-interacting (and solvable)
free field limit.
The rules are easiest to obtain from the Feynman path integral formalism, however a careful treatment is
beyond the scope of this course. It suffices to state that a rigorous derivation exists (see MQFT for example),
and here it is informative to work by analogy to a toy model that enables explanation of the structure with
minimal detail.

4.1 Path integral approach

We illustrate the approach with a toy example. Greens functions of scalar field theory are given by the path
integral
Z
1 R 4
G( n)(x1 , . . . , xn ) = D(x1 ) . . . (xn )ei d xLKG [] (4.1)
N
Z
1 R 4 0 R 4 int
= D(x1 ) . . . (xn )ei d xLKG [] ei d xLKG [] (4.2)
N
(4.3)

Here, L0KG [] = 12 21 2 2 is quadratic in the field and the path integral falls to Gaussian integration
in the diagonal basis of the Klein-Gordon operator.
However, in the presence of Lint
KG
= 4 , the theory is non-linear and we must treat this as a perturbation.

4.2 Toy model

We can make considerable progress by simply taking as a number variable, not a field.
Consider approximating the integral
Z
1 4
(n)
G = dn ei 2 A ei (4.4)

Observe that if we define a generating functional

Z
1 4
W [J] = dei 2 A ei eiJ

with non-interacting limit Z

1
0
W [J] = dei 2 A eiJ = W [J]|=0

11
then we can generate all correlation functions by differentiating with respect to the source J

dn 
G(n) = W [J] 
d(iJ) n 
J=0

dn d4
i d(iJ) 
= e 4
W 0
[J] (4.5)
d(iJ) n 
J=0

After completing the square i 21 A+iJ = i 12 A(+A1 J)2 i 21 JA1 J the integral W 0 [J] can be performed
by Gaussian integration (if we add an i2 term to give a negative real part to exponent) and gives
1 1
W 0 [J] = N ei 2 J(A+i) J

where N is a new, and also irrelevant normalisation.

4.2.1 Propagator

We then have the free propagator (two point correlation function)

R 1
(2) d2 ei 2 A
Gfree = R 1
dei 2 A

d2 
i 12 JA1 J 
= 2
e 
d(iJ) J=0

d 1  1  1 1 
= A J + JA1 ei 2 JA J 
d(iJ) 2 J=0
= iA1 (4.6)

4.2.2 Free four point function

Our toy model can be made to go remarkably far by giving different derivatives unique labels: when dealing
with a true path integral our derivatives become functional derivatives and the label corresponds to a space
time coordinate.
Observe, where we track the four derivatives with respect to J via suffixes a, b, c, d
d4 1 1
D4 W 0 [J] = ei 2 JA J (4.7)
d(iJ)4
d3 1  1 1
 i 1 JA1 J
= 3
Aa? J + JA?a e 2
d(iJ) 2
 
d2 1  1 1
1  1  1
1 1 1
i 1 JA1 J
= i A ab + Aba + A a? J + JA ?a A b? J + JA ?b e 2
d(iJ)2 2 2 2
  1
12 i A1 1 1
ab + Aba 2 Ac? J + JA?c
1

d 21 i A1ac + Aca
1 1
2 A
1 1
b? J + JA?b
i 1 JA1 J
e 2
=
d(iJ) 
1 1
2 Aa? J + 
1 1
JA?a 2 Abc + Acb1 1


21 A1 a? J + JA 1 1
?a 2 A 1
b? J + JA 1 1
?b 2 A 1
c? J + JA 1
?c
1

iAab iA1
cd + iA 1
ac iA 1
bd + iA 1
ad iA 1
bc 1
= i 12 JA J
1
 1  1
1 1
. . .  1
1 1
 1
1 1 1
e
2 Aa? J + JA?a 2 Ab? J + JA?b 2 Ac? J + JA?c 2 Ad? J + JA?d
Where we preserved only the two terms of interest in the last step.
We now consider a free four point function G4 :

(4) d4 
i 21 JA1 J 
Gfree = e  (4.8)
d(iJ)4 J=0
= iA1 1 1 1 1 1
ab iAcd + iAac iAbd + iAad iAbc (4.9)
This is directly related to the three regular Wick contractions of four field insertions.
The Wick contraction is automatically generated by the combinatorics in the differentiation.

12
4.2.3 Perturbative expansion

We can now expand in the coupling

d4
i d(iJ) d4
e 4
W 0 [J] = (1 i )W 0 [J] 1 + iLint )W 0 [J]
d(iJ)4 KG

As interaction terms are local a field theory, we consider all derivatives as equivalent in the last term
 
d4 0 1  1  1
1 1
 1
1 1
 1
1 1 1
i 1 JA1 J
i )W [J] i A e? J + JA ?e A e? J + JA ?e Ae? J + JA ?e A e? J + JA ?e e 2
d(iJ)4 2 2 2 2

If we now form the O(1 ) piece of G4 (formally the connected O(1 ) piece as we dropped some terms)
  
d4 1  1  1
1 1
 1
1 1
 1
1 1
i 1 JA1 J 
4
G = i Ae? J + JA?e Ae? J + JA?e Ae? J + JA?e 1
Ae? J + JA?e e 2 
d(iJ)4 2 2 2 2 
J=0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


iAea iA eb iAec iAed + iAea iAeb iAed iAec


iA1 1 1 1
+ iA1 1 1 1


ea iAec iAeb iAed ea iAed iAeb iAec


1
1 1 1
iAea iAec iAed iAeb1
+ iAea iAed iAec iAeb
1 1 1

= i ... (4.10)



iA1
eb iA1 1 1
ec iAed iAea + iA1 eb iA1
ed
1
iAec iA1
ea

1 1 1


iA1 1
ec iAeb iAed iAea + iA1 1 1
ed iAeb iAec iAea

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
iAec iAed iAeb iAea + iAed iAec iAeb iAea

In this case the symmetrisation created by different ways to take derivatives creates an overall factor of 4!
in the vertex rule i4!.
The above toy model bears a direct mapping to the formal derivation in a path integral context where , A, J
all becomes functions of a space-time coordinate. When A becomes a differential operator, it is diagonal in
the momentum basis and the separate Gaussian integrals for each mode may be performed just as above.
Our lessons can be summarised
Propagator rules: take i times inverse of operators in quadratic terms in L0

Interaction vertex rules: differentiate iLint w.r.t. each field. Differentiation automatically symmetrises

4.3 Feynman Rules and Feynman Diagrams

Quantum field theory leads to computational Feynman rules to evaluate the Smatrix elements: Sif =
b i where Sb is the scattering operator (see further lectures). Each term in a Lagrangian that contains
hi|S|f 
products of fields, 1 , . . . , N ; j , , A , leads to an n-point vertex :
We outline a procedure for determining the Feynman rules in a four dimensional relativistic Field theory.
P
1. Break the Lagrangian into a sum of distinct terms L = j Lj
These will be composed of
a) quadratic terms which define the free theory around which we expand
b) higher order terms defining the non-linear interaction Lagrangian
R
2. For each term express d4 xL| in terms of incoming momenta e.g. (x) = eiq x (qa )
Translational invariance of Lagrangian gives an Poverall momentum conserving delta function
Replaces ik and multiplies by (2 4 ) 4 ( q).
3. Take functional derivatives with respect to corresponding set of fields (kb )

13
 3 (x3) 4 (x4)

1 (x1)  Z 

V1 ...n (x1 , . . . , xn ) = i d4 xL
1 (x1 ) n (xn )

2 (x2)
n (xn)
produces same combinatorial factors/symmetrisation as above toy model suggests
For propagator take i (2-vertex)1 setting
For interaction vertex take i n-vertex

It may take working out an example to see that the combinatorics of (i) an un-motivated functional differ-
entiation and (ii) the combinatorics of the (toy model for) path integral above, work out the same.
To illustrate this we will apply the method to the scalar propagator for L0KG = 12 21 2 2

4.3.1 Full speed

Step 2:
1
(q1 )(q1 q2 + 2 )(q2 )(2)4 4 (q1 + q2 )
2
Step 3:
i(k k 2 )1

Now the Feynman propagator is

i
G(k) =
k k 2
k
i
G(k) =
k2 m2 + i

4.3.2 Slow motion replay

Step 2:
Z Z  
1 1 2 2
d4 xL0KG = 4
d x (x) (x) (x)
2 2
Z Z Z  
4 4 4 1 iq2 x iq2 x 1 2 iq2 x iq2 x
= d q1 d q2 d x (q1 )e e (q2 ) (q1 )(q2 )e e
2 2
Z Z   Z
1 1
= d4 q1 d4 q2 q1 q2 (q1 )(q2 ) 2 (q1 )(q2 ) d4 xeiq2 x eiq2 x
2 2
Z Z  
1 1
= d4 q1 d4 q2 q1 q2 2 (q1 )(q2 )(2)4 4 (q1 + q2 ) (4.11)
2 2

Step 3:
4 (q1 k1 ) 4 (q2 k2 )
Z Z Z
1 1
d4 xL0KG = d4 q1 d4 q2 q1 q2 2 (2)4 4 (q1 + q2 )
(k1 ) (k2 ) 2 2 + 4 (q1 k2 ) 4 (q2 k1 )
2 4 4

= k1 k2 (2) (k1 + k2 )
k k 2

Where for the last step we either integrate over k2 or simply know that we will take k1 = k2 = k to conserve
momentum in the propagator.

14
4.3.3 Feynman rules for QED

Note that momentum is conserved at each vertex.

i) Fermion propagator

Step 1:
/ m)
L0Dirac = (i

Step 2:

(k)(/
k m)(k)

Step 3:
i
S(k) =
/
km

k
!
k/ + m  i 
S(k) =i 2 =
k m2 + i k/ m

ii) Gauge boson propagator

Step 1:
1 1
L0Maxwell + Lgaugefix = ( A A )( A A ) A A
4 2
Step 2:
1 1
(q1 A (q1 ) q1 A (q1 ))(q2 A (q2 ) q2 A (q2 )) + q1 A (q1 )q2 A (q2 )
4 2
Step 3:  
2 1
k g
+ k k (1 ) D (k) = g

k k
g + (1 ) k2
D (k) = i
k2
k
i  k k

D (k) = g
+ 1
k 2 + i k 2 i
1
Here stems from a gauge fixing term (LGauge Fixing = 2 ( A )2 , see tutorial):

=1 Feynman Gauge
=0 Landau Gauge

In the Landau gauge, D (k) obeys transversality condition, k D (k) = 0.

Note: For simplicity we have not discussed the i term that is normally used in propagators. This called
the Feynman prescription (or simply the i prescription) and it ensures causality.

iii) eeA-vertex

Step 1:
LeeA = e A is the interaction given in the Lagrangian with as the electron field
This is point-like. The Fourier space vertex is momentum independent since the Fourier transform of a point
is uniform in momentum space.

15
Step 2:

e(k1 ) (k2 )A (k3 )

Step 3:

ie( )

Diagrammatically we have

ie( )

4.3.4 External particles and external lines

We adopt the convention of having the charge and momentum parallel in the electron and anti-parallel in
the positron.

Incoming Outgoing
k k
electron: [us (k)] [us (k)]

k k
positron: [v s (k)] [vs (k)]

k k

photon: (k)
(k)

Spin and polarisation sums

If we are interested in the unpolarised cross-section only, we must average over the initial states and sum
over all polarisations and spins for the unspecified final states.

initial states final states

1X 1 X
spins us us = k/ us us = k/
2 s 2
s
1 X 1 X
polarisations = g + = g +
2 2

These summations convert a Feynman amplitude involving fermions into traces of slashed vectors

4.3.5 Dirac matrix manipulation

When conjugating terms involving spinors to square the amplitude we need the following:

0 = 0
5 = 5

0 0 =

16
Spin averaging Fermion line terms leads to Dirac traces. We give some rules for calculating such traces (see
tutorial for more).
In doing so we apply the Clifford algebra property


, = 2g

Using this we find for example




tr /p1 /p2 = tr /p1 , /p2
tr /p1 /p2

= 2 p2 tr /p1 tr /p1 /p2

Other useful properties:

a/ = 2/a
a//b = 4(a b)1
a//b/c
= 2/c/ba
/

tr a //bc/d
/
= 4 a b
c d a c b d + a d b c
tr a //b
= 4 ab
tr a
/1 a
/2k1 = 0

The following are useful when we come to deal with W and Z boson couplings:


tr
= 4(g g g g + g g )
tr 5 = 4i

= 2

4.3.6 Loop diagrams

When there is a loop in a diagram, one momentum is free (not conserved); we must integrate over the free
loop momentum.

Z
d4 q

(2)4

In the case of a fermion loop, we multiply the corresponding diagram by (1).

As an example, consider

Z
d4 q tr[/1(q/1+ m)/2(q/2+ m)/3(q/3+ m)/4(q/4+ m)]
= e4
(2)4 (q12 m2 )(q22 m2 )(q32 m2 )(q42 m2 )

4.4 Lorentz invariant phase space

Fermis Golden Rule states that a transition rate depends on both a transition amplitude and on the density
of final states. The Lorentz invariant phase space for n final state particles is

n
X n
Y d3 kj
d[LIPS](k1 , . . . , kn ) = (2)4 (4) (pinitial ki )
i=1 j=1
(2)3 2Ej

17
Where Ej2 = |kj |2 + m2j satisfies the on-shell energy momentum relation. The above is all that is required
for calculation, however, the Lorentz invariance is manifest when re-written as
n
X Yn
+ (kj2 m2j )d4 kj
d[LIPS](k1 , . . . , kn ) = (2)4 (4) (p1 + p2 ki )
i=1 j=1
(2)3

where

+ (kj m2j ) (kj0 )(kj2 m2j )

=(kj0 )((kj0 j )(kj0 + j ))
(kj0 ) q
= (kj0 j ) where j = k2j m2j
2j

4.4.1 Cross-section phase space

We need Lorentz invariant cross-sections for 2 particles scattering two n final state particles.

p1 k1

b 1 p2 i = hf |S|ii
hk1 , . . . , kn |S|p b

p2 kn

n
X  2
b =
hf |S|ii f i (2) 4 (4)
(p1 + p2 kj )Mif 
|{z} j=1
needed for f =i

The general differential cross-section is

 
d = p Mif 2 d[LIPS](k1 , . . . , kn )
2 2
2 (s, m1 , m2 )

Here p21 = m21 , p22 = m22 , s = (p1 + p2 )2 , and is the symmetry factor, which avoid overcounting in case of
identical particles in the final state. For n identical particles in the final state it is = 1/n!. For two sets
(n1 , n2 ) of identical particles it is = 1/(n1 !n2 !).
The Kaellen Function is defined by:

(s, m21 , m22 ) =s2 + m41 + m42 2s(m21 + m22 ) 2m21 m22


=s s 2(m21 + m22 ) + (m21 m22 )2

When s m1 , m2 we have
 2
d = Mif  d[LIPS](k1 , . . . , kn )
2s

For exam purposes only this limit need be remembered

4.4.2 Decay phase space

Decay of a particle with mass M : p2 = M 2

18
 k1

kn

n
X  2
b = f i (2)4 (4) (p1 + p2
hk1 , . . . , kn |S|pi kj )Mif 
j=1

d in the rest frame of the decaying particle where p = (M, 0)

 2
d = Mif  d[LIPS](k1 , . . . , kn )
2M

19
Chapter 5

Leading order processes

Calculating leading order processes is a key part of this course.

We will typically consider processes involving one or two initial state particles and two final state particles

1 2 : Decay of a single particle to two particles

2 2 : Scattering and annihilation processes with two initial particles

I will discuss some cases with three body final states (muon decay, 3-jet events) but WILL NOT expect
students to perform the phase space integrals.
While the details vary all such calculations follow a similar pattern

Step 1 : Draw all Feynman graphs that can contribute, labelling external states and mo-
menta
Step 2 : Use Feynman rules to evaluate the amplitude iM
We following the fermion lines against the charge flow and sum all graphs.
Step 3 : Evaluate |M|2 and perform spin/polarisation sums if seeking unpolarised cross
section
Step 4 : Phase space, integrate final state momenta removing momentum conserving delta
functions. Often involves conversion to spherical polars.

We will now consider a specific example.

5.1 Compton Scattering

Historically Compton scattering described X-ray diffraction, and the energy-momentum loss of the photon
translated to a correct prediction of the shift in wavelength of scattered rays, and reaffirming the particle
nature of light.
This involves external gaugebosons, external fermions, and a two-to-two process.

5.1.1 Step 1: Feynman graphs

We dentify the Feynman diagrams which lead to the following initial and final states:

(q, ) + e (k, s) (q , ) + e (k , s )

At order e2 , two such diagrams exist:

20
 q k

q k

G1 ) G2 ) kq
k
k+q q

k q

We can choose the center of mass frame with momentum 4-vectors.

s
s

k= 1, 0, 0, 1 , q= 1, 0, 0, 1
2 2

s
s

k = 1, 0, sin , cos , q = 1, 0, sin , cos
2 2
Energy-momentum is conserved, and this becomes manifest in a delta function arising when integrating the
Lorentz invariant phase space.

k q

5.1.2 Step 2: Evaluate amplitude

Following the fermion lines against the charge flow and using the above Feynman rules allows us to write
the amplitudes analytically. The amplitude of a process is just the sum of the relevant diagrams:

iMe e k (ie ) k/+/qim (ie )uk q

= u q
i
k (ie ) k//q m (ie )uk q q
+ u

using a shorthand uk u(k, s) for external states.

We will take the massless limit:
s = (k + q)2 = k 2 + 2k q + q 2 2q k
t = (k q )2 = k 2 2k q + q 2k q .

G1 is an s-channel diagram and G2 is a t-channel diagram, s and t are the Mandelstamm Variables.
h / i
k +q k q
/ /
iM = k 2kq/ 2kq
ie2 u
uk q q

5.1.3 Step 3: Square amplitude and sum polarisations

In a scattering cross-section, we need to know the |amplitude|2 which is interpreted as the probability that
a given initial state will lead to a certain final state.

21
We can write the conjugate amplitude as
h i
(/ q )
k +/ (/
k / q )
iM = ie2 uk 2kq 2kq
0 uk q q
h i
(/
k +/
q) (/ q )
k /
= ie2 uk 0 0 0 0 2kq 0 0 0 0 0 0 2kq

0 0 0 u k q q
h / i
k +q / /
k q
= ie2 uk 2kq/ 2kq
uk q q

and so
h / i h / i
k+ q k q
/ / k+ q k q
/ /
|M|2 = e4 uk 2kq/ 2kq k 2kq/ 2kq
uk u uk q q q q

 2
The spin/polarisation dependence in M is obtained by using the expressions for us , us , ,
unpolarised probability found by averaging initial and summing final spins and polarisations

The spin/polarisation sums produce factors of k/ and g

We must carefully track indices so that the left side of k/ contracts with the same matrix
that uk did, while the right side of k/ contracts with the same index u k did.
This leads to a trace.
Each fermion line leads to a separate trace, and graphs with several fermion lines will
give the product of several traces.

P P n h / i h / io
k+ q k q
/ / k+ q k q
/ /
1
2
1
2 |M|2 = 1 4
4 e Tr k/ 2kq/ 2kq / 2kq/ 2kq
k (g )(g )
s,s ,

1
The four terms must be evaluated using trace rules .

Tr[/ k + q/) k/ (/
k (/ k + /q) ] = 4Tr[/
k (/k + q/)/k (/
k + /q)]
= 16Tr[2k (k + q)k q k k 2k q]
= 32(k q)(k q)
= 32(k q)(k q),
and similarly

Tr[/
k (/ k /q ) ] =
k /q ) k/ (/ 32(k q)(k q).
For the other traces we have:

Tr[/
k (/ q ) k/ (/
k/ k + /q) ] = 2Tr[/ k /q )(/
k k/ (/ k + /q) ]

= k k/](k q ) (k + q)
8Tr[/
= 32(k k)(k q ) (k + q)
2
Now we have
(k q ) (k + q) = k2 + k q k q q q
= k2 + k q k q k k
= k (k + q q k )
= 0.
Similarly,

Tr[/ k + /q) k/ (/
k (/ k /q ) ] = 0.
Thus, h i
1
P 1
P (kq) (kq )
2 2 |M|2 = 2e4 (kq) + (kq)
s,s , h i
t s
= 2e4 +
hs it
s2 +t2
= 2e4 s(t)

1 since momentum conservation gives k q = k q we have k q = k q

2 momentum conservation also gives (k k )2 = 2k k = (q q)2 = 2q q

22
5.1.4 Step 4: Phase space

We wish to compute the differential cross-section:

1 1 X  2  3
M (2)4 (4) (q + k q k ) d k 1 d3 q 1
d =
2s 4
(2)3 2Ek (2)3 2Eq
s,s ,,

where we have multiplied by the Lorentz Invariant Phase Space.

Recall we have taken me 0 approximation, and so

k 2 = k 2 = q 2 = q 2 ,

and
Ee = |k| ; E = |q| ; Ee = |k | ; E = |q |
As usual, we can immediately perform the q integral, obtaining the momentum conservation constraint
q = q + k k = k , and
 P  2 
d = 1 1 M (2)(Ee + E Ee E ) d3 k3 1 1
2s 4 (2) 2E e 2E .
s,s ,,

The energy conserving -function will constrain the magnitude of k , and we convert to spherical polar
coordinates for the k integral
 P  2 
d = 1 1 M 1 2 1
2s 4
,,
(2)2 ( s 2|k |)k dk dd(cos ) 4k2
s,s
P  2  1 s
= 1 1 1 M
(2)2 8s 4 2 ( 2 k )dk dd(cos )
s,s ,,

Note,
s

t = (k q )2 = 2k.q = 1 + cos
2
giving the amplitude as

2
X  2
1 M = e2 4 + 1 + cos
4
1 + cos
s,s ,,
1
So we see that |M|2 has no dependence and the dk and d integrals are simple giving k = 2 s and
 P  2  1
d = 32s 1 1 M
4 2 d(cos )
s,s ,,

This gives a famous result

2
d e2 4+ 1+cos
d(cos ) = 32s 1+cos

Note that the case of backscattering, cos 1, would lead to a divergence.

However, in this case our approximation |t| m2 is violated, and for this reason we do not integrate over .
Keeping the full mass dependence would regulate this divergence.

23
Chapter 6

Review of Lie Groups

In order to generalise abelian U(1) gauge theory to non-abelian gauge groups, we need to understand the
properties of the SU (N ) class of Lie groups and the corresponding su(N ) Lie algebras.
Lie Groups are a set of continuous groups that are also a differentiable manifold (surface), and in which the
group multiplication and inverse are smooth functions.
This should be familiar from Symmetries of Quantum Mechanics, but both pragmatic realism and history
suggest a refresher chapter is a healthy component of this course.
The concepts of generators and matrix exponentiation can be introduced in the simpler context of the x-y
plane rotation group SO(2) which is isomorphic to U (1) (de Moivres theorem!).

6.1 Generator of translations

The derivative is the generator of translations. When exponentiated a finite translation is induced as follows:

1 f (x) 2 f (x)
e f (x) = 1 + + 2 + . . . = f (x + )
1! 2!

6.2 Matrix exponentiation in SO(2)

Consider rotation of (r, ) to (r, + ).
   
r cos( + ) (cos cos sin sin )
= r
r sin( + ) (sin cos + cos sin )
  
cos sin r cos
=
sin cos r sin
   
cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 sin 2 r cos
=
sin 2 cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 r sin
...
 N  
cos N sin N r cos
=
sin N cos N r sin
 N  
1 N r cos
(6.1)
N 1 r sin

General rotation matrix is  

cos sin
R() = (6.2)
sin cos

24
Infinitesimal rotation matrix through angle is
 
0 1
1+ (6.3)
1 0

Direction one can take away from the unit matrix 1 while staying in the rotation group is
 
0 1
= (6.4)
1 0


This is the tangent matrix at 1 i.e. dR()
d  = .
=0

Define the exponential of a matrix via the usual power series for exp
   N
0 ( )1 ( )2
exp =1+ + . . . = lim 1 + (6.5)
0 1! 2! N N

This builds up a finite rotation as the composition of a large number of infinitesimal rotations. The infinites-
imal rotations are built out of , and is called the generator of rotations.

6.2.1 Exponential of general Hermitian matrix

Consider a matrix D = diag(1 , . . . , n ). Then DN = diag(N N

1 , . . . , n ).

 N  
iD D 1 N n N
e = lim 1 + i = lim diag (1 + i ) , . . . , (1 + i )
N N N N N
i1 in


= diag e , . . . , e (6.6)

Recall that any Hermitian (symmetric) matrix H is diagonalisable. That is

P such that P 1 HP = D = diag(1 , . . . , n ).

Then
 N
H
eiH = lim1+i
N N
 N
D
= lim P 1 + i P 1
N N


= P diag ei1 , . . . , ein P 1 (6.7)

and similarly,


eH = P diag e1 , . . . , en P 1 (6.8)

6.3 Generators of SU(N)

SU (N ) is the space of complex matrices G CN N for which det G = 1 and G G = 1N N .

For SU (N ) we relate the group element G to a generator as

G = ei

. In the vicinity of 1 the deviations of a matrix from 1 are in some tangent space; we take the generators as
a complete basis, lying in and spanning this sub-space.

25
Hermitian
Consider a matrix in the vicinity of 1, G = 1 + i ; this must be unitary

(1 + i ) (1 + i ) = (1 i )(1 + i )
= 1 + i( ) . . .
= 1 (6.9)

Thus = and is Hermitian1 .

Traceless
The determinant of a matrix in the vicinity of 1 must remain one. The determinant through O() is

det(1 + i ) = 1 + itr + O(2 ) . . . = 1

Thus the generators must be traceless.

Normalisation
Conventionally the generators satisfy a trace orthonormality condition
1 ab
Tr a b = .
2

Dimension The number of linearly independent generators must equal the dimension of the space.
For SU(N), hermiticity requires that the diagonal element be real and tracelessness implies there are N 1
2
free parameters on the diagonal. The off-diagonal elements are constrained by Hermiticity: there are N 2N
off-diagonal elements, each of which has two parameters. The dimension of the traceless hermitian space of
generators is thus
N2 N
N2 1 = 2 + (N 1)
2
We label some basis for this space a .
Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff
The idea that the group also be a differentiable manifold, or surface is connected to the concept of connecting
the logarithm of the group element (define by its Taylor series) to a coordinate in the linear space spanned
by the Lie algebra. The additive space of this Lie Algebra is augmented by the Lie Product that we will
introduce later.
We might therefore ask what the action of group product looks like in terms of the corresponding Lie algebra
coordinate. That is, consider solving in the neighbourhood of the identity (small A,B,C) the following:

eA eB = eC .

If the group is abelian and we Taylor expand

C2 A2 B2
1+C+ . . . = (1 + A + )(1 + B + )
2 2 2
A2 + B 2 + AB
= 1 + (A + B) + ...
2
B2 A2
= (1 + B + )(1 + A + )
2 2
A2 + B 2 + BA
= 1 + (A + B) + ...
2
and so
AB = BA
1 Here the choice of the exponential ei is important. For a real group such as SO(N ) it is more convenient to relate

these as e where the are real. It is left as an exercise to show that in this notation, for SO(N ) the generators are real,
anti-symmetric and so there are N(N1)
2
generators in SO(N ).

26
and our generators must commute. For a non-abelian group A and B may be non-commutative,

C2 A2 B2
1+C+ . . . = (1 + A + )(1 + B + )
2 2 2
2
(A + B) 1
= 1 + (A + B) + + (AB BA) . . .
2 2
(A + B)2 1
= 1 + (A + B) + + [A, B] . . .
2 2
Thus, if we take C = (A + B) + 12 [A, B] . . . we have the first term in the Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff formula,
which expands the correction to linearity in increasing powers of commutators.
A group is closed under product. As a Lie group should have a smooth product the product eA eB should
therefore also correspond to an element of the Lie Algebra C lying in the space spanned by the generators.
Thus, order by order, the commutators involved in the CBH should lie in Lie Algebra. The commutator is
often called the Lie Product.
Structure Constants
If the group is non-abelian it will support non-zero structure constants fabc and as we the Lie Group
product must retain the mapping to elements of the Lie Algebra Campbell Baker Hausdorff implies that the
generators of a Lie group should have commutators that lie in space additively spanned by the generators.

[a , b ] = ifabc c (6.10)

The factor of i is related to our choice of G = ei .

The structure contants are totally anti-symmetric: they are clearly anti-symmetric in the first two indices
due to the commutator. For total anti-symmetry the trace orthonormality, and the cyclic property of the
trace, gives cyclic symmetry for fabc 2itrc [a , b ], and this leads to total anti-symmetry.
For SU (N ) to be a Lie group, this must be true. But it is not a given that SU (N ) is a Lie group, so: why
is this the case for SU (N )?

The generators are traceless and Hermitian, and span the traceless Hermitian subspace of CN N
The commutator is necessarily traceless because the cyclic property gives tr(AB BA) = 0
h i
(i [a , b ]) = (i b , a ) = i [a , b ]

So i [a , b ] is traceless and Hermitian and can be written as a linear combination of the generators.

Thus for SU (N ) we must be able to write

[a , b ] = ifabc c (6.11)

The Lie Algebra is the additive space spanned by arbitrary linear combinations of generators

ca a su(N ) (lower case).

The multiplicative space of exponentials

exp[ica a ] SU (N ) (upper case).

of the Lie algebra is a subgroup of the Lie Group. These exponentials do not always span the whole group
e.g. the half of O(3) involving reflection is not continously connected to 1. For SU(N), however, the full
group is spanned by these exponentials.

27
6.3.1 SU(2)
j
SU(2) has 3 generators which are normalised versions of the Pauli matrices: j = 2
     
0 1 0 i 1 0
1 = ; 2 = ; 3 = (6.12)
1 0 i 0 0 1

Since
h a b i c
, = iabc
2 2 2
the SU(2) structure constants are abc .

6.3.2 SU(3)
a
SU(3) has 8 generators which are normalised Gell-Mann matrices: a = 2

0 1 0 0 i 0 1 0 0
1 = 1 0 0 ; 2 = i 0 0 ; 3 = 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 i
4 = 0 0 0 ; 5 = 0 0 0 (6.13)
1 0 0 i 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
6 = 0 0 1 ; 7 = 0 0 i ; 8 = 1 0
3
1 0
0 1 0 0 i 0 0 0 2

h a b i c
The algebra is: , = if abc with structure constants:
2 2 2
f 123 = 1
1
f 147 = f 246 = f 257 = f 345 = f 376 = f 516 =
q 2
f 458 = f 678 = 32
f other = 0

6.4 Representations
A d-dimensional representation R of a group is a Homomorphism DR mapping a group G to a space of
matrices Cdd (or Rdd )
DR (g G Cdd ) (6.14)
such that the matrix product (RHS) respects the group product (LHS):

DR (g1 g2 ) = DR (g1 )DR (g2 ) (6.15)

This is sufficient to ensure that the subspace of matrices consisting of the image of G are a well defined
group (identity/ inverse/closed under multiplication).
The representation R contains generators R Cdd , and these are specific to each representation. The R
are easily defined as 
d 
D (1 + ia a )
R
(6.16)
da a =0

i.e. via
D(1N N + ia ) = 1dd + i(aR )dd (6.17)

28
 6.4.1 Equivalence and reality

Two representations are equivalent if they are related by a unitary basis change

aR = U 1 TaR U

a a
Remembering the factor of i in ei , we categorise the reality of a representation R, if it is equivalent to
one in which reality of the exponent is:

real if R is the same as its complex conjugate R:

iaR = i(aR ) = iaR

under basis change:

pseudoreal if R is equivalent to its complex conjugate R

iaR = iV 1 (aR ) V = iV 1 (aR ) V

complex if R is inequivalent to its complex conjugate R:

iaR = i( R ) 6 iaR

6.4.2 Singlet representation

There is always a very trivial and boring representation of any group. This is called a singlet representation.

D(g) = 1dd g G (6.18)

Here, if d = 1 the representation is a mapping to real or complex numbers. If d > 1 the representation is to
matrices, but the singlet image of G consists of only the identity 1 in all cases.
States (i.e. wavefunctions) transformed by this representation not really transformed at all they are
unaltered by the symmetry transformation as it simply multiplies by one. For example, spin-0 states are
unaltered by rotations as they have no spin direction that needs to be rotated as the axes change.

6.4.3 Fundamental representation

Dfundamental(g) SU (N ) is the defining, or fundamental, representation.

States transformed by the fundamental D(g) have an index j with N components which are acted upon by
multiplication by this matrix, in the same way that a matrix multiplies a vector.
These states may, of course, have other components in tensor product with j. The multiplication by D(g)
is then of course done for each value of as one expects of tensors.
For example, we might consider a flavor triplet f (u, d, s) of Dirac fields with spin index . A SU(3) flavour
basis rotation f = gf f f is performed for each spin component . The field is a vector describing
each of the up, down and strange quark spinors.

6.4.4 Adjoint representation

This representation has Dadjoint (g) C(N 2 1)(N 2 1) and is defined by

Recall we introduced the covariant derivative D = + ieA , transforming as D = gD g .
If the group for g is promoted to a Lie group such as SU (N ), then A = Aa a lies in the Lie Algebra and
becomes a (heavily constrained) complex N N matrix.
For now we take g to be a global transformation so that not terms involving derivatives appear, we see that

A gA g

29
A field transforming like this is said to be in the Adjoint representation.
Viewed from the perspective of the N 2 1 real valued coefficents of the generators Aa , we can ask how these
components transform.
We may write for an infinitesimal transformation

(Ab ) b = (1 + i a )Ac c (1 i a )
= Ab b + i[ a , c ]Ac
= Ab b + ifacb Ab b
= Ab b ifabc Ab b

In terms of the adjoint field components Aa the field has been multiplied by the matrix 1(N 2 1)(N 2 1) +
i(T a )bc where
a
(Tadjoint )bc = if abc (6.19)

Gluon fields are in the adjoint representation of SU (3), and their transformation can equivalently be viewed
in terms of complex 3 3 or real 8 8 operations on the Lie Algebra.

6.4.5 Complex conjugated representation

Anti-particles transform as



j j = U j

= U j = Ujl l (6.20)

ia a
Here U = eia a =e and (U ) U = 1.
This conjugated fundamental representation has generators conj = a satisfying,
 conj conj     

a , b = a , b = a , b = if abc c = if abc c = if abc cconj

For N > 2 this is a new inequivalent representation of the Lie group. For SU(2), however, the fundamental
representation is pseudoreal,
 
0 1
= = i 2 , with 2 = 112 , = 1
1 0
and,
j 1 = ( j ) .
So that 1
U = eia Ta = eia Ta = eia T 1 = U 1
= U = U 1 1 = U 1
But, e.g.     
1 0 1 u d
= =
1 0 d u
is just a basis change and hence the two representations are equivalent for N = 2.
This fact implies that in SU (2) one can form two bilinear invariants:
U
(i) U U =

U
T
(ii) T U U = T U T U


= T U U
= T U 1 U
= T

This is important for the possible Higgs couplings and hence Fermion mass terms in the standard model.

30
Chapter 7

Analysis of SU(3)

The generators {i } can be put in a more useful basis.

I1 = 12 1 ; U1 = 12 4 ; V1 = 21 6
I2 = 12 2 ; U 1
2 = 2 5  ; V2 = 21 7  (7.1)

I3 = 12 3 ; U3 = 1
2 12 3 + 2
3
8 ; V3 = 1
2
1
2 3 + 2
3
8

Commutation relations:

[Ii , Ij ] = iijk Ik I spin
[Ui , Uj ] = iijk Uk U spin (7.2)
SU(2) subalgebras
[Vi , Vj ] = iijk Vk V spin

Eq A.19 shows that the topology of SU(2) is simple. Pick a given three dimensional unit vector; this defines
a linear combination of Pauli matrices. Traveling in any such direction through the group move simply along
a line combining ident with this matrix with period 2 (and 4 in terms of a rotation angle).
Considering the su(2) sub-algebras of su(3) is more entertaining. I1 , I2 , U1 , U2 , V1 , V2 look like three pairs of
x y planes, and are toroidal. However, the corresponding z-torii are lie at 60 degrees to each other as
I3 , U3 , V3 are not linearly independent.
Regardless we can define raising and lowering operators as before and investigate the states using our
knowledge of SU (2).

I = I1 iI2 (7.3)
U = U1 iU2 (7.4)
V = V1 iV2 (7.5)

Commutation relations

[I+ , I ] = 2I3 (7.6)

[U+ , U ] = 2U3 (7.7)
[V+ , V ] = 2V3 (7.8)

allow to raise and lower eigenvalues of (3 , 8 ) by amounts

I (3 , 8 ) = (1, 0) (7.9)

1 3
U (3 , 8 ) = ( , ) (7.10)
2 2
1 3
V (3 , 8 ) = ( , ) (7.11)
2 2
These are conceptually just like raising and lower operators for Sz but for SU(3) we have two simultaneously
diagonalisable spin directions.

31
 U+ V+

I 1 I+

V U

7.0.6 Construction of representations

Define a state of greatest weight |m i s.t. (analogous to | i)

I+ |m i = U+ |m i = V+ |m i = 0 (7.12)

Find new states by acting on |m i with I , U until you get 0, obtaining

n p
I |m i ; n = 0, . . . , p ; |I i = I |m i
n q (7.13)
U |m i ; n = 0, . . . , q ; |U i = U |m i

|I ! Ip |m !

Uq

|U !

Note using additional easily derived commutation relations that we did not write down gives

U+ (I )n |m i = V+ (I )n |m i = 0 (7.14)

and
I+ (U )n |m i = V+ (U )n |m i = 0 (7.15)

32
so that all these states also lie on the upper boundary of the allowed quantum numbers of the representation.
Generate new sequences Vn |I i and Vn |I i.

p
Im |m ! Ip |m !

Vq Uq

Vq Ip |U ! q
Um |m !

Vp

Vp Uq |U !

From these end points apply U and I and we have mapped out a boundary, constrained by I U V
symmetry to have three faces of length p + 1 and three faces of length q + 1.

Im
p
|m ! Ip |m !

Vq Uq

Vq Ip |m ! Um
q
|m !

Up Vp

Iq Vp Uq |m ! Iq Vp Uq |m !

Thus we find irregular hexagonal shapes satisfying 120 degree rotation symmetry (p 6= q 6= 0). Special cases
of a triangular representation occur when p 6= 0, q = 0 (particles ) or p = 0, q 6= 0 (anti-particles ). The
case p = q = 0 is the singlet case.
States in the interior may be found by applying raising/lowering operators to states on the boundaries.
When both p and q are non-zero, the interior can be shown to have degeneracy raised by one each time we
step inwards until a triangular interior is attained. For example, an octet has two states in the central point
( 0 , ). See Cheng and Li Chapter 4 for details. (At this level of detail, even Cheng and Li starts to get a
bit sketchy!)

33
The general expression for the number of states in the multiplet is

(p + q + 2)
N = (p + 1)(q + 1) (7.16)
2

7.1 Young Tableau

We have previously observed that the stepping between irreducible representations, where we find an or-
thogonal state to the space just explored by use of ladder operators, follows the symmetrisation and anti-
symmetrisation of indices. Young tableau provide a way to automate the generation of possible contractions
of indices, independent of the details of the group we are representing.
If N transforming fields are combined in a multi-particle state, N indices are represented by N boxes. Indices
in the same row represent symmetrisation, while indices in the same column are anti-symmetrised.
These turn out to generate precisely the different irreducible representations of the group.
The technique in combination with the magic formula Eq 7.16 that encodes the structure of SU(3) in terms
of integers p and q is sufficient to determine the irreducible representation decomposition and multiplicities
of arbitrary tensor products of representations of SU(3).
The general form of this formula is known for SU(N), but not necessary to discuss here. The tableau method
can, in fact, be used to generate both the formula for general SU(N) and also the list of states in each
representation, but this is beyond the scope of this course.

7.2 General Tableau

A general tableau is an arrangement of f boxes in rows and columns such that the length of rows does not
increase from top to bottom. Viewed from bottom to top it looks like a series of steps.
The index p is identified with the step (if any) from the first row to the second row. The index q is identified
with the step from the second row to the third row.
Some examples:
     
  (1, 1) = 8  (0, 0) = 1 (1, 0) = 3  (0, 1) = 3
 

7.3 Tensor products of representations

Formal rules are given in the handout, section 37 of the PDG manual.
In summary, for R1 R2 , the additional indices (boxes) from the R2 representation must be added to the
R1 Young Tableau in a fashion consistent with producing a proper new Young Tableau. with consistent
symmetrisation with that required by R2 .
When R2 consists of a single box, as can be usually the case if we select the order wisely, this simply requires
that we produce well formed Young Tableau.
The action of the QCD sector of the Standard Model becomes symmetric under SU(3) mixing of the up,
down, strange quark fields in the mass degenerate limit. As this limit is (only) approximately the case in the
real world, the composite states of the real world can be organised in the representations of this SU(3) mixing
symmetry in multiplets that are almost mass degenerate and predicted by the irreducible representations of
this SU(3) approximate symmetry.

34
Chapter 8

Quark model

Hadrons are particles that feel the strong force; they are classified as:

spin- 21 , 32 , . . . baryons: qqq

spin-0, 1, . . . mesons: q q

Prior to 1950s these consisted of p, n , , 0 where mp mn 1 GeV and m m0 140 MeV.

|{z} | {z }
spin-1/2 spin-0
 
|pi Iz = 12
We consider p (udu) and n (udd) in SU (2) an isospin doublet (fundamental representation 2) .
|ni Iz = 21

+ Iz = +1
The three pions are an isospin triplet ( 3 representation from 2 2 = 1 3) ): 0 Iz = 0
Iz = 1
Around 1950 new particles were observed K , , . . . , typically produced in pairs These were strangely
long lived but heavy particles, and acquired their lifetime because the strange quark could only decay via
weak interactions.
Rationalising the previously bizarre spectrum in terms of consituent quarks was a major triumph of group
theory.

1 3
spin 0 spin 2 spin 2
K0 sd p uud
++ uuu
ud n udd
+ dss
.. 0 uds
. sss
dss

Observations in the strong interaction

Baryon number (B), Lepton number (L), charge are conserved: they are related to symmetry under global
U (1) transformations:

= eiB B eiL L eiQ Q

We also note

Q is always measured in terms of electron charge

anti-particles have opposite B, L, Q quantum numbers

35
 B L Q
e 0 1 1 For example: quantum numbers for -decay
0 0 0
e 0 1 0 n p + e + e
n 1 0 0 B 1 = 1 + 0 + 0
p 1 0 1 L 0 = 0 + 1 + 1
0 0 0 0 Q 0 = 1 + 1 + 0
0 0 1

Patterns are naturally explained by introducing 3 underlying objects:

up quark |ui, down quark |di, strange quark |si; quarks come in different flavours.

B I I3 S Q
1 1 1 2
u /3 /2 /2 0 /3
1 1
d /3 /2 1/2 0 1/3
1
s /3 0 0 1 1/3
1 1
p uud 1 /2 /2 0 1
1
n udd 1 /2 1/2 0 0

1


Note: Q = I3 + 2 B + S where B + S = Y is called the Hypercharge.

Y Y
d u s

I3
I3

s u
d

particles anti-particles

8.1 Representation theory of composite states of u, d, s quarks

Consider the up, down, strange quark fields as a vector of Dirac fields f : f {u, d, s}. The action is

X
Lquark = f (iD
/ mf )f
f

Ignoring the gauge group for now, we can see that transforming the field as

f f = Uf f f (8.1)
f f = f (U )f f (8.2)

leaves the action invariant if (and only if) mu = md = ms , and U SU (3).

f is in the fundamental 3 representation of SU(3)
f is in the adjoint
3 representation of SU(3)

Bound states form SU(3) tensor product representations according to the number of quarks and anti-quarks
.
States in the same multiplet will have similar masses.

36
8.1.1 Meson octet/singlet: 3 3

These are composite states composed of a quark and anti-quark (mesons) and decompose as follows:


  
33=  =  (8.3)
 

= 81 (8.4)

0 , K 0 , .
This gives the meson octet with states we call + , 0 , + , K + , K , K

S
K0 K+

0 +
I3

K 0
K
Meson Octet (spin-0)

There is a meson flavor singlet state we call

8.1.2 Baryon decuplet/octet 3 3 3

Three quark states (baryons) decompose as follows:


33 =  =  (8.5)

= 3 6 (8.6)

Followed by
 

(
3 6) 3 =   (8.7)


   
=   (8.8)
 

= 1 8 8 10 (8.9)

This predicts both the baryon decuplet and the octet.

S S
0 + ++
n (udd) p (uud)

0 +
I3 0 +
I3
0

Baryon Decuplet (spin-3/2 ) Baryon Octet (spin-1/2 )

37
8.2 Third generation
md mu few MeV, and ms 100 MeV.
Note that md > mu mn > mp , else no chemistry possible!
Three more (heavier) quarks were discovered along with the -lepton in 1976 and in 2000.

charm c 1974, with mc 1.2 GeV

bottom/beauty b 1977, mb 5 GeV
top/truth t 1995, mt 175 GeV

8.3 Color charge

Curious thing about the ++ :

spin- 23 = | i symmetric spin state

charge ++ = |uuui symmetric flavor state

Pauli anti-symmetry? SU(3) color degree of freedom

Totally anti-symmetric color charge wavefunction |++ i |ijk ui uj uk i

We discover QCD is a SU(3) non-abelian gauge theory involving six quark flavors (three generations).

38
Chapter 9

SU(N) Yang-Mills theory

Non-abelian gauge theories Yang, Mills (1954)

Renormalizability Fadeev, Popov (1969)
SU(N) gauge theory involves a non-abelian gauge transformation group. Non-abelian gauge fields support
self interactions of the gauge bosons. Important realisations of such theories are:
SU (3)C QCD
SU (2)L U (1) Weinberg-Salam Model

The Dirac field transforms as a Fermion in the fundamental representation of SU (N ). Consider the free
Dirac Lagrangian density
L0D = i m
again with (in a condensed notation)

= U

= U

In the fundamental representation the field, , must be a N-vector, with each component being a spinor
field:
1
j as the SU (N ) index
... where j has
as the spinor index
N

Examples
qr
SU (3)C = qb
qg

with q {u, d, s, c, b, t} (the six quark flavours) and r = red, b = blue, g = green (three colours).
   
e u
SU (2)L L = ,
e L
d L

9.1 SU(N) Lagrangian

Construct Lagrangian density to be invariant under local group transformations g((x)) SU (N ).

= g((x)) = exp(igN a (x)T a ),

where

39
 g((x)) SU (N ) is an N N matrix in the Lie group
a (x)T a is in the Lie algebra su(N ) and is a linear combination of generators with a = 1, . . . , N 2 1
gN a coupling constant

Construct gauge covariant derivative D introducing N 2 1 gauge bosons A via minimal coupling
D = 11 + igN T a Aa
Sometimes write T a Aa as A , and D is matrix-valued in color indices.

[g, A ] 6= 0 !!!

For invariance under local transformations we have to require

D D = g(x)D g (x)

As in the Abelian case local group transformations are placed in one-to-one correspondence to gauge trans-
formations of gauge fields, and we define the gauge transformation property of A via

a i
A = T a A = Aa gT a g g g
gN
This results in the required property

+ igN A = + igN T a Aa
=g( g ) + gg + igN Aa gT a g
=g( + igN A )g
Using this derivative the Dirac Lagrangian is invariant under local group transformation and is now given
by:

LD =i ( + igN T a Aa ) m = L0D + LInt

where
LInt = gN T a A a = Ja A a
where the N 2 1 Noether currents
Ja = gN T a
couple to the gauge bosons.
For the gauge field action we choose our ansatz
i
F = [D , D ] where F T a F a .
gN
Evaluating this commutator (where a, b, c = 1, . . . , N 2 1) we have
[D , D ] =[ + igN Ta A a , + igN Tb A b ]

=[ , ] + [ , igN Tb A b ] + [igN Ta A a , ]
+ [igN Ta A a , igN Tb A b ]

=igN Tb ( A b ) igN Tb A b +
+ igN Ta A a igN Ta ( A a ) gN
2
A a A b [Ta , Tb ]

=igN Ta ( A a A a ) igN
2
fabc A a A b Tc

=igN Ta ( A a A a gN fabc A b A c )

40
Hence we read off that
Fa = A a A a gN fabc A b A c
This new term, gN fabc A b A c , leads to non-trivial interactions in the Yang-Mills theory and to a qualita-
tively different behaviour of the corresponding quantum field theory compared to the Abelian case.


Gauge invariance of tr F F follows from the transformation property of the covariant derivative:

D = gD g
which we can readily see
1
F = [D , D ]
gN
1
= [gD g , gD g ]
gN
1

= gD g gD g gD g gD g
gN
1

= gD D g gD D g
gN
1
= g[D , D ]g
gN
=gF g
As a result



tr F F = tr F F
This is the gauge invariant expression for the kinetic term.
The Yang-Mills Lagrangian is:
1

LYM = tr F F where F F a T a
2
1

= tr T a T b F a F b
2
1 1 ab
a b 1
= F F = F a F a
2 2 4
where
Fa = Aa Aa gN fabc Ab Ac
Note that the gauge boson acquires self-interaction due to the extra term in the Yang-Mills theory. Since
F acquires a term quadratic in the gauge fields, the action acquires additional terms involving three and
four gluon fields. The full Yang-Mills theory including interactions with Dirac Fermions has the Lagrangian:
L = LYM + LD

Remarks

Gauge bosons are charged only true in the Non-Abelian case!

self-interactions of the gauge fields and LYM is already an interacting theory
field eqns are nonlinear and difficult to solve (e.g. classical monopole and instanton solutions).
No gauge boson mass is allowed because mass terms M 2 Aa Aa are not gauge invariant.
Classical Yang-Mills theory is qualitatively different to the quantum field theory.
2
For instance, gN (Q2 )
2
0 where Q is some scale; this is known as asymptotic freedom
Q

Problem with long-range Yang-Mills interactions:

in principle, the massless boson has 1/R interaction
no long range gauge fields are observed apart from the photon (and graviton)
in nature, Yang-Mills gauge bosons are confined or massive
gN is the coupling between the fermions and gauge bosons and for self interactions of the gauge bosons
this property is known as universality of the gauge coupling and can be checked experimentally.

41
Chapter 10

Quantum Chromodynamics

We can now define the QCD sector of the Standard Model as this is an SU(3) gauge theory coupled to six
massive Dirac Fermions known as quarks.
Quark model and non-abelian g.t. Fritzsch, Gell-Mann, Leutwyler (1972/73)
Asymptotic freedom Gross, Politzer, Wilczek (1973)

a.) The quark model has state: ++ , bound states of 3 identical fermions, ++ u u u , which
is not compatible with the exclusion principle.
Motivates a distinguishing, extra label organised in an anti-symmetric way called colour:
X
++ ui uj uk ijk
i,j,k{b,r,g}

b.) (0 )


NC 2
3

If NC = 1 (1 colour), the theoretical prediction for decay rate is a factor of 10 too small (see tutorial).
c.) Quark dynamics must explain why no free quarks (confinement):
all hadrons are colour singlets (white)
non point-like substructure of hadrons observed in collider experiments parton model
hadrons made from partons (Feynman, Bjorken 1972 later indentified as quarks & gluons)

Following success of QED, it was attempted to describe quark dynamics with non-Abelian gauge theory.

e+ q

e q

QCD was formulated as an SU (3)C gauge theory with quarks (fermions) in the fundamental representation.

L = Lgluon + Lquarks + Lgaugefixing + Lghost

42
 2
N 1
1 X a a
Lgauge = F F where Fa = Aa Aa gfabc Ab Ac
4 a=1
1

= tr F F where F = Fa Ta
2

N
X X  
Lquarks = / mf qfj
qfi iD
ij
f i,j=1
flavours
 
where D = jk + igAa Tjk
a
. The gluon-quark interaction is induced by the covariant derivative.
jk

We need a gauge fixing term to arrive at an invertible gluon propagator.

1


Lgaugefixing = Ac Ac
2
Note that is is not unique, there are many possible choices.
The ghost sector, Lghost , is needed for the perturbative expansion of non-abelian gauge theories.

Lghost = a a + g( c )f abc Ab a

Fadeev-Popov ghost = complex scalar with wrong (i.e. fermionic) statistics. (i.e. closed loops
get a minus sign).
Ghost contribution compensates longitudinal degree of freedom in gluon loops in a covariant way.
Ghosts never appear as external particles in scattering amplitudes.
Ghost sector decouples in QED as fabc = 0.
For a proper derivation path integral methods (original) or BRS methods necessary ( MQFT ).

10.1 Asymptotic Freedom in QCD

(See MQFT) QCD is qualitatively different than classical field theory.

s s
QCD (classical) potential
Q2 r

Electrodynamics: 2
potential
Q r

However, the quantum effects change qualitatively the low energy behaviour. Lets consider the loop correc-
2
tions to the gluon propagator. These corrections are given to order s = gs/4 by

ab
(p) = = + + +
G1 G2 G3 G4

43
These diagrams correspond to divergent integrals. We must apply a regularisation and renormalisation pro-
cedure to deal with the divergencies. Observables will not depend on the chosen regulator. One approach is
dimensional regularisation where we evaluate these integrals in dimension = 4 2.

For the Feynman rule this would amount to (MS-scheme):

Z Z
d4 k 2 1 dn k
s MS
s
(2)4 (4)2 (1 + ) (2)n

1
As 0, divergences occur as poles.

The physics is unchanged under a reparameterisation of the coupling constant and fields

A Z3 A
rescaling doesnt change physics
gs Zg g s

where the constants Z3 , Zg are defined perturbatively

Z3 = 1 + Z3(1) + Z3(2) + . . .
1

Z3(1) = s Z3(1,1) + Z3(1,0)

1 1

Z3(2) = 2s Z3(2,2) 2 + Z3(2,1) + Z3(2,0)

..
.

Z3(k) are constants which can be chosen freely.

These renormalisation constants lead to additional Feynman graphs like

G5 =

Evaluating the divergent part of G1 + + G4 gives (beyond the scope of this course - MQFT)

 s r3 ab  4 13  

ab
(p) = TR Nf CA p2 g + p p
div 4 3 6

As it is a constant, we choose Z3(1) to cancel this (unphysical) contribution at a certain scale 2 = p2 > 0.

For the coupling at one loop we find, schematically,

s (Q2 ) + + + +

+ +

2 2 2

The latter are divergences which come from the renormalisation constants. The are adjusted so to cancel
the divergences and with an experimental value at a certain scale.

44
 b
b

s (Q2 ) =s + 2s Q2 2s 2

 Q2

=s 1 s b log 2 + O(2 )

Quantum corrections in this way lead to a scale-dependent coupling

1 1 Q2
11CA 4TR Nf
2
= 2
+ b log 2 ; b=
s (Q ) s ( ) 12

This is the renormalised coupling and it depends logarithmically on the scale of the process. The same is
true for QED but b has a different sign.

10.1.1 The logarithmic scale dependence of the strong coupling

The so-called -function measures the scale dependence of the coupling:

s (Q2 ) = s = 2s (Q2 )b
log(Q2 )

Currently, is known theoretically to the 4-loop level

= 2s b + s b + 2s b + 3s b + . . .

At one loop

11CA 4TR Nf
b=
12
The sign of the -function depends on the particle content of the respective theory. If the number of flavours
in the loop is Nf < 33
2 b > 0. Thus, in the Standard Model, < 0 (or b > 0). The sign is crucial for the
high energy (ultraviolet) and low energy (infrared) behaviour of the theory.

The running of s is experimentally confirmed.

45
 Q2
Ultraviolet behaviour in QCD For b > 0 ( < 0) s 0. Hence, the quarks feel no gluon
exchange and can be considered as quasi-free particles. This is known as asymptotic freedom (2004 Nobel
prize: Gross, Politzer, Wilczek).

Infrared behaviour in QCD For b > 0 implies that there exists a scale, such that s 2
2
. The
Q
point where the coupling goes to infinity is called the Landau pole, it indicates the strong coupling regime.
Of course, perturbation theory itself breaks down long before the Landau pole is reached. Notice that
 
1 1 1 Q2
2
2
= = b log
s (Q ) s ( ) s (Q2 ) 2

For Nf = 5, this gives s (MZ2 ) = 0.1182 0.0027 one finds:

2
= MZ e1/2bs |MZ | O(200M eV ).

As s is large at hadronic scale, 1 GeV , perturbation theory is not applicable. QCD is a strongly
interacting theory at low energy and most of our calculational tools fail in this regime. This is unfortunate,
but also a necessary condition for the theory to have a chance of explaining confinement.


 1
In QED, we have no photon self interaction, and the running is reversed: bQED = bQCD  = 3 < 0.
CA =0
TR =1
Nf =1

QCD QED

Q2 Q2

We see that QCD and QED are qualitatively different from one another with opposite asymptotic behaviour.
Quantitative solutions in low-energy QCD are intrinsically difficult. The dynamics is non-perturbative.
Our lack of knowledge of the internal dynamics of the low energy bound states of QCD can be parametrised
using general functions with the correct allowable Lorentz structure.
These can in some cases be measured in one process and reapplied in another. We shall see an example of
this with the pion decay constant.
Better yet we can calculated such quantities using non-perturbative numerical methods Lattice gauge
theory.

46
Chapter 11

Goldstones theorem

We now study gauge invariant models with a nontrivial vaccuum structure. Such models display Spontaneous
Symmetry Breaking: this means the action is gauge invariant under some symmetry but the ground state
(or vaccuum) is not and this breaks the symmetry.

   
S , , F =S U , U , U F U

We use h i to denote the vacuum expectation value (or vev).

A vev for fields with angular momentum would be incompatible with the observed isotropy of space. For
~ hBi)
example, a vev for fermions ( spin) or gauge fields ( hEi, ~

hi, hF i = 0
However a vev for a scalar is allowed
hi =
6 0
We will see below that the Goldstone Theorem implies that there exists a massless mode for each generator Ta
which does not leave the vacuum invariant, Ta hi =
6 hi. These massless fields are called Nambu-Goldstone
bosons.
Recall that an explicit gauge boson mass term in the Lagrangian is not invariant. In combination with a
gauge theory, the massless Nambu-Goldstone boson will lead to a massive vector boson ( Higgs mechanism).
A massless gauge boson together with a Nambu-Goldstone boson combines to a massive gauge field. One
may say that the gauge field acquires a longitudinal component through interaction with the nontrivial
vacuum.
Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking (SSB) is not specific to particle physics. Ferromagnets and Superconduc-
tors are two other examples.

11.1 SSB in an U (1) scalar field theory

We will see: If the vacuum breaks the symmetry of the theory then a massless mode is created.

Note: As U (1) is isomorphic to SO(2) one can view the model as a so-called SO(2) symmetric -model.
 
1
1 1

= 1 + i2 or e = for SO(2)
2 2 2

2
L = 2 with > 0
2

2
1 1
= 1 1 + 2 2 21 + 22 21 + 22
2 2 2 4

47
L is invariant under a global transformation
 
cos sin

ei or e e
sin cos

The ground state is defined by minimising the energy:

~ L
H =~
L L
= 1 + 2 L
1 2
1
1

= 12 + 22 + 1 1 + 2 2 +V (1 , 2 )
2 | {z } 2 | {z }
0 0

Hence, we see that to find the minimum of H we need to find the minimum of the potential

2 2

2
V (1 , 2 ) = + 22 + 21 + 22
2 1 4
The minimum condition reads

! )
V V 1 2 + (21 + 22 ) = 0
= =0
! ()
1 2 2 2 + (21 + 22 ) = 0

case 1. 2 > 0: 1 = 2 = 0 is the ground state or vaccuum solution.

1 , 2 are real scalar fields with mass

The vaccuum state h1 i = h2 i = 0 is trivially invariant under rotations in the 1 ,2 -plane.

case 2. 2 < 0: () has a nontrivial solution

2
2 = 21 + 22 = = v2 > 0

The minimum of the potential is along a circle infinite degeneracy. This is called the champagne bottle
or Mexican hat potential. The ground state has to pick one point of this circle, i.e. it breaks the symmetry
of the system.

As the theory is U (1) (or SO(2)) invariant we may choose

 


h1 i = 0, h2 i = v e = 1
or hi
0
2 v

48
Applying a phase transform to the vaccuum we find

ei hi =
6 hi U (1) symmetry broken

The physical spectrum is obtained after expanding around the vev of the theory

1 = , 2 = = H + h2 i = H + v

where the new fields have

hi = 0, hHi = 0

1 1 2  2   2
L = + H H + (v + H)2 2 + (v + H)2
2 2 2 4
2   2
1 1
= + H H 2 + v 2 + 2vH + H 2 2 + v 2 + 2vH + H 2
2 2 2 4

Collect the terms with different powers of , H:

2
0 , H 0 : 2 v 2 4 v 4 irrelevant constant; cant affect the E.o.M
0 , H 1 : 2 v v 3 = 0 linear terms give rise to tadpoles,
nonexistent in the theory
2 2
2 , H 0 : 2 2 v = 0 s are massless
0 , H 2 : 2 Gives mass: 21 H H 12 m2H H 2
where m2H = 22 > 0

The other terms define the interactions between , H.

We conclude that

is a massless spin-zero boson, the Nambu-Goldstone boson

H is a massive spin-zero boson, the Higgs boson

11.2 Generalisation to SO(N )

1
..
~=
.

RN
N 1

This is in the fundamental representation of SO(N ) where the generators U SO(N ) are such that U U 1 =
1 and detU = 1. There are N (N 1)/2 generators, all of which are antisymmetric matrices.

N
X

U = exp i ij T (ij) SO(N )
i<j

where

T (ij) kl
= i ik jl il jk

49
The Lagrangian

1 ~ T ~ 2 ~ T ~
~ T ~
2
L =
2 2 4
2
~ is minimal if i i = = v 2 > 0, and
is invariant under global SO(N ) transformations. For 2 < 0, V ()
hence we choose

0
..
~ =
hi .

0
v

~ is invariant under SO(N 1) transformations (generators T (ij) with i < j < k which are defined by
hi
~ = hi).
the T (ij) hi ~ ~ =
The remaining N 1 generators T (ik) break the vacuum as T (ik) hi ~ There are
6 hi.
1 1
2 (N (N 1)) 2 (N 1)(N 2) = N 1 broken generators
We see that the vev breaks SO(N ) spontaneously to SO(N 1).
.
Looking at the spectrum, we find

j=1,...,N 1 massless Goldstone bosons

2
= H + v H is a massive state with mass MH = 2V 2 known as the Higgs boson mass

11.3 Classical Goldstone Theorem

~ =
To each generator which breaks the vacuum, i.e. T a hi 6 ~0, corresponds a massless field (Nambu-Goldstone
boson).

Proof: We need the definition of the mass matrix in the following:


2 V 
Mij = 
i j  ~ ~
=hi

The symmetry of the action implies

~ =V ( ~ = V ()
~ + ia T a ) ~ + V a a ~
V () i T + O(||2 )
j
V a
T l = 0
j jl
Applying another derivative on the last line gives
  2  
 V a  V V 
0= T l  = T a l + Ta 
k j jl ~ ~ k j jl j jk  ~ ~
=hi =hi

and finally one obtaines

0 = Mkj Tjla hl i +0 .
| {z }
6=~0j

~ =
If T a is a broken generator one has T a hi 6 ~0
Mkj has a null eigenvector null eigenvalues massless particle for each such generator. (Note that the
eigenvalues of the mass matrix are the particle masses, as the particle are defined as their mass eigenstates.)
This completes the proof.
We now combine the concept of a spontaneously broken symmetry with a gauge theory.

50
Chapter 12

Higgs mechanism

The Higgs Mechanism for U (1) gauge theory

Consider




2 1
L = D D 2 F F
4
with D = + iQA and F = A A . Gauge symmetry here means invariance under A
A .

2
case a) unbroken case, 2 > 0 : V () = 2 + with a minimum at = 0.
The ground state or vaccuum is U (1) symmetric. The corresponding theory is known as Scalar Electrody-
namics of a massive spin-0 boson with mass and charge Q.

case b) nontrivial vaccuum case

2
V () has a minimum for 2 = 2
= v which gives hi =
v ei .
2
We may choose = 0 as is arbitrary but fixed.

eiQ hi =
6 hi SSB

We may parameterise the field in polar coordinates

1 1

= Rei = v + H + i
2 2

The kinetic term is

1
D = + iQA Rei
2
1

= R + iR + iQA R ei
2
1

D = R iR iQA R ei
2

The potential term is

1 2 2 4
V ( ) = R + R
2 4

51
 1
1 1 1
L = R R + R2 Q2 R2 A A + QR2 A V (R2 ) F F
2 2 2 4
1
1 1 1
2
= R R V (R2 ) F F + Q2 R2 A +
2 4 2 Q

1
Now we note that the term A + Q looks like a gauge field transformation. In fact, it can be gauged
1 1
away : A A = A + Q . Now, we see that hRi = v as R = v + H.

1

1 1
L = H H V (v + H)2 F F Q2 (v + H)2 A A
2 4 2
1

1 1 1
= H H V (v + H)2 F F Q2 v 2 A A Q2 (2vH + H 2 )A A
2 4 2 2

In the unbroken case the particle content contained A , a massless gauge boson (2 d.o.fs) and two massive
scalar fields 1 , 2 (2 d.o.fs) all in all 4 d.o.fs.

SSB: After mapping H, R, it is manifest that is a massless Nambu-Goldstone boson that can be
gauged away; and A is massive with 3 d.o.fs: 2 transverse + 1 longitudinal. We say that is eaten by
the gauge field. H is massive: 1 degree of freedom. The number of d.o.fs (=4) is unchanged.
We see, that the Goldstone boson is absorbed by the gauge boson leading to a longitudinal degree of freedom
for the gauge field. This is called the Higgs mechanism after P. W. Higgs (1964). Ideas along the same line
were developed by Brout, Englert, Hagen and Kibble around the same time.

1 This was first noted in condensed matter physics by Anderson. P. W. Higgs applied it to theoretical particle physics.

52
Chapter 13

Electroweak unification

The Standard Model is a gauge theory with the gauge group:

SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y

It defines the fundamental interaction of Fermions (leptons and quarks), gauge bosons and the Higgs boson.
The electroweak sector SU (2)L U (1)Y is spontaneously broken via the Higgs mechanism. It displays other
odd features.

13.1 Weirdness in the Weak sector

Up to around 1956 it was expected that charge-conjugation (C), parity (P ), and time reversal (T ) were each
symmetries of nature.
Why?

A breakage of joint CP T would break Lorentz invariance

Dirac equation: suggests C should be a good symmetry
US drives on left, UK drives on right: suggests P should be a good symmetry
Classical mechanics is reversible: suggests T should be a good symmetry

In 1956 T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang observed while C and P invariance had been rigorously checked experi-
mentally for the strong interactions, no such test had been made for weak decays.

Parity and CP violation history

1956 T. D. Lee & C. N. Yang suggest Parity, Charge and CP violation experiments
1957 C.S. Wu et al discover Co60 beta decay has strong parity asymmetry
1957 T.D. Lee & C. N. Yang : two component neutrino theory
1958 Marshak & Sudarshan,Feynman & Gell-Mann : V-A four fermi coupling
1957 Lee and Yang Nobel Prize
1964 Cronin and Fitch discover CP violation in neutral kaon system
1963 Cabbibo quark flavour mixing
c1970 Glashow-Salam-Weinberg Theory unifies electro-weak sector

53
1972 Kobayashi Maskawa
1980 Cronin and Fitch Nobel Prize
2008 Kobayashi-Maskawa-Nambu Nobel Prize

Wu experiment

The Wu experiment placed Co60 in a magnetic field aligning nuclear spin

Electrons preferentially emitted in direction opposite to magnetic field
Parity breaking angular distribution of beta (e ) particles
T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang concluded that the reclusive neutrino always spin aligns with the direction of
propagation. Breaks parity (defines the sense of a left-handed screw).
The anti-neutrino always spin anti-aligns with the direction of propagation.
Helicity and chirality coincide for massless neutrinos V-A current

(1 5 )e

enters the four fermi interaction (Marshak & Sudarshan, Feynman & Gell-Mann).
Model does not violate joint CP :
neutrino anti-neutrino and left handed spin right handed spin

Parity breaking

We have mentioned the V A weak coupling vertex several times.

Consider an e + e W transition, where the electron momentum is large and in the z direction. The
W-boson couples to the V-A current
1
J = u (p ) (1 5 )ue (p) = (p )(1 + 5 ) (1 5 )ue (p)
u
2
We take the case of
p = (p, p
z)
and
p = (p , p z
   
1 0
The we take , as up/down two spinors and our external four spinors are
0 1
 
e

ue = u = , z
z e

We then have
 
(1 z )e

(1 5 )ue = (1 + 5 ) = (1 z ), (1 z )
u
(1 z )e
 
1 1 0
Observe that 2 (1 z ) = projects out only left handed components. The corresponding W
0 0
boson processes for the parity flipped right handed spins do not exist and this mechanism lead to the Wu
experiment asymmetry.

13.2 Glashow-Salam-Weinberg Theory SU (2)L U (1)Y

Both Parity violation and CP violation are explained by the unified electro-weak sector, also referred to as
Glashow-Salam-Weinberg Theory (c. 1970), Electro-Weak Theory, or Quantum Flavour Dynamics.

54
Electroweak theory describes electromagnetic and weak interactions.
The gauge group is spontaneously broken via the Higgs mechanism SU (2)L U (1)Y U (1)EM
SSBreakdown

Theory is chirally coupled gauge theory:

left handed fields, L , L , transform as SU (2)L doublets
right handed fields, R , R , transform as SU (2)L singlets

1

L/R = 11 5 such that P L/R = R/L
2

Left-handed doublets are in the fundamental representation of SU (2)L (weak isospin):

     
e e a
Ta e
= ei
e L
e L
e L

eR eR = eR (singlet)
     
u u a
Ta u
= ei
d L d L
d L

uR uR = uR
dR dR = dR

Theory does not distinguish between quarks, colour blind

13.2.1 Lagrangian

We can write the theory as the sum of Lagrangian densities:

L = Lgauge + LHiggs + Lfermion + LYukawa [+Lghost ]

Note that the Yukawa sector, LYukawa , allows for boson and fermion interactions; the ghost sector is needed
to maintain covariance whilst quantising a non-Abelian gauge theory.

13.2.2 The gauge sector: Lgauge

Electromagnetic interactions are related to an unbroken gauge theory as it contains a massless boson; electric
charge is conserved leaving the photon massless.
Weak interactions are short range hence we need SSB to create exchange particle mass

1 emr
massless massive
r r
Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg constructed a Lagrangian which explained all existing data so far.

gauge group: SU (2)L U (1)Y

generators: T 1 , T 2 , T 3 Y
| {z }
weak isospin
gauge coupling: g g

The Lagrangian may be written as

1 1
Lgauge = W j W j B B
4 4

55
where

W j = W j W j gjlm W l W m j [1, 2, 3]
B = B B the U (1)Y field

This theory describes four massless vector bosons but we need to break this to only one using the Higgs
mechanism.

13.2.3 The Higgs sector: LHiggs

We generate gauge boson masses by spontaneous symmetry breakdown:

need 1 massless gauge boson (photon) and 3 massive gauge bosons (weak interactions)

Minimal choice: introduce a scalar field as an SU (2) doublet

   
~ = 1 1 + i2 +
=
2 + i3 0

~ =
where T () 1
transforms under the fundamental representation of SU (2)L .
2

~ = 1.
Assign hypercharge: Y () 2

To make the theory invariant under local transformations, we need

1 ~ + ig Y B
D = + ig ~ W
2
| {z } | {z }
U(1) coupling
SU(2) coupling

The Lagrangian is then

LHiggs = (D ) ~ V (
~ (D ) ~
~ )

where

V ( ~ = 2
~ ) ~
~ + ( ~ 2
~ )

(It can be shown that globally symmetric SU (2) scalar theory is isomorphic to the SO(4) sigma-model. See
tutorial for more details.)

Note that 2 < 0 and > 0 leads to SSBreakdown.

  r
~ = 1 0 2
hi with v =
2 v

Consider
    

1 1 0 1 1 0
3 ~
T + Y hi = + ~ eiQ hi
hi ~ = hi
~
| {z } 2 0 1 2 0 1
Q | 0
{z 1 }
@
1 0 A
0 0

56
     
1
~ = 0 1 0 1 v
T hi1
= 3 6= h~0i
2 2 1 0 v 2 0

Hence, T 1 is a broken generator. The same is true for T 2 and T 3 Y meaning that we have three Goldstone
bosons which we may gauge away. The SU (2)L doublet can be written as (tutorial)
   
~ = exp(i 1 T j j ) 1

0 1
=U 0
v 2 H +v 2 H +v

The term U = exp(i v1 T j j ) looks like a SU (2)L local group element. The Goldstone bosons, j , play here
the role of the space-time dependent parameters.

Applying the gauge transformation U leads to the so-called unitary gauge:

 
~
~ = 1
~ = U 0
2 H +v

We obtain     
1 0 0 1

LHiggs = D D + V (H + v)2
2 H +v H +v 2
| {z }
Lquad

We can write
 
~ = 1 W1 + 2 W2 + 3 W3 = W 3 W 1 iW 2
~ W 1
W + iW 2 W 3

Thus in this gauge:

   
 
0 g ~ + ig 1 0
D = + i ~ W
H +v 2 2 H +v
 
   
0 g g
0 g
v+H
= + i B W 3 + i W1 iW2
H 2 2 v+H 2 0

and similarly:
  !
0 g
g g

D = (0, H) i W1 + iW2 (v + H, 0) i B W 3 (0, v + H)
H +v 2 2 2

1 2 2 4
LHiggs = H H (v + H) (v + H) +
2 2 4
g2 1

2
+ (v + H)2 (W1 W 1 + W2 W 2 ) + g B gW 3 g B gW 3 (v + H)
8 8

This Lagrangian defines interaction and mass terms

The charged vector boson masses can be read off directly from

2
MW g2 v2

(W1 W 1 + W2 W 2 ) = (W1 )2 + (W 1 )2
2 8
leading to
 gv 
MW = MW 1,2 =
2

57
The interactions of W 1,2 arise through the combinations W = W2 iW2 , and these linear combinations
are the W + and W gauge bosons.
For the quadratic term in the W 3 , B bosons we find
  
v2
g2 gg W3
Lquad = W3 , B 2
8 g g g B

The eigenvalues of the mass matrix are:

=0 = g 2 + g 2
The mass term is a diagonal quadratic form of the field g B gW3 , and we find the normalised eigenvectors
are parallel and orthogonal to this
   
1 g 1 g
p p
g 2 + g 2 g g 2 + g 2 g
Making the field redefinition,
    
W3 cos W sin W Z g
= , sin W =
B sin W cos W A (g 2 + g 2 )1/2
we get
   
v2 2 2
Z 1 0 Z
Lquad = g + g
8 A 0 0 A

g2 +g 2 2
We see that A is massless and that Z is a massive vector boson with mass MZ2 = 4 v , and the other
2
massive state in Higgs sector is the Higgs boson with mass MH = 22 = 2v 2 .

13.2.4 The fermion sector: Lfermion

Massive Dirac-fermions can be split into left and right-handed chiral components by using projectors PL/R :

1

= L + R = PL + PR , PL/R = 1 5
2
In the original formulation of the Standard Model the massless left handed neutrinos had no right-handed
partners. Recently observed neutrino oscillations suggest right-handed neutrinos but we shall stick to the
original formulation in the following.

The SU (2)L U (1)Y quantum numbers for the fermions are

Leptons T (isospin) Y (hypercharge) T3 Q = T3 + Y

      1
e 1 /2 0
, , /2 1/2
e L
L
L
1/2 1

eR , R , R 0 1 1 0

Quarks T (isospin) Y (hypercharge) T3 Q = T3 + Y

      1 2
u c t 1 1 /2 /3
, , /2 /6
d L
s L
b L
/2 1 1
/3

2 2
u R , c R , tR 0 /3 0 /3

dR , sR , bR 0 1/3 0 1/3

58
To give an example for the notation:
 
c=red,f {1,2} cred c=blue,f =2
L = , R = (dblue )R
sred L

The reason for introducing the primed quark fields q in the list will become clear below.
We can now construct the fermion Lagrangian

Xn cf cf
o
Lfermion = / Lcf + R iD
L iD cf
/e R
colours c
flavours f

where we have to distinguish the covariant derivative acting on the left fields

~ ~
D = 1 + ig W + ig Y B 1
2

from the one acting on the right fields, as the latter do not couple to SU (2)L gauge bosons.

e = + ig Y B
D

Consider the fermion gauge boson interactions

X cf cf
 g X  
Lfermion = L i/ Lcf + R i/ R
cf
+ cf PL T + W+ + T W cf
c,f
2 c,f
X g X  
e Qf cf A
/cf cf Vf Af 5 cf Z
2 cos W
c,f c,f

gg
with Vf = T3 f 2Qf sin2 W , Af = T3 f and e = p = g sin W = g cos W is the elementary
g2 + g2
charge.

   !    
+ 1 0 1 0 i 0 1 0 0
T = +i = ; T =
2 1 0 i 0 0 0 1 0

Lfermion is not sufficient to provide mass terms; we need to couple the fermions to the Higgs sector to achieve
that.
There are no mass terms because gauge invariance does not allow them as L/R fields cannot be adequately
combined. For example:

mee =m ePR e + ePL e


=m eL eR + eR eL
=meL eR + Hermitian conjugate

But this is not a gauge invariant term under SU (2)L and hence it is forbidden.

Note that we have used ePR = e 0 PR = e PL 0 = e PL 0 = PL e 0 = eL

59
13.2.5 The Yukawa sector: LYukawa

LYukawa is defined
 + by  SU (2)L U (1)Y invariants composed out of the Higgs doublet and the fermion multiplets
~=
where is the Higgs doublet.
0
SU (2) invariants are
    

1,L
0 1 1,L
~ L = , 0
, ~T L = + , 0

2,L 1 0 2,L

For the first generation:

   
~ = 1,
Y () Y (eR ) = 1, Y
e 1
= ,
2
Y (uR ) = , Y
u
=
1
2 e L 2 3 d L 6

Electron mass:
  ~ v (0)
e e v

~
e eR
2 1
+ Herm. conj. eR eL + Herm. conj. = me ee
e L 2

1 1
Y :1 2 2 = 0 as it must be for an U (1)Y singlet.

Up quark mass:  
~T u u
u uR + Herm. conj. mu uu =
d L 2

Y : 32 + 1
2 + 1
6 =0

Down quark mass:  

~ u
d d R + Herm. conj. md d d
d L

Flavour mixing: seen in experiments, e.g. K + ( us) + + implies

s
W+

Flavour changing neutral currents do not arise in the Feynman rules.

(complex loop processes can have this effect and are involved in searches for new physics)
c
Z,

u +

The most general Yukawa interaction for 3 generation is

60
    
~ e
LYukawa = eR , R , R Cl
 e L

~

 L

~


   L    
~ u ~ T u

+ d R , s R , b R Cq + uR , cR , tR Cq
d
 L d
 L
c T c
~ ~
s s
 L  L
t T
~
~ t
b L b L
+ Herm. conj.

where Cl , Cq , Cq C33 .

SU (2) U (1) invariance seems to allow for generation mixing.

We now have to ask the question how many entries in the matrices are actually physical, means cannot be
absorbed by a redefinition of fields and complex phases.
Consider making a basis change (this does not affect the physics):

e e u u d d
U 1 , c U 2 c , s U 3 s
R R t R t R b R b R

e e u u
V1 , c V2 c
R R t R t R

where U1 , U2 , U3 , V1 , V2 U (3).

We can now use this transformation to reduce the degrees of freedom in Cl , Cq , Cq .

Cl U1 Cl V1 , Cq U2 Cq V2 , Cq U3 Cq V2

13.2.6 Simplifications

Recall Hermitian diagonalisable: C C is automaticall Hermitian positive semi-definite with eigenvalues

2 .
Our matrices C are merely complex and not diagonalisable. However, complex matrix has a singular value
decomposition

C = U DV
where U , V are unitary, D is diagonal with elements 0 and 2 are the eigenvalues of C C.
Thus we can write

Cl = Ul Dl Vl Cq = Uq Dq Vq Cq = Uq Dq Vq

61
13.2.7 Lepton sector

Choose
U1 = Ul , V1 = Vl Cl Dl = diag(e , , )

No lepton flavour mixing

Lepton-gauge couplings diagonal in same basis as that with a diagonal mass matrix.

13.2.8 The quark sector

Choose
U2 = Uq , V2 = Vq Cq = diag(u , c , t )

But,

Cq U3 Uq Dq Vq V2
is not diagonalisable. We have already chosen V2 .
Greatest simplification obtained by taking

U3 = V2 Vq Uq Cq = V Dq V

where V = V2 Vq is the unitary Cabibbo-Kobyashi-Maskawa matrix (1973).

By using our free choice for U2 and V2 to diagonalise Cq we see that Cq can in general not be diagonalised
at the same time. We are left with a unitary rotation which acts on the d, s, b quarks.

There is still some freedom that allows us to restrict V U (3) further. We are free to apply a phase
transformation on L/R since the wave functions are defined up to a global phase.

ei1 0 0 ei1 0 0
V 0 ei2 0 V 0 ei2 0
i3
0 0 e 0 0 ei3

Consider first the case of two generations:

 
ei(1 1 ) V11 ei(1 2 ) V12
V2 gens. =
ei(2 1 ) V21 ei(2 2 ) V22

The three phase differences can be chosen such that: V11 0, V12 0, V21 0.
The 4th phase is fixed as 2 2 = (2 1 ) + (1 2 ) (1 1 ). This gives
   
V11 V12 V11 |V12 |
V = , V =
|V21 | ei V22 V21 ei V22

as V U (2) V V = 11
2 2
V11 + V21 =1
V11 |V21 | + V12 V22 ei = 0
|V21 |2 + V22
2
=1

To fulfill these three conditions we need = 0, an imaginary phase is not allowed. Hence

V11 = V22 = cos C
C [0, ] is called the Cabibbo angle
V11 = |V21 | = sin C 2

62
This defines the original Cabibbo matrix for two generations. It describes the mixing between the electroweak
eigenstates d , s and the mass eigenstates d and s.
 
cos C sin C
V =
sin C cos C

It describes the mixing between the electroweak eigenstates d , s and the mass eigenstates d and s.

u
   
u u
W couples to the electroweak doublet = . We see that the strangeness
d L d cos C + s sin C
quantum number is not conserved in electroweak interaction. Mesons and baryons containing strange quarks
decay through charged currents, i.e. the exchange of charged vector bosons. For example it allows K + to
decay dominantly to leptons via a vector boson + ( 64%), 0 + + ( 3%), 0 e+ e ( 5%).
In the 3-generation case we start with

Vud Vus Vub
V = Vcd Vcs Vcb
Vtd Vts Vtb

which can be written as a matrix defined by 3 angles and 1 phase if we follow the same reasoning as in the
2-generation case. We employ a reduced notation to express this more compactly: cos i ci , sin i si .
The mixing matrix is then

c1 s1 c2
s1 s2

s1 c2 c1 c2 c3 s2 s3 ei
c1 c2 s3 + s2 c3 ei

s1 s2 c1 s2 c3 + c2 s3 ei c1 s2 s3 c2 c3 ei

where i [0, 2 ], [0, 2].

Remark: Of all parameters in the Standard Model, ei is the only complex one. Such terms are not invari-
ant under CP transformations. This has two important applications:
i.) mixing in kaon and anti-kaon first experimental indication of CP violation in nature.
ii.) for baryon asymmetry need CP violation.

Theoretical prediction of CP violation: Nobel-Prize for Kobayashi and Maskawa 2008.

Summary

Collecting things together, the Yukawa sector of the Standard Model leads to mass terms for fermions,
mf = v2 , and Higgs-fermion interactions:

(  m 0 0

e

e
e, ,
LYukawa = 0 m 0 +
0 0 m
 m 0 0

u
 m 0 0

d
)
u d  H
u, c, t + d, s, b 0
+ 0 mc 0 c ms 0 s 1+
v
0 0 mt t 0 0 mb b

Recall that dsb is a linear combination of electroweak eigenstates:

63

d d
s =V s
b b
| {z } | {z }
mass eigenstates e.w. eigenstates

We see that the Yukawa sector contains 9 masses + 3 angles + 1 phase = 13 parameters. The parameters
of the flavour sector have to be fixed by experiment.

13.3 Feynman Rules of fermion, gauge and Yukawa sectors

qf

A ieQf

qf

qf

ig


W (1 5 ) V
2 2 f f

qf

qf

ig
Z 2 cos W (Vf Af 5 )

qf

qf

mf igmf
H i v = 2MW

qf

p p
g +
MV2
i
p M + i
2 2

V

The massive gauge boson propagator is given in the unitary gauge. In this gauge no Goldstone bosons are
present. This is the standard choice for tree level computations.

64
Chapter 14

Flavour Physics

In this chapter we will look at some specific weak processes.

First, we will measure the weak couplings using muon decay, and then move on to process involving quarks,
and hence the CKM matrix.

14.1 Muon decay and the weak couplings

(p1 ) (p2 )
e (p3 )e (p4)
This has amplitude

i(g + q q2q )
iM = (p2 ) 2ig
u (1 5 )u (p1 )
2 2
q2 MW
e (p4 ) 2ig
u (1 5 )v (p3 )
2 e
2
g
i 2M ue (p4 ) PL ve (p3 )
(p2 ) PL u (p1 )
2 u
W

1
where PL = 2 (1 5 ). We consider the rest frame of the muon:

p1 = (m , 0)
p1 = p2 + p3 + p4 .
p1 p3 = m Ee

p2
p3

p1

e
p4
e

At low energies ((p2 p1 )2 MW2

), 4-fermion interactions can be described by a point-like 4-fermion
2
G g 1
coupling: 2 = 8M 2 = 2v2 called the Fermi constant.
F
W

65
14.1.1 Measuring the Fermi constant

Note that:
PL )
( = PL 0
= 0 0 PL 0 0 0
= R
P
=
PL
Thus
g4 g4
 h
i
|M|2 = 4MW 4 4M 4 (p2 ) PL u (p1 )
u ue (p4 ) PL ve (p3 ) u ve (p3 ) PL ue (p4 )
(p1 ) PL u (p2 )
P 1 g
4
W

|M|2 = 2 4MW 4 Tr{p /1 PL }Tr{p
/2 PL p /4 PL }
/3 PL p
spins
4
1 g
= 2 4MW4 p2 /
Tr{PL / p1 }Tr{PL /p3 /p4 }

Recall:

tr
= 4(g g g g + g g )
tr 5 = 4i

= 2
Thus,

p2 p/1 }
Tr{PL / = 2[p2 p1 + p2 p1 p1 p2 g 2i ]
and similar for p3 , p4 , leading to

P 4
h i
1 g
|M|2 = 2 4MW4 4 p2 p1 + p1 p2 (p1 p2 )g i p p
2 1
spins h i

p3 p4 + p4 p3 (p3 p4 )g i p3 p4
4
h
i

= 21 Mg 4 2(p2 p3 )(p1 p4 ) + 2(p2 p4 )(p1 p3 ) p p p
2 1 3 4 p
W
4
1 g
= 2 MW4 [2(p2 p3 )(p1 p4 ) + 2(p2 p4 )(p1 p3 ) 2(p2 p3 )(p1 p4 ) + 2(p2 p4 )(p1 p3 )]

2g4
= MW4 (p2 p4 )(p1 p3 )

This is a useful worked example of performing traces with the 5 that arises in W and Z vertex rules.
The three body phase space integral to work out the decay width is beyond the scope of the course, but
for completeness can be found in appendix B. This obtains

 4
m g m
= MW 6144 3

Inserting the experimental mass m = 105MeV, lifetime = 2.19703s = ~/ = 2.99 1010 eV , and
we obtain  2
g 2
GF = = 1.166 105 (GeV )2
MW 8
With the measured MW = gv
2 = 80.4GeV we can also determine the weak coupling constant g 0.653, and
the Higgs VEV v = 246 GeV.

14.2 CKM constraints

Quark flavour mixing is an active research topic
CKM parameters are some of the least well known fundamental constants.
search for possible new physics
LHCb, Babar, Belle, KTEV, NA48, + other experiments.
The CKM matrix is often written in terms of the Wolfenstein parametrisation:

66
 2
Vud Vus Vub 1 2 A3 ( + i)
V = Vcd Vcb =
2
Vcs 1 2 A2
Vtd Vts Vtb A3 (1 i) A2 1

This parametrisation describes a unitary matrix up to terms of O(4 ).

As V V = 11 there are 9 relations, for example

Vtb Vtd Vub

Vud
Vub Vud + Vcb Vcd + Vtb Vtd = 0 1+ + =0
V Vcd V Vcd
| cb{z } | cb{z }
C C




1, 0 + x2 , y2 + x1 , y1 = 0

We can identify these as vectors in the complex plane forming a unitary triangle:

(, )
x2 , y2 x1 , y1

1, 0

Different experimental measurements measure different combinations of CKM matrices. These measurements
can be turned into constraints on the vertex of this unitarity triangle and these overlayed, and the present
(2010) state of the art is shown below (actually, a subset of the constraints):
0.7
excluded area has CL > 0.95

#md & #ms CKM

0.6 ! #md fitter
ICHEP 10

0.5 sin 2' $K

sol. w/ cos 2' < 0
(excl. at CL > 0.95)

0.4
)

"
0.3 $K
"
Vub
&%
0.2

0.1 Vub
! SL '
"
0.0
-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Hadronic matrix elements

Converting measurements into CKM constraints normally involves some theoretical input to remove the
effects of the hadrons that contained the quarks participating in a process.
Make progress using non-perturbative parameters/functions constrained only by Lorentz symmetry.
Calculate them with Lattice QCD
Obtain them from fits to data
We will consider the three key classes of process presently contributing to CKM constraints: Leptonic decays,
Semi-leptonic decays and neutral meson mixing.

67
14.3 Leptonic decays
We do not understand an initial pion in terms of quark momentum distributions. Fourier transforming the
two quark fields in J (V A) = u (1 5 )d entering Lint
Fermi
will not help us.. Rather, parametrise pion
matrix element of J (V A) in terms of non-perturbative decay constant

h + (p)|J (V A)iif p

This gives an effective pion-W vertex

g
f Vud + W+ p
2 2
g
With Feynman rule f 2 V p
2 ud

The decay is then given by

 2 g 00 + m2
g MW2
iM = Vud f m 2 e (p2 )0 (1 5 )ve (p1 )
u (14.1)
2 2 m2 MW
GF
Vud f m ue (p2 )0 (1 5 )ve (p1 ) (14.2)
2
Thus
 2 n o
GF
spins |M|2 = Vud f m Tr p/2 0 (1 5 )p/1 0 (1 5 )
2
 2 n o
GF
= Vud f m 2Tr /p2 0 (1 5 )/p1 0
2
 2
GF 
= Vud f m 8 2p01 p02 p1 p2
2
 2 n o
GF
= Vud f m 8 p01 p02 + p1 p2 (14.3)
2
This can
R be combined with the Lorentz invariant phase space, which we integrate in spherical polar coordi-
nates ( d = 4) to obtain the width
Z Z 3
2 d p1 d3 p2 1 1 h i
d = (Vud f m GF )2 E e E + p p (2)4 (m Ee E ) 3 (p1 + p2 )
m (2)3 (2)3 2Ee 2E 1 2
Z 3  
1 d p1 p21
= m (Vud f GF )2 2(m Ee E ) 1
2 (2)3 Ee E
Z  
m p
= (Vud f GF )2 dpp2 (m Ee p) 1 (14.4)
2 Ee
p
Where we use Ee = m2e + p2 and E = p. We note that after integrating the delta function will impose
conservation of energy, and constrain p:
p
m = m2e + p2 + p,
m2 m2e 1 m2
p= = m (1 2e )
2m 2 m
and also
p m2
m2e + p2 p = e
m
p u
We can change variables to u = p + m2e + p2 ; du = dp , and so
m2e +p2

Z
m  2  m2e
2
1 p 2
2 m
d = (Vud f GF ) 1 2 ( me + p2 p) (14.5)
2 2 m m
 2
m m2
= (Vud f GF )2 m2e 1 2e (14.6)
8 m

68
This decay rate vanishes as me 0. This is a result of helicity suppression - angular momentum conservation
cancels the amplitude in the massless limit when helicity (spin orientation) and chirality coincide. The result
of this is that the decay through the more massive muon channel dominates.
Given = 2.53 108 MeV, m = 106 MeV, m = 139.5 MeV, and GF = 1.166 105 (GeV)2 we find

Vud f 128MeV

14.3.1 Neutral pion decay

Neutral pion decay is an electromagnetic decay process mediated via the Adler-Bell-Jackiw anomaly in QED.
You dont need to understand what the anomaly is, but it is important to know that there is a spectacularly
successful consistency check that the same measured pion decay constant explains both weak decay of charged
pions and electromagnetic decays of neutral pions.
See tutorial:
We obtained f 130M eV
Thus Vud 1.
Radiative corrections must be included to be more precise than this.
Note the same pion decay constant can be calculated from first principles using Lattice QCD to a precision
of a few percent.

14.4 Semi-leptonic decays

Flavour changing semi-leptonic meson decays are the mesonic analogue of nuclear beta decay, and give good
access to elements of the CKM matrix connecting the quark flavours in the initial and final states.

Transition CKM element e.g. charged kaon decay: s Vus

e
K e Vus + 0 +
B e Vub K + e + e u

u
B De Vcb K

D Ke Vcs
D e Vcd su uu + W u
u + e+ + e
0

Again the unknown kaon and pion internal structure is a theoretical barrier, and we proceed by considering
the general Lorentz allowed structure for the matrix element of the V A current to which the W boson
couples:
h(p )|J (V A)|K(pK )i = f+ (q 2 )(pK + p ) + f (q 2 )(pK p )
Where q 2 = (pK p )2 , and the decay amplitude is then

 2 q q
g  2 2
 g + MW 2
iM = Vus f+ (q )(pK + p ) + f (q )(pK p ) 2 2 ue (p2 ) (1 5 )ve (p(14.7)
1)
2 2 q MW
GF  
Vus f+ (q 2 )(pK + p ) + f (q 2 )(pK p ) ue (p2 ) (1 5 )ve (p1 ) (14.8)
2

69
Measured lifetime can determine the product GF Vus f+ (q 2 ).
In order to extract the fundamental constant properly, Vus a non-perturbative theoretical calculation of
f+ (q 2 = 0) is required.
However, in the limit ms = mu vector current conservation constrains f+ (q 2 = 0) = 1. K and B D
are not far from this limit, and we we only make a 4% error by taking f+ (q 2 = 0) = 1.
With this approximation the experimental decay rate to this channel gives

Vus = 0.211(1)

When recent lattice results for the form factor f+ (q 2 ) are used

Vus = 0.2249(14)

Similarly Vcb , and Vub can be found from semileptonic B-decays. Vub requires additional theoretical input
(e.g. Lattice QCD) on form factors. We can form

|Vub ||Vud | 2

Ru = = (1 )| + i| = | , i
|
|Vcb ||Vcd | 2

2 2
Where = (1 2 ), and = (1 2 ).

This constrains the vertex of the unitarity triangle on a circle centered at the origin and radius Ru .

14.5 Neutral meson mixing and CP violation

The Cronin and Fitch experiment (BNL) produced and studied neutral kaons:

|K 0 i ds 0 i sd
|K 0i
CP |K 0 i = |K 0 i = |K 0 i
CP |K

In the absence of mixing, the time evolution of |K 0 i is

|K 0 (t)i = eiHt |K 0 (t)i H=M i
2
0.
where M is the mass, and is the decay width of the K 0 . Similar formula apply for K
States mix (oscillate) under weak interaction
If SM preserves CP then SM eigenstates should be CP eigenstates

Physical state CP eigenstate CP lifetime

0 0
|KS i |K1 i = |K i|K

2
i
+1 ( 1010 s)
|K 0 i+|K 0 i
|KL i |K2 i =
2
-1 ( 5 108 s)

mK = 495 Mev and m = 140 Mev due to phase space expect

|KS i |K1 i decays rapidly to CP = +1 |i state.

|KL i |K2 i decays slowly to CP = 1 |i state.

Cronin and Fitch found |KL i decays at a low rate to WRONG CP state
manifested as two exponential modes in deposition
production found at wrong end of detector

70
Theoretical treatment
W
s u, c, t d s d

u, c, t u, c, t
W+ W

d s
d u, c, t s W+
0
K K0 0
K K0

Neutral kaon mixing is mediated by box diagrams, for example the left graph is:
P g4
iM = 64 (Vdf Vf s )(Vdf Vf s )I(mf , mf )

f,f
R 4 vd (15 )(/kmf ) (15 )us
I(mf , mf ) = d k k2 m2 f
u
d (15 )(/
kmf ) (15 )vs
k2 m2f
k k
g k g k
M2 M2
k2 MW2
W
k2 MW2
W

R d4 k
Loop integral is convergent k6
P
P


In mu = mc = m Pt = m q limit, f Vdf Vsf f Vdf Vsf I(mq , mq )

Unitarity gives f Vdf Vsf = 0 known as (Glashow-Iliopoulos-Maiani) GIM suppression mechanism

GIM correctly predicted (1970) charm quark mass 1.2 GeV before discovery (1974).
As ei in UT, amplitude is not purely real

14.5.1 Wigner Weisskopf Hamiltonian

With flavour mixing we must consider a matrix QM system:

 
|K 0 (t)i) d
(t) = 0 (t)i) i dt (t) = H
|K
where the Hamiltonian is
 
1 M11 i 12 11 M12 i 21 12
H=M i =
2 M21 i 12 21 M22 i 21 22
where since M and must have real positive eigenvalues they are Hermitian matrices. M describes the
0 , while describes the decay of the system into and states. Hermiticity
oscillation between K 0 and K
implies M21 = M12 and 21 = 12 . CPT invariance implies that M11 = M22 = M , and 11 = 22 = .

Thus a convenient notation is

   
M i 21 M12 i 21 12 A
H= =

M12 i 21 12 M i 21 A
Where A, , C. Eigenvalues can be found easily
 
A p
det =0 =A
A
0 i where a(A ) + b = 0, and so
and the eigenstates are a|K 0 i + b|K
r
b
=
a

Introduce a parameter and define normalised eigenstates

)|K 0 i(1+
(1+ )|K 0 i
KL,S = KS = K
1 +K22 KL = K
2 +K21
|2 )
2(1+| 1+|
| 1+|
|

71
Where r s
i 1
M12
1 2 12
= =
1 + M12 i 21 12
The eigenvalues contain a propagating real mass, and an imaginary decay exponent:
r r
p 1 1 1 1

L,S = A = M (M12 i 12 )(M12 i 12 ) i ( 2 (M12 i 12 )(M12 i 1 )
2 2 2 2 2 12
0 create both a mass difference and a lifetime difference1 .
The mixing terms between K 0 and K

MK 2M12
K 212

14.5.2 Time dependent mixing and mass difference

0 mesons in an entangled quantum state.
The B-factories (BaBar and Belle) pair produce B 0 and B
CP violating state mixing is tiny in the B system: we can write

|B 0 i = 1 (|B1 i + |B2 i)
2

1 (|BL i + |BH i) |BL i = 1 0i
|B 0 i + |B
2 2


0i
|B = 1 (|B1 i |B2 i) H i =
|B 1 0i
|B 0 i |B
2 2
1 (|BL i |BH i)
2

When the first of a coherent pair decays, the flavour state becomes definite (EPR).
0 the other meson is then pure B 0 at this proper time:
Consider first decays as B

0 i = 1 (|BL i + |BH i)
( = 0) = 1|B 0 i + 0|B
2

Ignoring decays, the subsequent time evolution is

1  1 1

( ) = |BL ieiML e 2 L + |BH ieiMH e 2 H (14.9)
2
1 1  1 1 1 1

= eiM e 2 |BL iei 2 M e 4 + |BH iei 2 M e 4 (14.10)
2
 1 1 1 1 
1 iM 1 (ei 2 M e 4 + ei 2 M e 4 )|B 0 i
= e e 2 1 1 1 1
0i (14.11)
2 + (ei 2 M e 4 ei 2 M e 4 )|B

The flavour state of the meson oscillates in real time.

But b s (or b c), and b s (or b c)
Distinguish by looking at the semi-leptonic decay probabilities
0 K+
B B0 K B 0 D+ B0 K
The B-mesons are moving and the decays of K + or K have oscillating spatial structure

Decay probability determined by:

 
0 1 h 1 1
i 1 1
P B ( ) = |hB 0 |( )i|2 = e e2 + e 2 + eiM + eiM = e cosh + cos M
4 2 2
1 103
q making use of the experimental observation and so M12 , 12 M12 12 giving
i 1 ) M
(M12 i 12 12 )(M12 2 12
1
12 i 2 12

72
and  
0
B 0 2 1 1
P ( ) = |hB |( )i| = e cosh cos M
2 2
0 0
Note that P B ( = 0) = 1 and P B ( = 0) = 0.

200 a)

Evts. / 0.4 ps
B 0 tags

B 0 tags

-5 0 5

0.5 b)
Raw asym.

-0.5
-5 0 5

c)
Evts. / 0.4 ps

100 B0 tags

B 0 tags

-5 0 5

0.5 d)
Raw asym.

-0.5
-5 0 5

Such measurements of oscillations in the B-system lead to a constraint on the angle sin 2 of the UT triangle.

14.5.3 Indirect CP violation

If the CKM matrix were purely real, then = 0, and the eigenstates KL,S are the CP eigenstates K1,2 .
We find the imaginary phase in the CKM matrix is of huge importance then 6= and the physical
eigenstates are not CP eigenstates and lead to CP violation:
indirect via K1 (CP = 1) (CP = 1) because |KL i |K2 i + |K1 i

direct via |K2 i(CP = 1) (CP = 1)

73
Here we only consider indirect CP violation:

PS195
KL K1
+ K2
fast slow
O(
) O(1)

y
ar
KS K1 + K2

in
im
fast slow
O(1) O(
)

el
Pr
The experimental measure for indirect CP violation is the amplitude ratio

A(KL )
K =
A(KS )

2
We require a theoretical determination of M12 . The integrals I(mf , mf ) can be performed and we find

G2F 2
 2 2

2mK M12 = 16 2 MW c S0 (xc , xc )2c t S0 (xc , xt )t S0 (xt , xt )
hK 0 |
s (1 5 )d
s (1 5 )d|K 0i

m
Here xf = mWf and S0 (xf , xf ) are known as Inami-Lim functions. CP violation arises from the imaginary
part of M12 . Since
t = Vts Vtd = A2 5 (1 i)
the 2t piece gives a constraint of the form:

(1 ) = constant

i.e. a hyperbola constraint with pole at = 1.

The non-perturbative hadronic matrix element BK

hK 0 |
s (1 5 )d 0 i = 8 BK F 2 m2
s (1 5 )d|K K K
3
is a theoretical input to determining this constant from the experimental measurement of K .

2 using V
Vus ud = Vcs Vcd Vts Vtd and mu 0

74
Chapter 15

Collider physics

15.1 e+ e colliders
Lepton colliders are theoretically simple to analyse because the incoming states are fundamental particles of
the theory.
Examples include LEP-I and LEP-II at CERN (among others).

15.1.1 QCD in e+ e collisions

Electrons are clean non-hadronic initial states. Consider the process e+ e q q:

e+ p2 k1 q, j1



iM +


Z
p1 k2
e q, j2

One finds (with j1 , j2 being the colour labels for the quarks)

Mj(e1+j2e qq) = M(e+ e + ) j1 j2 Qq

 2  j j  j j   
M = M 1 2 M 1 2 = M 2 Q2 j1 j2 j2 j1
q

As usual, we also average over the inital spins and sum over the final spins. As we cannot observe coloured
states, we have to sum over colour final states:

X 1 X   X   X 3
Mqq2 = 1 M+ 2 Q2q j1 j2 j2 j1
4 spin 4 spin j ,j =1
colours 1 2

This leads to the cross-sections:

de+ e qq

= N Q2q 2s 1 + cos2
d cos

75
 4 2
e+ e qq = N Q2q s
3 s
We define the R-ratio as

e+ e qq X
R= = N Q2q
e+ e + q

where the sum is over all quark flavours which are kinematically allowed.

For s < 4m2q we find no contribution from a quark; measuring s leads to steps in R:

2
mb 5 GeV , N Q2b 3 31 = 13 ; below this limit we cannot detect it.

2
mc 1.7 GeV , N Q2c 3 32 = 43 .

This is a test of QCD; fractional charges of quarks are confirmed with NC 3, and Qc = 23 , Qb = 13 .

Jet production in e+ e

In an e+ e -process, partons (gluons and quarks) are created which in turn radiate other partons (the parton
shower).

q
q

e+

At the end of the shower cascade where the partonic energy is 1 GeV , the strong forces bind the partons
to hadrons (Hadronisation phase). The hadrons form collimated hadronic jets.
Consider the process e+ e q qg:

76
 e+
p2

iM +

e p1

e (p1 , s1 ) + e+ (p2 , s2 ) q(k1 , r1 , j1 ) + q(k2 , r2 , j2 ) + g(k3 , , )

The colour factor, Tja1 j2 .

Summation over the final state colours:

2 2
NX 1 N
X NX 1  
Tja1 j2 Tja2 j1 = ab tr[T a T b ]
=1 j1 ,j2 =1 a,b
2
NX 1
= ab TR ab
a,b

N2 1 N2 1
= = N Cf where Cf =
2 2N
 2 
1 X X X  2  2  
2 t11 + t212 + t221 + t222
M = 4 4s Qq N Cf
4 s ,s r ,r ss13 s23
1 2 1 2 colours

2
tij = pi kj i {1, 2}, j {1, 2, 3}

2
sij = ki + kj i, j {1, 2, 3}



p1 = 2
s
1, 0, 0, 1 , p2 = 2
s
1, 0, 0, 1 ~k1 + ~k2 + ~k3 = 0; the vectors must lie in a plane.

Experimentally, we expect to see a plane with 3 jet events.

quark jet

gluon jet

anti-quark jet

The observation of such 3-jet events confirmed the existence of the gluon.

77
15.1.2 W, Z physics at e+ e colliders
W, Z discovered in 1983 in pp collisions at CERN
Nobel prize 1984: Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer.
In the 1990s era of precision experiments using e+ e colliders, at LEP (CERN 1989-2000) and SLC
(SLAC), 107 bosons produced

The amplitude for such processes is given by

e+ f e+ f

iMe+ e f f = +
Z

e f e f

where the Z-propagator is given by

p p
ig +
MZ2
2 2
p MZ + iMZ Z

Formally there is also a Higgs exchange graph but its contribution to the full result is negligible.
We note that as p2 M 2
PZ , we find a resonance where the cross-section becomes very large. As Z is an
unstable particle, Z = f Zf f , it has a finite width:
s
MZ 4m2f n 4m2f
4m2f
o
2 2
Zf f = 2 1 N C (f ) Vf 1 + + Af 1
12 sin W cos2 W MZ2 MZ2 MZ2

where NC (f ) is the colour factor: NC (quarks) = 3 and NC (leptons) = 1.

We define a new parameter, BZf f , called the branching ratio:

(Z f f )
BZf f
(Z all)

From the decau formula one finds:

BZqq 70%, leads to hadronic final states

B e+ e 10%, charged lepton pair signal
Z+
+

BZ 20%; but(!) neutrinos escape detection, missing energy signal

If (p1 + p2 )2 = s MZ2 , then resonant Z-exchange dominates.

LEP I was operating near the Z-mass, where the following formula holds:

(Z e+ e )(Z + )
e+ e Z+ = 12
(s MZ2 )2 + MZ2 2Z

78
 Z MZ 91.7 GeV
Z 2.5 GeV

MZ s

We measure the total width from the resonance structure and Zf f from the individual channels. Many
other observables can be measured very precisely with all data being understood inside the Standard Model.
Note that quantum effects (loop contributions) have to be considered to relate theory to precise measure-
ments. For example, the top quark does affect observables by loop corrections

e t +

e+ t

which lead to a top mass dependence in the predictions. The top mass was successfully predicted in the
right mass range by this indirect way.

15.1.3 Higgs search

The main production mechanism at LEP was

e+ Z
Z
Higgs bremsstrahlung

e H

Other production mechanisms such as

e e e e

Z W
H H
Z W

e+ e+ e+ e

79
are negligible at LEP.

e+ e ZH is sizeable if s MZ + MH . LEP II found that for s 208 GeV ; MH 114.4 GeV ; this is
the experimental lower bound for the Higgs boson.

The Higgs boson is present at the loop level even if not directly detectable. The preferred Higgs mass value
to fit the data implies that MH should be less than about 200 GeV, else radiative corrections induce a
discrepancy to the measured observables.

2
log(MH )

If the Standard Model is correct, we expect that the Higgs mass is in the window
114.4 GeV < MH < 200 GeV.

15.2 (Large) Hadron colliders

15.2.1 Parton model and proton structure functions

80
Appendix A

Representations of SU(2) and spin

This revision chapter may be insultingly simple and obvious. It will likely be not included or only skimmed
in the lectures.
On the other hand, if it is not obvious it may be very useful background reading. I wrote this chapter last
year after students requested extra help connecting group theory to flavour SU(3) and the Quark Model.
Please feel free to use your judgement.
1
Recall systems of two or more spin 2 particles have state that is a tensor product.

| i | i
| i | i
| i
| i (A.1)

Spin Sz
Recall the spins can be coupled to form 1 -1,0,1
0 0
We will consider this coupling in a more group-theoretic fashion to (hopefully) make connection with the
language of the Standard Model lectures in a familiar context.
For absolute clarity, please note the tensor product is important. The resulting four states is the product
2 2, not sum 2 + 2. For example, combining three particles yields 23 = 8 states (not 6!).

| i | i
| i | i
| i
| i
| i
| i
| i
| i (A.2)

These can be comined by pairing the first two as above

3

 

s= 2 ; sz 23 , 12 , 21 , 32
s = 1 ; sz 1, 0, 1
s= 1
2 ; sz 21 , 12 s= 1
2 ; sz 21 , 21 (1 21 ) (A.3)
s=0 ; sz 0 1
s= 2 ; sz 21 , 21 (0 21 )

81
A.0.2 Matrix notation for spin

In matrix form, and unit vector notation the single particle states are:
 
1
| i = = e0
 0  (A.4)
0
| i = = e1
1

We can enumerate the tensor product of two states as a four component vector

E = ej ek ; = j + 2k (A.5)

The states of the two particle system are then defined by four amplitudes

cjk C ; = j + 2k (A.6)

as
= cjk ej ek (A.7)
Equivalently

C0 | i
C1 | i
= C E =
C2 | i

(A.8)
C3 | i

A.0.3 Single particle operators

Define:
1
Sx = 1
2
1
Sy = 2
2
1
Sz = 3 . (A.9)
2
Then
3
S 2 = Sx2 + Sy2 + Sz2 = 1
4 
1 1
= +1 1
2 2
= s(s + 1)1 (A.10)

and eigenvalues of Sz for eigenvectors ej are

1
Sz e j = e j (A.11)
2
The raising and lowering operators for Sz are S = Sx iSy . Explicitly,
   
0 1 0 0
S+ = S = (A.12)
0 0 1 0

Note, however, that the eigenvalues of Sx , and Sy are also 21 , and that the commutation relations

[i , j ] = 2iijk k (A.13)

are symmetrical among x y z. The basis we have chosen has Sz diagonal, but a good change of basis
would equally leave Sx or Sy diagonal. Physics doesnt care which axes are used. Rotation must be a good
symmetry of the equations provided we know how to transform the states under rotation.

82
A.1 SU(2) transformations of Pauli spinors
The state vectors we use to describe our probabilities must transform as we rotate our axes because Sz must
change if we rotate the z-axis while keeping the physics constant.
In particular, if we stand on our heads, the state | i must get transformed to the state | i as the particle
across the room did not change.
The su(2) algebra is isomorphic to the so(3) rotation algebra. However the group SU (2) is twice as big as
the group SO(3) and this enables fractional spin 12 as follows.
We consider an SU(2) transformation g = eij j which we will later associate with a rotation.
 
c0
= = g (A.14)
c1

Of course,

( ) = g g = (A.15)
3
( ) S 2 = g 1g = s(s + 1). (A.16)
4
Both probability and total angular momentum are preserved. Now consider

( ) = g g. (A.17)

Here the expectation of, say, z has changed in the new basis not unnaturally as we just changed our
definition of directions.
However, gg now represents the spins in the old basis when measured using the new basis. These have
not changed, physics has remained constant.

( ) gg = g gg g = . (A.18)

We now construct the explicit mapping between rotations and SU(2) group elements

A.1.1 Weyl homomorphism & Spin- 21

For a unit vector n

and real number a

exp(ia(
n )) = cos a + i(
n ) sin a (A.19)

This can be easily checked using the power series for exponential.
Consider any vector r. We define mapping between vectors and the Lie algebra via the matrix M = r =
rj j .
We also consider a general group element is g = cos a + i(
n ) sin a. Observe:

gM g = [cos a + i sin a(
n )] (r ) [cos a i sin a(
n )]
= cos2 a(r ) + u sin a cos a [( n )] + sin2 a(
n )(r ) (r )( n )(r )(
n )
 2  2
= cos ar 2 sin a cos a(n x) + sin a [2(r n )(
n ) (r )]
 
= cos 2ar sin 2an r + 2 sin2 a(r n) n
= [cos (r (r n
)
n) sin
n r + (r n
)
n] (A.20)

where we have used [i , j ] = 2iijk k and {i , j } = 2ij 1.

We have obtained the Weyl homomorphism mapping an SU(2) element g defined by a and n
and a rotation
of the vector r by an angle = 2a around the axis defined by n
.
Note that the periodicity of the rotation is = 2, while the periodicity of the SU(2) transformation g is
a = 2 = 4!

83
Both the element 1 and 1 of SU(2) correspond to the same rotation by 2.
Recall, for orbital angular momentum L = n continuous rotation by 2 causes the spherical harmonics to pass
through 1 precisely n times, and there to be 2n changes of sign. Under these rules the Weyl homomorphism
corresponds to fractional spin n = 12 in terms of orbital angular dependence.
States transformations under SU(2) can be thought of as a multi-branched function of rotations. For the
reasonable and continuous choice of following these branches:
Rotations by 2 produce 1, while rotations by 4 produce 1: like a Moebius strip you have to rotate around
twice to get back to where you started.
The kernel of a homomorphism H is the set of group elements that map to the identity in the image group.
Here KerH = {1, 1} Z2 .
The co-sets of KerH within SU (2) form a group SU (2)/Z2 . This factored group is isomorphic to SO(3).

A.2 SU(2) transformations of multi-particle states

Recall three spin 21 particles formed one s = 3

2 and two s = 1
2 multiplets. By multiplets we mean a family
of states differing in Sz

A.2.1 Different multiplets do not mix

Note that that S 2 cannot be changed by an SU(2) transformation. In fact the two s = 12 do not mix with
each other because one was symmetric and the other anti-symmetric under interchange of first two particles.
This will be seen to be an important and general feature.
3
s= 2 sz = ( 32 , 21 , 12 , 23 ) different sz s in same multiplet mix under rotation
1
s= 2 sz = ( 12 , 12 ) different sz s in same multiplet mix under rotation
1 1 1
Thus, 2 2 2 has an SU(2) representation of the form:

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

3particle
0 0 0 0 0 0
D88 (g) =


(A.21)
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

This incredible simplification occurs only in this angular momentum basis. If such a block diagonal simpli-
fication can occur a representation is called reducible. If no such simplification can occur the representation
is called irreducible. We are interested in simplifying our tensor product of representations maximally
that is into the direct sum of a set of diagonal blocks each of which are irreducible.
We write this simplification as
1
Spin 2 21 = 1 0
Multiplicity 22=31
1 1 1 3 1 1
Spin 2 2 2 = 2 2 2
Multiplicity 222=422

A.3 Generators for tensor product representations

For
R1 R2
D(d 1 d2 )(d1 d2 )
(g) = DdR11d1 (g) DdR22d2 (g) (A.22)

84
Here matrices in R1 R2 can be thought of as indexed either by , 1, . . . , d1 d2 , or equivalently by
i, j, k, l where 
R1 R2 R1 R2 
D (g) = Dik (g) Djl (g) (A.23)
=i+d1 j;=k+d1 l
R
Since each Dik appears several times there is structure within this larger matrix that (it turns out) can be
simplified in general. The representation specific generators of R1 R2 can be easily found by considering
R1 R2
D(d 1 d2 )(d1 d2 )
(1 + ia ).
aR1 R2 = aR1 1d2 d2 + 1d1 d1 aR2 (A.24)

A.4 Explicit spin matrix calculation

Consider the case of two spin- 21 particles ( 21 21 ).

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 122 = 0 0
; 122 1 =
0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 i 0 0 0 0 i 0
i 0 0 0 0 0 0 i
2 122 = 0 0
; 122 2 = (A.25)
0 i i 0 0 0
0 0 i 0 0 i 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
3 122 = 0 0
; 122 3 =
1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

Now, we have the result we expect

1 0 0 0 | i
1 0 0 0 0 | i
SzR1 R2 = [3 1 + 1 3 ] =
0
(A.26)
2 0 0 0 | i
0 0 0 1 | i

Similarly, Sx and Sy can be added together. More interestingly we have raising and lowering operators for
the tensor product representation

0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
R1 R2
S+
= [(1 + i2 ) 1 + 1 (1 + i2 )] = (A.27)
2 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
R1 R2
S = [(1 i2 ) 1 + 1 (1 i2 )] =
1
(A.28)
2 0 0 0
0 1 1 0

Exercise:
a) Show
2 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
(S ) ==
R1 R2 2
0
(A.29)
1 1 0
0 0 0 2
b) Show that the four eigenvalues of S 2 are {2, 2, 2, 0} and explain this

85
A.4.1 Mapping out the possible states

How would we figure out the possible states if we didnt already know how to add angular momentum?

1. Start with state of highest weight

Take the tensor product of states in R1 and R2 with the maximum value of SzR1 and SzR2 . This is the
state of highest weight and yields.
1
0
| i =
0 (A.30)
0
2. Apply ladder operators
R1 R2
Apply S until you get zero.

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 0 = 1 [| i + | i] (A.31)
1 0 0 0 1
0 2
0 1 1
0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 = 0 [| i] (A.32)
0 1 1 0 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 = 0 (A.33)
0 1 1 0 1 0

Note SzR1 R2 gives eigenvalues 1,0,-1 for this sequence as expected.

3. Hop to other orthogonal representations by anti-symmetrising mixed states Find orthogonal states that
become anti-symmetric under exchange of two particles from the inner sections of the Sz ladder.

0
1 1
[| i | i]
1
(A.34)
2
0
Note:

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
S2 R1 R2
1 = Sz
= S+

R1 R2

= S

R1 R2

=0 (A.35)
1 1 1
0 0 0 0

This suggests a basis transformation

1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
P =
0
(A.36)
1 1 0
0 0 0 1
In this transformed basis, for any g SU(2),

0 1 0 0 0
0 0
1 R1 R2
P D (g)P
0
(A.37)
0 1 0 0
0 0

This is the mathematical meaning of 2 2 = 1 3

86
Appendix B

Muon decay phase space details

We integrate the phase space for the muon decay three body final state: We consider the rest frame of the
muon:

p1 = (m , 0)
p1 = p2 + p3 + p4 .
p1 p3 = m Ee

We have
(p1 p3 )2 = (p2 + p4 )2
p2 p4 = 21 (m2 m2e ) m Ee
Thus |M|2 can be expressed purely in terms of the energy Ee , simplifying angular integrals below. We take
the approximation me = 0, and then

3
1 d p2 d3 p3 d3 p4
d = |M|2 2m 3
(2 )2E
4 4
(2 3 )2Ee (2 3 )2Ee (2) (p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 )

R |M|2 3
d p3 d p43
2
dp2 d = 16m (2 3 ) (2 3 ) E Ee Ee (m E E e Ee )

p3 |, p~ = ~
p4 |, Ee = |~
where we are subject to constraints Ee = |~ p |.
p3 ~p4 , and E = |~

The following sequence is the tricky bit in 3 body!

We take spherical coordinates for the p3 integral d3 p3 = p23 dd cos dp3 , and as the angle between p3 and
p4 :
|M|2 d3 p4 R E e
d = 16m 4
(2 )
dp3 d(cos ) E E e
(m E Ee Ee )

p
Observe that with u = |p2 | = |p3 |2 + |p4 |2 + 2|p3 ||p4 | cos , then du = p3 p4 psin
2
d
, and so

|M|2 d3 p4 dp3 R u=|p3 +p4 |

d = 16m (2 4 ) p24 u=|p3 p4 | (m Ee u Ee )du

Here energy conservation constrains which p3 values contribute a non-zero result to the integral. For the
delta function to contribute we require

|p3 p4 | m |p3 | p4 |p3 + p4 |

m
and so p3 2 |p4 |
m
and p3 2

87
Thus we have m

d3 p4 R2
d = 16m (2)4 p24
|M|2 dp3
m
2 p4
m
 4 R
2
g m d3 p4
= MW 16(2)4 p24
p3 (m 2p3 )dp3
m
p4
 4 
2

g m d3 p4 m
= MW 16(2)4 p24
p24 2 23 p34
 4  m 
g m d3 p4
= MW 16(2)4 2 32 p4

 4 R m  m 
g m d3 p4
= MW 8(2)3
0
2
p24 dp4 2 32 p4
 4 h 3 i
g m d3 p4 m
= MW 8(2)3 96
 4
m g m
= MW 6144 3

88