Element 2 - Environmental Risk Evaluation

1.0 Introduction
Environmental risks are approached by identifying the most suitable control strategy and then trying to control
the risks at least cost. We call this cost benefit analysis where there is a level of financial account in the control of
environmental risk.

1.1 Cost Benefit Analysis as Applied to

Environmental Risk
Environmental risks are approached by identifying the most suitable control strategy and then trying to control
the risks at least cost. We call this cost benefit analysis where there is a level of financial account in the control of
environmental risk.

Cost benefit analysis is advocated in UK legislation in the form of control systems which are the best available
technique not entailing excessive cost (BATNEEC).

Costs - These are incurred by industry, government and society

Benefits these are defined as reductions in risks to the health and the environment arising from regulation.

Guidance in the setting of environmental objectives and targets in the environmental management system ISO
14001 states that

When considering their technological options, an organisation may consider the use of Best Available Technology

where economically viable, cost-effective and judged appropriate. The reference to the financial requirements of

the organisation is not intended to imply that organisations are obliged to use cost-accounting methodologies.

Cost-benefit analysis is mainly, but not exclusively, used to assess the value for money of very large private and
public sector projects. This is because such projects tend to include costs and benefits that are less amenable to
being expressed in financial or monetary terms (e.g. environmental damage), as well as those that can be
expressed in monetary terms. The accuracy of the outcome of a cost-benefit analysis is dependent on how
accurately costs and benefits have been estimated. All stakeholders should play a part in the weighting of factors.

1.2 Techniques for Environmental Valuation

In order to assess the economic value of environmental good, methods have been defined to assess this. These
methods are devised to identify an individuals willingness to pay for a benefit and their willingness to accept
compensation for tolerating a cost of foregoing a benefit. The methods can be based on two approaches: revealed
preferences and stated preferences.

Revealed preferences

Revealed preference approaches include Dose-response function, market values, hedonci markets and travel
cost/discrete choice, wage risk and property.
Stated preferences

These include Contingent valuation and conjoint analysis approaches.

Travel Cost Method

The travel cost method is used to estimate economic use values associated with ecosystems or sites that are
used for recreation. The method can be used to estimate the economic benefits or costs resulting from:

changes in access costs for a recreational site

elimination of an existing recreational site

addition of a new recreational site

changes in environmental quality at a recreational site

The basic premise of the travel cost method is that the time and travel cost expenses that people incur to visit a
site represent the price of access to the site. Thus, peoples willingness to pay to visit the site can be estimated
based on the number of trips that they make at different travel costs. This is analogous to estimating peoples
willingness to pay for a marketed good based on the quantity demanded at different prices.

Hedonic Pricing Method

The hedonic pricing method is used to estimate economic values for ecosystem or environmental services that
directly affect market prices. It is most commonly applied to variations in property prices that reflect the value of
local environmental attributes.

It can be used to estimate economic benefits or costs associated with:

environmental quality, including air pollution, water pollution, or noise

environmental amenities, such as aesthetic views or proximity to recreational sites

The basic premise of the hedonic pricing method is that the price of a marketed good is related to its
characteristics, or the services it provides. The hedonic pricing method is most often used to value environmental
amenities that affect the price of residential properties. e.g. the presence of woodland which may enhance the
value of a property.

Contingent Valuation

This is both an economic tool and community analysis tool. It is considered most useful during the strategy
development phase, where it is often used in deciding how much to charge for a good or service. It is a part of a
family of tools that addresses issues of benefits not traded in markets; for example, environmental quality and
historic cities. The approach is based on interviews with a representative sample group in an area. The interview
consists of three stages which include:

a detailed description of the goods being valued and the hypothetical circumstance under which it is made

available to the respondent,

Questions which bring out the willingness to pay for the good to be provided.

Questions about the respondent characteristics (for example: age, income), their preference relevant to

the good(s) being valued, ad their use of the good(s).This information is then generalized for a

representative group of people

Contingent Ranking (or Conjoint Analysis)

This ranks alternatives with one of the alternatives pinned to a money price, i.e. would you be prepared to pay
more or less for something than X. Conjoint analysis uses profiles which are bundles of attributes, for example,
when evaluating a preference for paper, respondents are given several profile cards each of which contains a
unique paper product composed of different textures, colours, thickness, weight and price and they are asked for
their preference.

1.3 Dose Response/Production Function

Dose-response functions measure the relationship between exposure to pollution as a cause and specific
outcomes as an effect. They refer to damages/production losses incurred in the current year, regardless of when
the pollution occurs. Such functions are available for the impacts on human health, building materials, and crops,
caused by a range of pollutants such as primary and secondary (i.e. nitrates, sulfates) particles, ozone, CO, SO2,
NOx, Benzene.

Replacement Cost

The cost of replacement of an asset may be used as another cost factor. However, replacement value is not
always representative of actual costs incurred, for example by loss of production as a result of product failure.

CBA and Sustainability

As we have seen from unit A1 the accepted definition of sustainability is the concept of meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Short term gain has to
be calculated over the needs of future generations and the rate at which society values the present with respect
to the future is referred to as the `social time preference`.

CBA and Stakeholder Analysis

The costs and benefits for individual stakeholders may be very different. With the use of stakeholder analysis, key
players, winners and losers can be identified. The behaviour of these individuals can then be anticipated and
planned for.

1.4 Sensitivity and Scenario Analysis

Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the variation in the output of a model (numerical or otherwise) can be
apportioned, qualitatively or quantitatively, to different sources of variation. Sensitivity analysis is used to test the
vulnerability of options to unavoidable future uncertainties. The substitution of different values for a variable
shows by how much it would have to fall (if a benefit) or rise (if a cost) to make it not worth pursuing an option.
Sensitivity analysis can be undertaken with scenario analysis.

Scenario analysis is a process of analysing possible future events by considering alternative possible outcomes
(scenarios). The analysis is designed to allow improved decision-making by allowing more complete consideration
of outcomes and their implications. Scenarios are useful to show how options may be affected by future
uncertainty.

Cost Benefit Analysis Conclusion

The accuracy of the outcome of a cost-benefit analysis is dependent on how accurately costs and benefits have
been estimated. It can be used effectively to inform the decision making process but the most economically
efficient option does not necessarily mean it is the one most socially desirable or sustainable.
2.0 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Introduction

There has been a growth in interest in environmental issues such as sustainability and the better management of
development in harmony with the environment.

The present environmental impact assessment regime in England and Wales and Scotland is based on the 1985
European Council Directive 85/337/EEC on the Assessment of the Effects of Certain Public and Private Projects on
the Environment (the EIA Directive) (It is interesting to note that EIA legislation was introduced in the USA in the
1970s).

Directive 97/11/EC amends the original Directive 85/337/EEC on 'The assessment of the effects of certain public
and private projects on the environment', which came into effect in July 1988 Since its introduction in the UK in
1988, it has been a major growth area for planning practice. It is therefore surprising that the introduction of EIA
met with strong resistance.

It was amended and extended in 1997. Many developers saw it as yet another costly and time-consuming
constraint on development, and central government was also unenthusiastic.

In England and Wales the Directive is implemented by the Town and Country Planning
(Environmental Impact Assessment) ( England and Wales ) Regulations 1999. These principal regulations were
made by the then Secretary of the State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions using powers conferred
on him by the Town and Country Planning Act 1990. Other regulations covering specific types of development
include: The Environmental Impact Assessment (uncultivated land and Semi-natural Areas) ( England )
Regulations 2001.

In Northern Ireland, the Department of the Environment made The Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment)
Regulations ( Northern Ireland ) 1999, and other specific regulations.

In Scotland the Directive is implemented by regulations made by the Scottish Ministers, including the
Environmental ImpactAssessment (Scotland) Regulations 1999 and other more specific regulations , for example
the Environmental Impact Assessment (Forest) (Scotland) Regulations 1999.

2.1 What is an Environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA)?
There are numerous definitions of Environmental Impact Assessment. The term
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) describes an important procedure for ensuring that the likely effects of
new development on the environment are fully understood and taken into account before the development is
allowed to go ahead. The process was formerly referred to in the UK as `environmental assessment' (EA).

The process EIA is a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of development actions,
in advance. The process is a means of drawing together, an assessment of a projects likely significant
environmental effects. This helps ensure that the importance of the predicted effects, and the scope for reducing
them, are properly understood by the public and the relevant competent authority before it makes its decision.
Planners have traditionally assessed the impacts of developments on the environment, but invariably not in the
systematic, holistic and multi-disciplinary way required by EIA. Environmental impactassessment enables
environmental factors to be given due weight, along with economic or social factors, when planning applications
are being considered. It helps to promote a sustainable pattern of physical development and land and property
use in cities, towns and the countryside. If properly carried out, it benefits all those involved in the planning
process.
2.2 Who is Involved in an EIA?
The Developer

From the developer's point of view, the preparation of an environmental statement in parallel with project design
provides a useful framework within which environmental considerations and design development can interact.
Environmental analysis may indicate ways in which the project can be modified to avoid possible adverse effects,
for example through considering more environmentally friendly alternatives. Taking these steps is likely to make
the formal planning approval stages run more smoothly.

The Planning Authority

For the planning authority and other public bodies with environmental responsibilities,
environmental impact assessment provides a basis for better decision making. More thorough analysis of the
implications of a new project before a planning application is made, and the provision of more comprehensive
information with the application, should enable authorities to make swifter decisions. While the responsibility for
compiling the environmental statement rests with the developer, it is expected that the developer will consult
those with relevant information, and the Regulations specifically require that public authorities which have
information in their possession which is relevant to the preparation of the environmental statement should make
it available to the developer.

The General Public

The general public's interest in a major project is often expressed as concern about the possibility of unknown or
unforeseen effects. By providing a full analysis of a project's effects, an environmental statement can help to
allay fears created by lack of information. At the same time, early engagement with the public when plans are
still fluid can enable developers to make adjustments which will help to secure a smoother passage for the
proposed development and result in a better environmental outcome. The environmental statement can also help
to inform the public on the substantive issues which the local planning authority will have to consider in reaching
a decision. It is a requirement of the Regulations that the environmental statement must include a description of
the project and its likely effects together with a summary in non-technical language. One of the aims of a good
environmental statement should be to enable readers to understand for themselves how its conclusions have
been reached, and to form their own judgements on the significance of the environmental issues raised by the
project.

2.3 Identification of Projects Requiring Formal

Environmental Assessment
The regulations prohibit the Local Planning Authority (LPA) from granting planning consent unless the
requirements of the regulations have been complied with. The first stage in the process requires the Local
Planning Authority to determine whether or not the proposed development requires an
Environmental Impact Assessment.

If an applicant is unsure whether or not an Environmental Impact Assessment is required, a draft plan can be
submitted showing the location of the proposed development and a description of the proposal and likely
environmental effects.

The Local Planning Authority will consider in which category, if either, the proposal falls, or whether the proposal
is outside the scope of the EIA regime.

The Regulations apply to two separate lists of projects, Schedule 1 and Schedule 2:
i. 'Schedule 1 projects', for which EIA is required in every case;

ii. 'Schedule 2 projects', for which EIA is required only if the particular project in question is judged likely to give
rise to significant environmental effects.

Schedule 1 Projects

For Schedule 1 projects, whether or not a particular project falls within the scope of the Regulations will normally
be clear: several of the definitions of Schedule 1 projects incorporate an indication of scale, in the form of a
quantified threshold based on throughput, size etc., which clearly identifies the projects requiring EIA.

Although installations dealing with smaller quantities may not have the potential to cause significant
environmental impact, these would not automatically come under Schedule 1 but may fall under Schedule 2 due
to their size, nature or location.

Where there is any doubt about a project's inclusion in Schedule 1, the procedures described below can be used
to obtain an opinion from the planning authority or a direction from the Secretary of State (or, in Wales, the
National Assembly for Wales).

Crude oil refineries (>500 t d-1)

Thermal power stations (>300 MW)

Nuclear power stations

Nuclear fuel processing and production installations

Iron and Steel Works

Asbestos extraction and processing

Integrated chemical installations

Long distance railway lines

Airport runways >2100 m long

Motorways and express roads

New roads >4 lanes, or 2 lanes >10 km long

Inland waterways, ports and piers to take vessels >1350 t

Waste incinerators for, and landfill, of hazardous waste

Waste incinerators of non-hazardous waste >100 t d-1

Groundwater abstraction >10 x 10 6 m3Y-1

Movement of water >10x106m3y-1

Wastewater treatment works serving >150 000 people

Petroleum (<500 td-1) and natural gas extraction (>500 000 m3d-1)

Dams >10X106m3 storage capacity

Water, gas, oil and chemical pipelines >800mm diameter and >40 km long

Intensive farming units (>85 000 broilers, 60 000 hens, 3000 pigs or 900 sows)

Timber pulp and paper plants >200 td-1

Quarries and open cast mining >25 ha, or peat extraction >150 ha

Table 1. Developments that require an EIA under Schedule 1

Schedule 2 Projects

For the much longer list of Schedule 2 projects, the issue turns on the likelihood of 'significantenvironmental
effects'. For the different types of project described in column 1 of Schedule 2, the 1999 Regulations introduced a
system of thresholds and criteria, shown in column 2, as a method of discounting development which is not likely
to have significant effects on the environment. For development where the applicable threshold or criterion is not
exceeded or met, EIA is not normally required.

However, even where the threshold or criterion is not met or exceeded, EIA may be required if the proposed
development is in, or partly in, a 'sensitive area'.

In exceptional circumstances the Secretary of State (or, in Wales, the National Assembly for Wales) may exercise
his power under the Regulations to direct that a particular type of Schedule 2 development requires EIA even if it
is not to be located in a sensitive area and does not exceed or meet the applicable threshold or criterion.

The more environmentally sensitive the location, the more likely it is that the effects of development will be
significant and that EIA will be required. That is why the thresholds and criteria do not apply where development
is proposed in, or partly in, a `sensitive area' as defined in the Regulations. Such areas include Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSIs), National Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the Broads, World Heritage Sites
and scheduled monuments.

There is no general presumption that every Schedule 2 development in a sensitive area will require EIA.
Nevertheless, in the case of development to be located in or close to SSSIs, especially those which are also
international conservation sites such as Ramsarsites or Special Protection Areas for birds, the likely environmental
effects will often be such as to require EIA.
Agriculture Intensive agriculture, irrigation, drainage fish

farms.

Extractive Industry Quarries, mines, dredging, deep drilling, fossil

fuels

Energy Industry Steam raising, fuel storage, fuel briquetting,

hydroelectric, wind farms (0.5 MW)

Processing of Metals Pig iron, mills, foundries, melting of non-

ferrous alloys, electroplating: ship, aircraft,

railway and road vehicle manufacturers works

Mineral Industry Coke ovens, cement, asbestos, glass fibre,

mineral fibre, ceramic works

Chemical Industry Intermediate production of chemicals,

production of pharmaceutical products, paint,

pesticides and some other chemicals; storage

of petroleum etc.

Food Industry Manufacture of oil and vegetable fat, dairy

products, confectionery, syrup, starch or

sugar, slaughterhouses; brewing and malting;

fish-meal and oil processing

Textile, leather, etc. Paper and board, dying, tanneries, ceullulose

production

Rubber Manufacture of elastomer-based products

Infrastructure projects Industrial estates, urban developments and

trans-shipment facilities, railways, airfields,

roads, harbours, waterways, flood relief works

(river and coastal) dams, oil and gas pipelines,

aqueducts, groundwater abstraction,

motorway service areas.

Tourism and leisure Theme parks, holiday villages, caravan sites,

golf courses, sports stadia, ski runs

Table 2. Developments that require an EIA under Schedule 2

Environmental Impact Assessment ....

1.

A. ? Draws together an assessment of a projects likely significant environmental effects

B. ? All of the above

C. ? If properly carried out, benefits all those involved in the planning process

D. ? Helps promote a sustainable pattern of physical development

Who is involved in an Environmental Impact Assessment?

1.

A. ? General public

B. ? Developer

C. ? All of the above

D. ? Planning authority

2.4 'Permitted Development Rights' (PDRs)

Developments which do not require planning permission because of the provisions of the Town and Country
Planning (General Permitted Development) Order 1995 (SI No 418) continue to enjoy PDRs provided that they do
not fall into Schedule 1 or 2 of the EIA Regulations. For developments that do fall within Schedule 1 or 2, the
general position is as follows.

Schedule 1 projects are not permitted development, and always require the submission of a planning application
and an environmental statement.

PDRs for Schedule 2 projects which either exceed or meet the applicable threshold or criterion, or are wholly or
partly in a sensitive area, are also withdrawn, unless the local planning authority has adopted a screening opinion
(or the Secretary of State (or, in Wales, the National Assembly for Wales) has directed) to the effect that EIA is
not required.

There are exceptions to these provisions in the case of the following classes in Schedule 2 to the 1995 Order: Part
7, Class D of Part 8, Part 11, Class B of Part 12, Class F (a) of Part 17, Class A of Part 20, Class B of Part 20, and
Class B of Part 21. These exceptions exist for a variety of reasons, for example, some relate to projects subject to
alternative consent procedures, and others to projects begun before Directive 85/337/EEC came into operation.

http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19950418_en_1.htm

2.5 Screening & Scoping

Screening refers to the decision as to whether an EIA is required or not. In the UK , this is a decision that can be
taken by the developer and often will be if the project is of a type or size where an EIA is clearly required or if
they wish to be seen to be addressing the environmental effects of their development.
For most projects, particularly those covered by Annex 2 of the directive, the deter mining authority is likely to be
asked to give a screening opinion. Their decision will be based on the type of criteria included in Annex 3 of the
directive, more detailed guidance issued by the European Commission and the government and the opinions of
government agencies (e.g. English Nature and theEnvironment Agency) and relevant local authority personnel
(e.g. environmental health officers).

Scoping

The purpose of EIA is to focus on the significant environmental effects of a devel opment, not on all of the
environmental effects that can be thought of. The purpose of scoping is to identify the effects that are most likely
to be significant in order to focus the time and resources devoted to the EIA on the important issues. The
identification of the key effects is usually undertaken using a combination of professional judgement and
gathering the opinions of others, particularly the determining authority and other government agencies.

Scoping is usually undertaken by those responsible for the EIA. However, there is provision in the EIA Directive
for the developer to request a 'scoping opinion' from the determining authority. When this is requested it is
usually accompanied by a report that outlines what the developer and consultants consider to be the most
important issues. The determining authority will consult with other government agencies (statutory consultees)
and amend or add to the developer's report accordingly.

The advantage of seeking a scoping opinion is that the developer will have some assurance that the issues being
addressed by the EIA will be those that are considered to be important by the determining authority when a
decision is to be made on the project.

To a degree, the scoping stage of an EIA continues throughout the process, for example, the identification of an
unacceptable environmental effect may lead to a redesign of the project, which in turn could lead to the main
environmental effects of the project changing, hence the scope of the EIA will also change.

An applicant for planning permission may ask the LPA for a screening opinion before submitting the application.
The LPA must decide whether the development proposal is likely to fall within Schedule 2 and will therefore
require an EIA. Schedule 3 to the regulations lists the type of information that must be considered when deciding
if an EIA is needed. The scoping opinion is a letter from the Local Planning Authority which guides the applicant
on the areas of work to be included in the EIA and ensures that all concerns of the Local Planning Authority are
addressed. The Local Planning Authority then has five weeks to provide its opinion on the likely significant effects
on the environment and other impacts and issues. The scoping opinion document then forms the basis for the full
environmental impact assessment.

It must be noted however, that in some circumstances there is provision for the Secretary of State to become
involved, although the procedure still follows the similar lines as illustrated in the flow chart (seen in the following
pages).

2.6 Characteristics of the Development

How will `Significance` be assessed?

Developments which meet or exceed the applicable threshold are considered on a case-by-case basis. For the
purpose of determining whether EIA is necessary, those of the selection criteria set out in Schedule 3 to the
Regulations which are relevant to the proposed development, must be taken into account. The selection criteria
fall into the three broad headings: size of the development, location of the development, and characteristics of
the potential impact.

Size

Combined effects with other developments

 Use of natural resources

Production of waste

Pollution and nuisance

Risk of accidents

Location of the development

Existing land use

Natural resources in the area

Absorption capacity of the natural environment

Areas where environmental quality standards have been exceeded

Densely populated areas

Landscapes of historical, cultural or archaeological significance

Characteristics of the potential impact

Extent including the area of the development and number of people

Transfrontier impacts

Magnitude and complexity

Probability of the impact

Duration, frequency and reversibility of the impact

For obvious reasons there can be no general definition of what constitutes significance. General guidance on how
to assess `significance' is contained in DETR Circular 2/99 (Welsh Office Circular 11/99); and rulings may be
obtained from the local planning authority or the Secretary of State (or, in Wales, the National Assembly for
Wales) on whether EIA is required in particular cases. Essentially the Circular suggests that there are three main
criteria of significance:

i. major developments which are of more than local importance;

ii. developments which are proposed for particularly environmentally sensitive or vulnerable locations; this
includes Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), nature conservation areas; National Parks and the Norfolk
Broads; World Heritage Sites; Ancient monuments and archaeological areas; areas of outstanding natural beauty
(AONB); special conservation areas.

iii. developments with unusually complex and potentially hazardous environmental effects.

These are very general guidelines and, to assist in their application to particular cases, the Circular also sets out
indicative thresholds and criteria by reference to particular categories of development listed in Schedule 2 to the
Regulations.

It will be obvious that none of these guidelines can be applied as hard and fast rules; circumstances are bound to
vary greatly from case to case. Some large-scale projects which exceed the indicative thresholds may not be
significant enough to require EIA; some smaller projects, particularly in sensitive locations, may be candidates for
EIA. Nevertheless, the guidance in the Circular should provide a starting point for consideration by the developer
and the planning authority of the need for EIA. If the matter is referred to the Secretary of State (or, in Wales ,
the National Assembly for Wales ), he will have regard to the published criteria.

2.6.1 EIA Flow Charts

2.7 Procedures for the Preparation & Submission
of Formal Environmental Statement
The Environmental Impact Assessment is then embodied in an environmental impact statement (EIS) which is
now often required by law before a new project can proceed

Information that should be included in environmental statements

1. A description of the proposal

This should include detailed drawn plans. These tend to be a maximum size of A3 folded to A4. Generally these
are less detailed than the formal plans submitted with the application.

2. An outline of the alternatives considered

Alternatives may include alternative fuel sources, locations or processes which may use different raw materials.
The choice of proposal should be justified.

3. A description of the environment likely to be affected

All of the potential impacts both adverse and beneficial of the development should be considered and the
activities, operations and processes that give rise to the effects should be identified. Pathways between the
source of the pollution and the receiver should be identified. This was covered in Unit A1 of this course. Please
refer to the Source, Pathway, Target model of pollutionfigure below:
Human Beings Population - changes, inward/outward migration

Housing - temporary construction/permanent

Services - demand for hospitals/schools/shops etc

Industrial noise
Noise Transportation noise

Leisure noise

Domestic noise

Blasting
Vibration construction

demolition

track

machinery

Noise/vibration
Traffic & Transport Air Pollution

Visual Impact

Capacity

Agriculture-land quality,
Land Use Rural economy access and severance,

Land drainage.

Forestry species, yield, loss of timber, impacts on remaining

trees, future management, habitats/wildlife

 Mineral extraction/waste disposal

Pollution-soil/water/air
Flora & Fauna Micro-climate
(ecology) Groundwater

Hydrology

Disturbance

Habitat inter-relationships

Indirect-distant loss

Soil loss, destruction, physical damage

Soil, geology & Contaminated land
hydrology Chemical-metals, organic wastes, gases, radionuclides

Geology-instability, Sites of Specific Scientific Interest (SSSI)

Hydrogeology-alteration to groundwater flow/derogation of

supply/contamination

Run-off changes to catchment / surface characteristics

Water Groundwater resources

Water quality

Odour
Air and Climate Dust

Combustion products (power)

Traffic emissions

Manufacturing emissions

Landfill gas

Character/history of landscape
Landscape Nature/extent of landscape changes

Status of landscape (national/regional)

Significance in terms of value-scenic value, rarity, typicality

Visual impact - zone of visual influence

Archaeology/monuments-marine and land

Cultural heritage & World heritage sites
Material assets Historic (listed) buildings

Conservation areas

Historic landscapes

Parks and gardens

Battlefields

Table 1 Environmental Impacts

2.8 Likely Significant Effects on the Environment
The pollutant emissions due to the operation of the development should be estimated. Next the impacts have to
be assessed predicted and wherever possible quantified. The direct and indirect impacts have to be assessed as
well as the long-term, medium-term and short-term effects. Some impacts could also be reversible and this
should not be overlooked. Each environmental effect under consideration will probably require a different method
of prediction assessment. From scientific such as noise monitoring, to a combination of science, experience and
good judgment.

The EIA does not consider the concept of the best practicable environmental option (BPEO) although it is included
in when considering alternative proposals and operations.

The UK Environment Agency, however, moves closer to this concept under the IPPC regime for permitting certain
industrial installations.

The assessment of the emissions to air can be quite complex due to the need to address local, national and
possibly internationalaspects.

The assessment of the emissions will have to include, as appropriate, the following:

Fixed sources (e.g. flues, chimneys and exhausts),

Mobile sources (e.g. vehicles and mobile plant)

Fugitive emissions (e.g. escape through open doors or during delivery of chemicals, raw materials or dust

blowing off stockpiles or yards.

Particular attention must be paid to pollutants have the potential to harm human health or the environment.

The assessment of the impacts will often be based on a combination of measurements and predictions.
Background data will be required in order to assess the impacts, but one of the problems is the need to measure
over a long time period.

2.8.1 Impact on Land

There are two principal routes for soil contamination to occur: direct contamination and indirect contamination.
The former is often as a result of leachate, spillage or the polluting material directly entering the soil. The latter
can be from airborne pollutants being washed into the ground or deposited on the ground. The need to address
contaminated land issues was recognised by the government and procedures were laid down by the Environment
Act 1995.

Contaminated land is defined in the Environment Act 1995. An adequate EIA, including appropriate mitigation
measures, should ensure that land contamination, as defined in the 1995 Act, does not occur. Contaminated land
is defined in the Environment Act 1995 as land which can cause, or is likely to cause, significant harm i.e. harm
to the health of living organisms or to other ecological systems or damage to property.

Noise and Vibration

The impacts of noise are varied and site specific and one of the key issues concerning noise impacts is the
difference between the noise emission and the background levels. Vibration will mainly effect people in buildings,
and the responses vary according to the type of vibration.
Impacts on Water

There are two major potential impacts to the water medium: hydrological or polluting and their consequences
include:-

Surface run-off to watercourses such as ditches, streams, rivers or canals;

Raising or lowering the water table.

Whilst these impacts should be in included in an EIA, they are beyond the scope of this course.

2.9 Measures to Reduce or Offset the Impacts

For each of the media considered there may be a need to describe some of the measures that will be incorporated
into the development to ensure that the environmental impact of the proposal is acceptable. In most cases the
mitigation will be site specific and influenced by the media likely to be affected as well as the pollutant.

Air

In some situations, it can be difficult to control emissions to air particularly with emissions from transport and
fugitive emissions.

Land

The land contamination issues are likely to be most complex when brownfield sites are being redeveloped. The UK
Government is actively encouraging the redevelopment of brownfield sites for a range of uses, including
residential development.

Noise

Noise mitigation can be of many types but the key opportunities include practices and systems to reduce or
control noise, and specific noise mitigation measures. Noise control methods can include:

Enclosures

louvers

barriers

quiet road surfaces

distance

silencers

lagging,

Active noise control

Noise can be dramatically reduced by producing exactly the same noise at the same volume as the source noise
but 180 degrees out of phase. Since the nodes then coincide with the antinodes, the effect is zero pressure and
hence silence theoretically.

General maintenance, impact deadening, noise management plan (good noise management can significantly
reduce the impact of noisy operations. This may simply be in accordance with accepted custom and practice or it
may be formalised into a noise management plan.

Water
In the case of water, mitigation could include design, maintenance of plant and equipment, design of drainage,
sewerage and effluent treatment systems, bunding around storage tanks.

2.10 A Non-Technical Summary

This must be included in the Environmental Impact Assessment. It should include a description of the proposed
development and any environmental impacts, and any measures needed to mitigate the impact.

An indication of any difficulties encountered when compiling the Environmental Impact Assessment.
Some aspects of the Environmental impact assessment may be difficult to assess for a variety of reasons,
including insufficient time to collect enough background data, or the time of the year preventing the assessment
of some of the flora and fauna present on a site. Uncertainties in prediction and assessments should be included
in the statement.

2.11 Submission of the Environmental Statement

with the Planning Application
To enable a planning application to be processed as quickly as possible, it is in the developer's interest to submit
an environmental statement at the same time as the application is made. It will be for the planning authority to
judge how much information is required in the particular case, but the preparation of an environmental statement
is bound to require the developer to work out proposals in some detail; otherwise any thorough appraisal of likely
effects will be impossible.

Where an application is in outline, the planning authority will still need to have sufficient information on a
project's likely effects to enable it to judge whether the development should take place or not. The information
given in the environmental statement will have an important bearing on whether matters may be reserved in an
outline permission; it will be important to ensure that the development does not take place in a form which would
lead to significantly different effects from those considered at the planning application stage.

When the developer submits an environmental statement at the same time as the planning application, three
further copies must also be submitted for onward transmission by the planning authority to the Secretary of State
(or, in Wales, the National Assembly for Wales ).

The developer is also required to provide the planning authority with sufficient copies of the environmental
statement to enable one to be sent to each of the statutory consultees. Alternatively, the developer may send
copies of the statement directly to the consultees. When submitting the application, the developer must inform
the planning authority of the name of every body - whether or not it is a statutory consultee - to which a copy of
the statement has been sent.

The developer should make a reasonable number of copies of the statement available for members of the public.
A reasonable charge reflecting printing and distribution costs may be made

2.11 Submission of the Environmental Statement

with the Planning Application (Cont.)
Public consultation and participation aims to assure the quality, comprehensiveness and effectiveness of the EIA,
as well as to ensure that the public's views are adequately taken into consideration in the decision-making
process.
 EIS presentation is a vital step in the process.

EIA may be negated.

If done badly, much good work in the EIA may be negated.

The review involves a systematic appraisal of the quality of the EIS, as a contribution to the decision-making
process.

Decision-making on the project involves a consideration by the relevant authority of the EIS (including
consultation responses) together with other material considerations.

Post-decision monitoring involves the recording of outcomes associated with development impacts, after a
decision to proceed. It can contribute to effective project management.

Auditing follows from monitoring. It can involve comparing actual outcomes with predicted outcomes, and can be
used to assess the quality of predictions and the effectiveness of mitigation. It provides a vital step in the EIA
learning process.

The environmental impact statement provides documentation of the information and estimates of impacts derived
from the various steps in the process. An EIS revealing many significant unavoidable adverse impacts would
provide valuable information that could contribute to the abandonment or substantial modification of a proposed
development action. Where adverse impacts can be successfully reduced through mitigation measures, there may
be a different decision. An example of the content of an EIS for a project is given below:

Documentation

Part 1: Methods and key issues

1. Methods statement

2. Summary of key issues', monitoring programme statement

Part 2: Background to the proposed development

3. Preliminary studies: need, planning, alternatives, site selection

4. Site description/baseline conditions

5. Description of proposed development

6. Construction activities and programme

Part 3: Environmental impact assessment

A description of the likely significant effects (direct and indirect) on the environment, explained by reference to
the following areas.

7. Land use, landscape and visual quality

8. Geology, topography and soils

9. Hydrology and water quality

10. Air quality and climate

11. Ecology: terrestrial and aquatic

12. Noise

13. Transport

14. Socio-economic cultural heritage, employment, education, housing etc.

15. Interrelationships between effects.

A non-technical summary is an important element in the documentation'.

EIA can be complex and the summary can help to improve communication where public participation is involved.
Reflecting the potential complexity of the process, a method statement, at the beginning, provides an opportunity
to clarify some basic information (e.g. who is the developer, who has produced the EIS, who has been consulted
and how, what methods have been used, what difficulties have been encountered and what are the limitations of
the EIA).

A summary statement of key issues, up-front, can also help to improve communications. More enlightened EIS
would also include a monitoring programme, either at the beginning or at the end of the document. The
background to the proposed development covers the early steps in the EIA process, including clear descriptions of
the project, and baseline conditions (including relevant planning policies and plans). Within each of the topic
areas of the EIS there would normally be discussion of existing conditions, predicted impacts, scope for mitigation
and residual impacts.

EIA and EIS practice vary from study to study, from country to country, and best practice is constantly evolving.
Greater emphasis is now being put on the socio- economic dimension, to public participation, and to ''after the
decision'' activity, such as monitoring.

Assessment of emissions to the air will have to include (as appropriate) ...

1.

A. ? Fixed sources (flues, chimneys & exhausts)

B. ? All of the above

C. ? Fugitive emissions (those escaping through open doors or during delivery)

D. ? Mobile sources (vehicles & mobile plant)

3.0 Environmental Modelling

Principles and application of environmental modelling and their limitations.

Environmental modelling is a useful tool for understanding and predicting environmental changes over various
times and areas. Models can be used to explore ideas regarding environmental systems that may not be possible
to field-test for logistical, political or financial reasons. The process of formulating a model can be extremely
valuable for organising thought, identifying hidden assumptions and identifying data needs. Fast computers and
graphical software packages have removed the drudgery of computation and opened up new areas of model
construction.
A model is a representation of a particular thing, idea or conditions. It can be as simple as a verbal statement
about a subject, or a single relationship between two things or extremely complex and detailed, e.g. climate
change models.

In this course, you are not expected to be able to develop or use the models discussed below, but to have an
understanding of what models are used for, their applications and some of their limitations.

3.1 Steps in Model Creation and Use Develop

Conceptual Model
These are generally written as diagrams with boxes and arrows, to provide a compact visual statement of the
problem. The model should incorporate sufficient detail to capture the necessary environmental structure and
processes, and still be simple enough to be useful. It should enable the analyst to formulate hypotheses, identify
the available data and what additional data is required.

Develop Quantitative Model

A quantitative model is a set of mathematical expressions, coefficients and data attached to a conceptual model.
These enable predictions to be made for the values of state variables under varying circumstances.

Sensitivity analysis of a quantitative model can identify which processes and coefficients have the greatest effect
on the results. It explores whether the conclusions would change if the parameters, initial values or equations
were different.

Models can be based on empirical (observed) data or they can be more mechanistic, being based on hypotheses
regarding the processes involved. They can become quite complex, particularly when they are used as a basis for
policy and resource management decisions. Often they are used to generate predictions for situations where
actual tests are impossible to run, due to environmental, social or economic reasons, or where the timescales
involved are too long, e.g. impact over 100 year time span .

Deterministic and Stochastic Models

A deterministic model has no random components and every time it is run with the same parameters and
conditions, the same results will be produced. In contrast, a stochastic model has at least one random factor, so
as to produce different results each time the model is run, simulating environmental variability. The randomness
can be introduced using probability distributions, by adding random errors or by using random number
generators. Results are usually cast as probabilities.

3.2 Typical Scales of Environmental Models

Some common scaling problems include:

Difficulties in aggregation of large-scale behaviour from local processes due to spatial variation and non-

linear processes.
Different processes predominate at different scales, correlations derived at one scale may not be

appropriate at another.
The interaction between processes operating at different scales, e.g. small, fast local processes may be

constrained by large, slow ones.

Emergent properties from mutual interaction of small-scale components.
 Temporal lags in the response of a system to perturbation.

GIS and Environmental Modelling

As many environmental models involve a spatial component, they lend themselves to the use of GIS
(Geographical Information and Spatial Referencing Systems). The inputs and outputs can be stored in an efficient
fashion and easily related to information from other sources, e.g. farm boundaries or land use, and it is possible
to link these to the high-quality graphics and animation capabilities of GIS, in a way that makes it possible to
convey abstract technical concepts and modelling to a non-technical audience.

Scaling

Scientific knowledge of environmental processes has largely been developed through their study at a local level.
Study at this level reveals the critical causes of environmental change and the processes can be accurately
simulated. However, the problems affecting us now are often expressed on regional and global scales.

Example Applications

Climate change.

Surface water.

Groundwater.

Watershed/water catchment.

Ecosystem.

3.3 Dispersion and Transport of Pollutants in the

Atmosphere
A pollutant plume emitted from a single source will be transported in the direction of the mean wind. It is acted
upon by the prevailing level of atmospheric turbulence, which causes the plume to grow in size as it entrains the
(usually cleaner) air. There are two main methods of generating atmospheric turbulence: mechanical turbulence
(generated as the air flows over obstacles on the ground), and convective turbulence (associated with solar
radiation).
Air Modelling Use of Models

Models are used for regulatory purposes to show compliance with a given set of parameters, given as part of a
legal permit (as for example, under the Pollution Prevention and Control Regulations 2000). They are also
used for support of a given policy or course of action, for the provision of public information, or for use in
scientific research.

Dispersion models describe how pollutants are spread and mixed in the atmosphere. Mathematical procedures are
used to calculate pollutant concentrations based on emission rates (mass of pollutant emitted over time) and
dilution rates (the volume of surrounding air into which the pollutant is being mixed, per unit time). In this way,
dispersion models link measured air quality with emissions data.

In air pollution assessments, all parts of the cause and effect chain have to be evaluated, and whereas air
quality monitoringmay be defined as the systematic collection of information from measurements and other
means, monitoring alone will not achieve the best possible description of the concentration or space/time
relationships. Spatial scales may vary from street level up to the global scale, and although measurements may
form an important part of monitoring, for many purposes, models are often needed to establish larger scale
average exposures or deposition fields.

The reasons for modelling include greater representation of effects under changing conditions, such as release
quantities, meteorological conditions or to account for the local topography. Models can also be used to predict
the effect of various sources and emission scenarios.

3.4 Types of Model

The following types of model can be distinguished:

Plume rise models: in most cases, pollutants injected into ambient air from chimneys or stacks possess an
initial momentum. Plume rise models calculate the displacement and general behaviour of the plume in the initial
dispersion phase.

Gaussian models: the Gaussian plume model is the most common air pollution model, based on the
assumption that the plume concentration has a predicted size and shape, which can be represented by a known
mathematical equation.

Semi-empirical models: this category consists of several types of model used for practical applications.

There are many other specialist models available, e.g. Eulerian models, Lagrangian models, chemical models,
receptor models andstochastic models. Each have uses for specialist circumstances, which are beyond the scope
of the syllabus.

3.5 Gaussian Model: the Gaussian Plume Approach

The Gaussian Plume Model will be discussed because it gives results adequate for most practical applications, and
the quality of the emission and meteorological data does not justify the use of the increased resources required to
run more complex models.

In the Gaussian Plume approach, the expanding plume has a Gaussian (or Normal ) distribution of concentration
in the vertical and lateral directions. This approach is used for modelling a plume emission from 0-100 kms.
Variations of this straightforward approach lead to increasing mathematical complexity, and are a specialised
subject outside of the requirements of the syllabus.
Uses of Atmospheric Models

Atmospheric models are broadly any mathematical procedure which results in the estimation of ambient air
quality parameters (concentrations, depositions and exceedances). Process-orientated models are based on the
description of physical and chemical processes, starting with emissions, atmospheric advection and dispersion,
chemical transformation (from one chemical to another, as in the formation of acids from emissions of sulphur
oxides), and deposition. Statistical models are valuable tools in the diagnosis of air quality by means of the
interpolation and extrapolation of measuring data.

As an environmental manager, you may have to use a specialist company to model releases as part of legislative
requirements. Models may be needed, for example, to predict the effects of a deposition after an unplanned
release of pollutants, as required under the COMAH Regulations. They can also be used to improve emission
inventories, monitoring programmes and assist in planning control measures. Models are therefore indispensable
in air quality assessment studies, and can be used to estimate past, present and future air quality.

There are limitations to the use of these models; once a model has been developed, it is relatively easy (and
inexpensive) to use the model for further applications. However, collecting the necessary input data can be
expensive and cumbersome. Uncertainties in model results can be large, as they may be introduced by the model
concept and the input data (emission data and meteorology).

It is important to be aware that predictions from climate models are always subject to uncertainty because of
limitations on our knowledge of how the climate system works, and on the power of the computing resources
available. Different climate models can give different predictions.

Stochastic models have no random components and every time it is run

with the same parameters and conditions, the same result will be
produced?

1.

A. ? False

B. ? True

3.6 Dispersion in Water

The following information is taken from SEPA (Scottish Environment Protection Agency); there is more detail here
than you will be required to remember for the NEBOSH examination, but it is included here to enable you to
understand and appreciate the subject. Again, it is not the expectation of the examiners that you are able to
construct a model of this type, but you are expected to have an understanding of the parameters and
considerations made in developing a model.

The impact of a discharge on any water body is dependent on discharge quality and quantity, and prevailing
physical and chemical conditions of the waters receiving the discharge. In contrast to a river, the physical and
chemical conditions of tidal waters are highly variable both spatially and temporally due to tide and wind currents,
the bathymetry of the sea bed and seasonal river flow and quality.

Therefore, in order to assess the impact of a discharge to a tidal water body, it is necessary to predict the
duration over which the pollutants may act, the area of impact and whether any other discharges (diffuse or
point) might impact the same area. This assessment is normally made with some form of predictive model to
enable simulation of different discharge quality parameters, in combination with the different physical and
chemical conditions of the receiving waters.
Models vary greatly in type and complexity, but it is essential that the model chosen is appropriate to the
situation in which it is being utilised. It is also important that the model is properly calibrated and validated, in
order to ensure that the model output is reliable and accurate. Once again this is a specialist area which requires
an expert in the field to carry out the modelling process.

In the case of water modelling, the amount of data and the complexity of the data will depend on whether the
water system is a river, an estuary or coastal system. This is because tidal effects, mixing effects and degrees of
salinity all affect the behaviour of pollutants.

3.7 Defining the Model

It is essential to define the major issues and variables under consideration at the outset, in order to select an
appropriate model:

Model Grid constitutes key data such as depth, topography, river inputs, tidal elevations, flows at boundaries,
etc. needed to calibrate and validate the model

Model Duration is the temporal extent of the discharge. It defines the duration over which the model simulates
processes, which may be a number of tidal cycles, days, weeks, months or even years.

Model Domain is the spatial extent of the model, determined from a knowledge of the location and temporal
effect of the discharge.

Model Dimensionality is decided once the model domain and duration is known. It requires knowledge of the
hydrography of the area and behaviour of the pollutants. It describes how the area is divided:

One-dimensional model (1D) has a single scale, e.g. length down an estuary.

Two-dimensional model (2D) has two scales, e.g. length and depth of estuary.

Three-dimensional model (3D) has three scales; length, width and depth. With ever-increasing computing

power, 3D models will become more attractive as the real problem is three dimensional, and using a 3D

model removes another simplifying assumption.

3.8 Model Types

The three basic types of model are described below.

Hydrodynamic Model

The hydrodynamic model predicts the surface elevations and current velocity field across the model grid. It
provides the flow and dispersion data that can be used to run other models, such as water quality or particle
tracking. This frequently includes the dispersion of a conservative tracer, commonly calibrated against
observations of salinity in marine work. Although these models can be quite time consuming to run, once run the
output files can be used to model scenarios for different outfall locations and conditions.

Water Quality Model

Water quality models simulate the chemical reactions that take place within the water body modelled. Depending
on the requirements of the study, the simulation can be limited to a single determinant, or a number of
determinants. The more complex the model, the more complex the data required to set-up, calibrate and validate
the results.

It is important that the tool used is demonstrated to be suitable for the problem to be solved. A common error is
to implement a model that is more sophisticated than required and then encounter problems with calibration and
validation.

Particle Tracking Model

Particle tracking models simulate the behaviour of compounds or organisms in the water column by representing
them as a number of particles. These are adverted and dispersed throughout the water body using a flow field
obtained from a hydrodynamic model or from surveys. The model simulates the behaviour of these particles over
time, including processes such as bacterial die-off or variable buoyancy.

These models run much faster than most water quality or hydrodynamic models, as they read the flow field from
data files rather than computing them. The model tracks and records the movement of particles through time.
Another advantage of these models is that runs can be made for different environmental conditions and
percentile plots of compliance may be created. Particle tracking is commonly used for bacterial modelling.

3.9 Model Set-Up

Data Requirements

Data is required to set-up the model and to validate and calibrate the model against observations. The set-up
data is required to define the bathymetry within the model, and to provide boundary and initial conditions.
Remember that the data inputted into the model is the key factor; without valid data, the model predictions
cannot represent the likely situation. In some cases, adequate data is difficult to obtain and this should be
explained in the model results.

Boundary conditions are necessary to describe the inputs to the models, which may be riverine or point source
discharge data, plus tidal flow and elevations at the seaward boundary of the model.

Initial conditions data is required to set parameters, particularly water quality, at the start of the model run. This
could be water depth or the number of plankton per square metre.

Model Calibration

Calibration is the process by which the model is adjusted to reproduce the characteristics of the study area, for a
given set of conditions. The model output is compared against observed measurements and model parameters,
and coefficients are adjusted to improve agreement.

Calibration data for hydrodynamic models may consist of water levels, current speeds and directions, drogue
tracks, salinity measurements and dye-tracking data. To achieve calibration of the tidal cycle, the model is often
compared to tidal heights or flows that have been harmonically analysed to remove the wind effect from
observations.

However, if the model is to be used to simulate wind effects, it is equally important that the model is compared
against the observed data.

Other important considerations for hydrodynamic model calibration are:

Location and number of data points.

 Accuracy of calibration data.

Distribution of data with respect to model dimensionality; vertical and lateral required level of agreement

between model output and observations from field surveys, sampling, etc, for example, is the model fit

for purpose and what degree of adjustment is necessary to demonstrate agreement?

Typically the model resolution, the bathymetry and sea bed roughness coefficient are adjusted to improve
agreement to the desired level. Good agreement between predicted and observed salinities and dye-tracking
results is necessary to demonstrate that the model accurately reproduces the dispersive characteristics of the
study area. This is essential to achieve accurate water quality simulations.

Calibration data for water quality models consists of concentrations of the variables of interest at points
throughout the model area, over the period of interest. Seasonal variations may be important for some
parameters, such as nutrients and chlorophyll. The considerations listed previously for hydrodynamic calibration
are important for water quality calibration. In addition, it is important that all inputs to the model area, e.g. from
outfalls or rivers are accurately specified.

The reaction rates and coefficients in equations describing chemical kinetics in the water column are adjusted to
improve agreement between water quality predictions and observations to the desired level. In general, the level
is less for water quality than for hydrodynamics because of greater environmental variability of water quality
parameters.

3.10 Model Validation

This demonstrates model accuracy by comparison of model output with a separate, independent data set. The
model should provide good agreement without further adjustment.

Sensitivity Testing

Once a model has been set-up, calibrated and validated, it is important to test the sensitivity of the model output
to the key input parameters, i.e. the boundary and initial conditions. A model report should always include a
section on sensitivity testing, demonstrating the variation in model output in relation to variation in the input
data.

Some models have automatic sensitivity testing routines, others require the operator to make a number of runs,
while manually varying the input parameters. It is important to check and understand model sensitivity to both
boundary and initial conditions.

Initial Dilution

Effluent discharged to tidal waters is typically buoyant due to the difference in density between the effluent and
surrounding saline waters. Without adequate initial dilution, effluent upwelling can create surface slicks, causing
significant aesthetic impact at the very least.

Initial dilution is the process whereby the discharge from a submerged outfall is entrained by surrounding waters,
as a result of turbulent mixing and discharge buoyancy relative to ambient water density. The main factors
controlling the initial dilution afforded by an outfall are:

water depth;

ambient current;

effluent density;
 outfall diffuser design (number of ports, port diameter, discharge rate, etc.).

It is normally calculated using a stand-alone model or set of equations and then factored into the inputs of a
more detailed model.

3.11 Estuarine Modelling

Estuaries may receive a number of major discharges in close proximity, requiring that any model takes account of
combined inputs. Thus, estuarine modelling studies benefit from detailed knowledge of all contributing sources.
This is important when modelling overall impact, as opposed to the effect of a single discharge.

Estuaries are characterised by a longitudinal variation in salinity from coastal seawater at the seaward boundary
to zero at the upstream fresh water boundary. Conditions within an estuary are dynamic and complex through the
combination of tidal forcing, winds and variation in freshwater inputs. Longitudinal and lateral variations in
salinity, and hence water density, can have a significant effect on estuarine hydrodynamics, mixing and
subsequent water quality. Selection of an appropriate numerical model with the capability to reproduce these
features (if present) is essential.

Conditions within estuaries can vary from well mixed to partially mixed to stratified, depending largely on tidal
range, but also on depth and fresh water input. In a well-mixed estuary, longitudinal variability is most significant
and it is often acceptable to assume lateral and vertical variations are small and thus a 1D time varying model
(dynamic) is the most appropriate choice. For hydrodynamics this will simulate tidally forced variations in water
level and current velocity along the length of the estuary. The model output corresponds to cross-sectionally
averaged conditions at any point along the length of the estuary.

If estuary width is significant, but there is good vertical mixing, then a 2D depth-averaged model may be
appropriate. These models predict lateral variations in conditions. However, if vertical stratification is significant
due to temperature and density differences, but lateral variations are small, a 2D width-averaged model is most
appropriate. Finally, if both width and depth variation are important within the areas of interest, a 3D dynamic
model is required.

Estuaries can be prone to Dissolved Oxygen (DO) depletion and are a major source of nutrient inputs to coastal
waters, from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Therefore, the water quality model chosen must be capable
of simulating complex processes and relationships.

Coastal Waters

Coastal waters, in contrast with estuaries, are generally less bounded, with reduced significance of freshwater
inputs. However, lateral variability can seldom be ignored and the significance of wind effects is greater. It is often
reasonable to build a model to simulate only one specific discharge.

Although the model domain might include other sources, it may be reasonable to demonstrate that the effects of
the discharges under consideration will not overlap. The model domain is often much larger for a coastal model
and the water quality models may be more sophisticated wherever eutrophication is an issue.

Spatial variability generally requires at least a two-dimensional model. When depth variation can be
demonstrated to be negligible, a 2D depth averaged model is appropriate. The location of the seaward boundary
is often critical both for the provision of reasonable data and in determining the area of impact for the model. In
areas where both lateral and vertical structure are significant, 3D models are necessary. This may be caused by
water depth, low tidal energy, seasonal density patterns possibly increased freshwater influence in winter or
increased surface warming in summer.
3.12 Limitations of Monitoring and Modelling
A single sample for one process will seldom be an adequate basis for control decisions.

The means of data collection, the accuracy of the data analysis, and the limits of accuracy of the test/detectable
limits and all the factors relating to the reliability of the information, must be sought. The relevant factors relating
to the monitoring and/or sampling must be recorded along with the results as a reference. This information may
include nature of the sample, method of collection and analysis, relevant local conditions including meteorological
conditions, and time and temperature at the time of sampling.

Modelling, Monitoring and Control

Monitoring is not a means of control. It is a means by which failure and defects in control are made apparent,
and a means of demonstrating the continued effectiveness of controls.

4.0 Life Cycle Analysis

Definitions:

Definitions of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) differ in detail. The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
(SETAC) definition is:''Life cycle analysis is an objective process to evaluate the environmental burdens
associated with a product, process or activity by identifying and quantifying energy and materials used
and wastes released to the environment, and to evaluate and implement opportunities to affect environmental
improvements. The assessment includes the entire life cycle of the product, process or activity, encompassing
extraction and processing raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/re-
use/maintenance, recycling and final disposal''

A second definition is: ''Environmental LCA or product life analysis (PLA) are detailed studies of the energy
requirements, raw material usage and water, air, and solid wastes generation of an activity, material, product or
package throughout its entire Iifecycle.

4.1 Cradle-to-Grave Concept

When we refer to a products life cycle we mean from the cradle (extraction of raw material) to the grave (when
the product is discarded).

The use of life cycle analysis enables organisations to adopts a holistic approach to their environmental
assessments whilst allowing them to identify their significant indirect environmental aspects. Life cycle analysis
can be conducted at any part of the life cycle such as at the stages before manufacture, or nearer the end of life
stage to identify and minimise the environmental effects of a companys operations.

Life cycle analysis is not a requirement of an Environmental Management System (EMS) (or ISO 14001 and
EMAS.

Use of life cycle analysis depends upon

1. the problem in question

2. The resources available

3. the time available for reaching a decision

Life cycles analysis compiles material, energy and waste flows and evaluates the environmental impacts
associated with the provision of a product or service throughout its life cycle.

As life cycle analysis views the wider picture, it differs from many other environmental assessments which merely
consider elements that make up a stage in the life cycle.

There are also important distinctions between life cycle analysis and life cycle assessment. Life cycle analysis is
the collection of data it produces an inventory whereas assessment goes one stage further and adds on an
evaluation of the inventory.

Life cycle analysis does not define or explain actual environmental effect, for example, a life cycle analysis will tell
us how many grams of limestone are used to make a bottle of mineral water and how much energy was used to
extract it. But it does not tell us the environmental impact of this action, such as whether limestone is a scarce
resource or whether its extraction causes pollution.

Life cycle analysis serves to address issues such as:

what are the life-cycle impacts generated by a product or process and how do different products or

processes compare?
Assess process efficiencies for a given output - calculate energy and material usage efficiencies within a

given economic sector or activity and identify areas for improvement

4.2 Principles and Techniques of Life Cycle

Analysis
An environmental footprint is the term used when referring to the impacts of a product or service, for example, a
life cycle analysis may be used to determine the different packaging options that can be provided for a litre of
milk, in a carton, glass bottle, plastic, or cardboard carton.

There are four phases in conducting a life cycle analysis which are as follows:

1. goal and scope definition

2. life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis

3. life cycle impact assessment

4. interpretation

4.2.1 Goal & Scope Definition

It is important that there a clear definition of the goal and scope at the beginning of the assessment. This ensures
that the information collected throughout the assessment remains relevant. This depends on the reasons why the
organisation wants to undertake the assessment and what they want from the exercise. This can be simple or
complicated. They can be focussed on key issues such as the global warming potential of the system, or detailed
and comprehensive looking at the inputs right through to the breakdown and analysis of each stage

The definition of the goal depends on the following factors:

The intended application of the life cycle analysis

 The reason for conducting it and the intended audience

What specific decisions the life cycle analysis will be used to help with

The scope must be linked with the goal and should define the breadth and depth of the assessment needed to
address the goal. The scope should include:

Definition of the function of the system being investigated, including the functional unit

Definition of the system boundaries

Methods of gathering the data

Key assumptions and limitations

So, the first step in LCA is to define what needs to be done, and early attempts at LCA failed through not defining
the system boundary. When the boundaries are defined, the ''cradle to the grave'' analysis requires that each
input in each process is traced back to resources taken from the environment, while outputs are followed to the
final release into the environment. Effectively, a flow chart is produced.

4.2.2. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis

Inventory analysis involves the compilation and quantification of the material, energy and waste flows
(environmental aspects).

The inventory stage is the process of identifying the energy, raw materials and wastes generated in the
production, distribution, use and disposal of the material, energy or waste.

It maps the system stages and the inputs and outputs in accordance with the goal and scope.

The data on the materials can either be `situation specific` or generic.

Once obtained the data needs to be expressed in terms of the unit flow or product through each stage of the
system and, ultimately, to the functional unit.

4.2.3 Impact Assessment

This phase aims to evaluate the significance of environmental impacts using the results of the life cycle analysis.

Impact Categories (classification)

A key step in impact assessment is the selection of impact categories. These might include global climate change,
acidification, air quality, stratospheric ozone depletion, biological oxygen demand (BOD), eutrophication, toxicity
of substances and resource depletion.

Characterisation

This step applies numeric `indicators` related to the impact category, e.g. they exist as ozone depletion
potentials, photochemical ozone creation potentials and global warming potentials.

Valuation
This step is subjective as it attempts to give value to the data so that different impacts can be compared. This
stage requires clear explanation of how the ranking or weighting scores are arrived at, so that the process is
transparent.

4.2.4. Interpretation
At this stage, the findings of the life cycle assessment are reviewed. They are checked to see if they are
consistent and that the assumptions are sound. This must also be linked to the goal and the scope of the life
cycle assessment, and will identify priorities for improvement.

Another example..
Which phase of the Life Cycle Analysis involves the compilation and quantification of the environmental aspects?

1.

A. ? Life cycle inventory analysis

B. ? Interpretation

C. ? Life cycle impact assessment

D. ? Goal and scope definition

5.0 General Requirements for Risk Assessment

Through the use of the environmental risk assessment management tool, available information on an
environmental problem can be organised and analysed.

It has some aspects in common with other decision making tools, such as environmental impact assessment
(EIA) and strategic environmental assessment (SEA), as risk assessment addresses probability and uncertainty it
makes it ideally suited to distinguishing between adverse environmental impacts (or consequences) that could
occur, and the likelihood (probability) of theimpacts actually occurring.

Good corporate governance involves risk profiling across organisations and as we have seen from Unit A1, there
are legal, moral and financial reasons for managing environmental risk. As a result, many large corporations have
risk management committees that report periodically to the board and they have risk management systems that
allow unacceptable risks to be managed.

The main objectives of risk assessment is to determine the measures required to comply with relevant, health,
safety and environmental legislation.

A risk assessment comprises the following elements:

Hazard identification a hazard is the potential of any activity, process or substance to cause harm

The risk is the likelihood of the hazard being realised.

The severity of the consequences of the event.

5.1 Risk Assessment

Once the information on the hazard, likelihood and severity of consequences are identified, a risk assessment can
then be conducted.

A Risk Assessment Model

Risk assessments may be quantitative or qualitative.

A quantitive risk assessment, using numerical values, can be used to quantify the risk level in terms of the
likelihood of an incident and its severity.

During a qualitative risk assessment a judgement is made as to whether the risk is probable in terms of high,
medium, low or negligible. The consequences are calculated on a scale of severe, moderate, mild or negligible.
Please see the qualitative risk assessment model below.
Complex environmental issues with significant consequences will invariably require a combination of qualitative
and quantitative analysis, usually because certain aspects of the system are better described than others.

Source: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/risk/eramguide/02.htm

Estimation of risk from consideration of magnitude, consequences and

probabilities

Increasing Consequences

acceptability
Severe Moderate Mild Negligible

Probability

High high high medium/low near zero

Medium high medium low near zero

Low high/medium medium/low low near zero

Negligible high/medium/low medium/low low near zero

Once the risk assessment has been conducted the next stage in the risk assessment is the control of the risk.

Environmental risk assessment is fundamental to all phases of development for waste management facilities,
from the strategic planning level through to the regulation of an individual facility. At the strategic level, risk
assessment informs decisions about land use, and underpins assessment of the environmental impact associated
with the site location considered, through the development planning process.

Risks from land contamination have historically been addressed on a suitable-for-use basis with most sites being
assessed for their future use under the planning regime. With the introduction of Part IIA of the Environmental
Protection Act 1990 the contaminated land regime in 2000, an increased awareness by regulators and
industry of the risks posed by land based on its current use has developed.

Under the Control of Major Accident Hazards (Amendment) Regulations (COMAH) 2005, there is a fundamental
requirement for operators to undertake an environmental risk assessment in a systematic way and to clearly
demonstrate that risks have been identified, and all necessary measures put in place to prevent major accidents
and to limit their consequences if they do occur

5.2 The Control of Major Accident Hazards

(Amendment) Regulations (COMAH) 2005
Introduction

The Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations (COMAH) implement the Seveso 11 Directive except for land-
use planning requirements which are implemented by changes to planning legislation. They replace the Control of
Industrial Major Accident Hazards Regulations 1984 (CIMAH) and came into force on let April 1999.
The COMAH Regulations require operators of major hazard establishments to take all measures necessary to
prevent major accidents and limit their consequences to persons and the environment. Major accident
establishments are those which involve dangerous substances such as toxic chemicals e.g. arsenic pentoxide,
liquefied petroleum gas, chlorine and explosives in their operations.

Plant failure or human error can lead to the uncontrolled escape of pollutants into the environment, in the form of
spills, leaks and releases leading to fire and explosion. Due to their unplanned nature they are difficult to control
as the following cases illustrate:

5.3 Learning from Past Incidents

Flixborough (Nypro UK ) Explosion 1st June 1974

Summary

Rupture of bypass system resulted in the escape of a large quantity of cyclohexane gas.

The cyclohexane formed a flammable mixture and subsequently found a source of ignition.

Site severly damaged by the resulting unconfined vapour cloud explosoin.

28 people killed - eighteen of these fatalities occurred in the control room as a result of the windows

shattering and the collapse of the roof.

36 people onsite and 53 people offsite were injured.

Extensive injuries and damage to 1,821 houses and 167 shops and factories.

Insurance costs 500 Million (2000 prices)

Plant rebuilt but closed down after a few years for commercial reasons

Brought to public awareness the hazards presented by major chemical sites

Seveso 1976

Reactor had gone out of control, overheating caused safety value to open

The high temperature caused an unusually high quantity of the by-product TCDD (2,3,7,8,-tetrachloro-

dibenzo-p-dioxin) to be produced
The safety valve did not vent to an enclosed system safely.

About 2kg of TCDD was released over a 20 minute period in Milan and brought down by rain in Seveso

(24km from release).

About 2kg of TCDD (dioxin) was released over a 20 minute period in Milan and brought down by rain in

Seveso (24km from release).

It contaminated about 4km2 of soil
 Dioxin is extremely toxic and associated with still births, deformities, cancer, blindness and chloracne.

External spillages are extremely persistent (not easily rendered harmless by exposure to the

environment).

Bhopal 3rd December 1984

a relief valve on a storage tank containing highly toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) lifted.

30 tonnes of Methyl-osocyanate (MIC) released

A cloud of MIC gas was released which drifted onto nearby housing.

3828 fatalities (official statistics)

Further 200,000 people injured inlcuding 11,200 with disabilities

Bhopal plant abandoned and remains chemically contaminated and slowly rotting

Union Carbide acquired by Dow Chemicals who are now the target of the Bhopal pressure groups

The severity of this accident makes it the worst recorded within the chemical industry.

Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster 1986

190 tonnes of radioactive uranium and graphite released

Radiation levels 300 times greater than Hiroshima

130,000 people permanently evacuated and resettled

30 fatalities from direct radiation injuries

Estimated worldwide cancers caused in their thousands

30 km radius from site rendered permanently uninhabitable due to plutonium contamination

5.4 Summary of COMAH Regulations

Objectives
Their main aim is to prevent and mitigate the effects of those major accidents involving dangerous substances,
such as chlorine, liquefied petroleum gas, explosives and arsenic pentoxide which can cause serious
damage/harm to people and/or the environment. The COMAH Regulations treat risks to the environment as
seriously as those to people.

Enforcement

The COMAH Regulations are enforced by a new competent authority (CA) consisting of:

In England and Wales -

The Health and Safety Executive and the Environment Agency

In Scotland -

The Health and Safety Executive and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. The CA will operate to a
Memorandum of Understanding which sets out the arrangements conjoint working.

The regulations place duties on the CA to inspect activities subject to COMAH and prohibit the operation of an
establishment if there is evidence that measures taken for prevention and mitigation of major accidents are
seriously deficient. It also has to examine safety reports and inform operators about the conclusions of its
examinations within a reasonable time period.

5.5 Charging
Charging will be introduced for work undertaken by the competent authority on COMAH. Charges will be made on
an actual basis i.e. the recovery of the full costs of the time spent by the CA in carrying out COMAH-related
activities for a particular establishment.

An industry liaison forum will be set up to discuss the operation of the financial and administrative arrangements
of the charging regime.

Application

The regulations apply to the chemical industry, but also some storage activities, explosives and nuclear sites and
other industries, where threshold quantities of dangerous substances identified in the regulations are kept or
used.

The substances which cause the duties to apply are detailed in Schedule 1 of the regulations as are the quantities
which set the two thresholds for application.

Operators of sites that hold large quantities of dangerous substances ('top tier' sites) are subject to more onerous
requirements than those of 'lower tier' sites.

5.6 Requirements
Sites that have enough dangerous substance present to take them over the lower threshold have lower-tier
duties. Sites that exceed the higher threshold have top-tier duties apply.
The key duties for operators of lower-tier sites are to notify basic details to the CA Operators of all establishments
subject to the regulations must notify certain basic details to the CA. The key points which have to be included in
the notification are given below, full details are given in Schedule 3 to the regulations.

Name and address of operator

address of establishment

name or position of person in charge

details of dangerous substances on site

activities

environmental details

Operators who come into scope of the regulations after 1 April 1999 must submit a notification before operation
begins (operation begins when the quantity of dangerous substance exceeds one of the thresholds and includes
commissioning).

Operators of existing establishments who had previously submitted CIMAH safety reports do not need to notify as
that report contains all the necessary information.

There is a general duty on all operators to submit a notification and take all measures necessary to prevent major
accidents and limit their consequences to people and the environment.

This duty underpins the regulations. It is a high standard which applies to all establishments within scope. By
requiring measures both for prevention and mitigation there is a recognition that all risks cannot be completely
eliminated. This in turn implies that proportionality must remain a key element in the enforcement policy of the
HSE and the Agencies. Thus, the phrase ''all measures necessary'' will be interpreted to include this principle and
a judgement will be made about the measures in place. Where hazards are high then high standards will be
required to ensure risks are acceptably low, in line with the HSE'S and Agencies' policy that enforcement should
be proportionate.

Prevention should be based on the principle of reducing risk to a level as low as is reasonably practicable (ALARP)
for human risks and using the best available technology not entailing excessive cost (BATNEEC) for environmental
risks. The ideal should always be, wherever possible, to avoid a hazard altogether.

Prepare a major accident prevention policy (MAPP)

Regulation 5 requires lower-tier operators to prepare a document setting out their policy for preventing major
accidents.

The MAPP will usually be a short and simple document setting down what is to be achieved but it should also
include a summary and further references to the safety management system that will be used to put the policy
into action. The detail will be contained in other documentation relating to the establishment e.g. plant operating
procedures, training records, job descriptions, audit reports, to which the MAPP can refer.

The MAPP also has to address issues relating to the safety management system.

The details are given in Schedule 2 of the regulations, the key areas are:
organisation and personnel

identification and evaluation of major hazards

operational control planning for emergencies monitoring,

audit and review.

Operators who come into scope of the regulations after 1 April 1999 must prepare their MAPP before operation
begins.
Top-tier operators

Top-tier operators have to comply with the above except that they do not have to prepare a separate major
accident prevention policy document - their safety reports (see below) have to include the information that lower-
tier operators provide in their MAPPS. They also have the additional duty of :-

Preparing a safety report

A safety report is a document prepared by the site operator and provides information to demonstrate to

the CA that all measures necessary for the prevention and mitigation of major accidents have been taken.

The purposes and contents of a safety report are set out in Schedule 4 to the Regulations.

The safety report must include:

a policy on how to prevent and mitigate major accidents;

a management system for implementing that policy',

an effective method for identifying any major accidents that might occur',

measures (such as safe plant and safe operating procedures) to prevent and mitigate major accidents',

information on the safety precautions built into the plant and equipment when it was designed and

constructed',
details of measures (such as fire-fighting, relief systems and filters) to limit the consequences of any

major accident that might occur', and

information about the emergency plan for the site, which is also used by the local authority in drawing up

an off-site emergency plan.

Safety reports will be available to the public via the competent authority registers, subject to safeguards for
national security, commercial and personal confidentiality.

The dates for submission of safety reports are set out in Regulation 7.

Operators of completely new establishments (so called green field sites) have to provide some information before
construction commences and complete the safety report before operation begins.

Operators whose establishments became COMAH top-tier after 1 April 1999 must submit their safety report
before operation at top-tier begins.

COMAH top-tier operators who had not previously submitted a CIMAH safety report must have submitted a
COMAH safety report by 3 February 2002 .

Top-tier operators who had previously submitted a CIMAH safety report must have submitted their first COMAH
safety report on the date their CIMAH safety report update would have been due or by 3 February 2001 if that
was earlier.

The safety report needs to be kept up to date. If there are any modifications to the plant or the way it is operated
or if new facts or information become available, the safety report must be reviewed and, if necessary, revised at
the time. It must be reviewed after five years even if there have not been any changes.

Prepare and test an on-site emergency plan

Top-tier operators must prepare an emergency plan to deal with the on-site consequences of a major accident
before operation begins. The details are given in Schedule 5 and further guidance from the HSE is available.
The must supply information to local authorities for off-site emergency planning purposes Local authorities play a
key role by preparing, reviewing, revising and testing off-site emergency plans for dealing with the off-site
consequences of major accidents at top-tier sites. In order to fulfil this role they need information from
operators.

Operators will need to hold discussions with their local authorities to determine their exact needs.

The information for the local authority must be supplied no later than the date the on- site emergency plan for
the site has to be completed.

Provide certain information to the public about their activities

People who could be affected by an accident at a COMAH establishment must be given information without having
to request it. The details are given in Schedule 6 of the regulations but include details of the dangerous
substances, the possible major accidents and their consequences and what to do in the event of an accident.

The information for people who could be affected by a major accident at the establishment must be supplied
'within a reasonable period of time after the off-site emergency plan has been prepared for the establishment'.
Six months would be the normal time.

Safety reports will be put on the public register shortly after receipt by the CA unless there is a request for
certain information to be withheld (for national security, commercial and personal confidentiality reasons) as
provided for in the regulations.

5.7 The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health

Regulations 2002 (COSHH)
Introduction

Arrangement of Regulations

1) Citation and commencement

2) Interpretation

3) Duties under these Regulations

4) Prohibitions on substances

5) Application of regulations 6 to 13

6) Assessment of health risks created by work involving substances hazardous to health.

7) Control of exposure

8) Use of control measures etc.

9) Maintenance of control measures

10) Monitoring exposure

11) Health surveillance

12) Information etc.

13) Arrangements to deal with accidents, incidents and emergencies

14) Exemption certificates

15) Extension outside Great Britain

16) Defence in proceedings for contravention of these Regulations

17) Exemptions relating to the Ministry of Defence etc.

18) Revocations, amendments and savings

19) Extension of meaning of work.

20) Modification of section 3(2) of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974.

5.8 Regulations
Regulation 2 Interpretation

Substances hazardous to health includes:

1) Substances which under the Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging) Regulations (CHIP 3) 2002 are in
categories of very toxic, harmful, corrosive or irritant.

2) A substance listed in schedule 1 to the Regulations or for which the HSC have approved a workplace exposure
limit.

3) A biological agent

4) Dust in a concentration in air equal to or greater than:

10mg/m3 inhalable dust as an 8hr TWA, or

4mg/m3 respirable dust as an 8hr TWA

5) Any other substance which creates a health hazard comparable with the hazards of the substances in the other
categories above.

Regulation 3 Duties

Are on employer to protect:

Employees

Any other person who may be affected, except:

Duties for health surveillance do not extend to non-employees

Duties to give information may extend to non-employees if they work on the premises.

Regulation 4 Prohibitions on Substances

Certain substances are prohibited from being used in some applications. These are detailed in Schedule 2 to the
Regs.

Regulation 5 Application of Regs. 6 13

Regs. 6 13 are made to protect a persons health from risks arising from exposure. They do not apply if:

The following Regs already apply:

The Control of Lead at Work Regulations (CLAW) 2002

The Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations (CAWR) 2002

The hazard arises from one of the following properties of the substance:

Radioactivity, explosive, flammable, high or low temperature, high pressure:

Exposure is for medical treatment.

Exposure is in a mine

Regulation 6 Assessment

The employer must not carry out work which will expose employees to substances hazardous to health unless he
has made an assessment of the risks to health and the steps that need to be taken to meet the requirements of
the Regs.

The assessment must be reviewed if there are any changes in the work and at least once every 5 years.

A suitable and sufficient assessment should include:

An assessment of the risks to health

The practicability of preventing exposure

Steps needed to achieve adequate control

An assessment of the risks should involve:

Types of substances including biological agents.

Where the substances are present and in what form.

Effects on the body

Who might be affected

Existing control measures.

Regulation 7 Control of Exposure

1) The employer shall ensure that the exposure of employees to substances hazardous to health is either
prevented or, where this is not reasonably practicable, adequately controlled.

2) So far as is reasonably practicable (1) above except to a carcinogen or biological agent shall be by measures
other than personal protective equipment (PPE)

3) Where not reasonably practicable to prevent exposure to a carcinogen by using an alternative substance or
process, the following measures shall apply:

Total enclosure of the process

Use of plant, process and systems which minimise generation of, or suppress and contain spills, leaks, dust,
fumes and vapours of carcinogens.

Limitations of quantities of a carcinogen at work

Keeping of numbers exposed to a minimum.

Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking in areas liable to contamination.

Provision of hygiene measures including adequate washing facilities and regular cleaning of walls and

surfaces.
Designation of areas/installations liable to contamination and use of suitable and sufficient warning signs.

Safe storage, handling and disposal of carcinogens and use of closed and clearly labelled containers.

4) If adequate control is not achieved, then employer shall provide suitable PPE to employees in addition to
taking control measures

5) PPE provided shall comply with The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations, 2002 (dealing with the
supply of PPE)

6&7) For substances which have a workplace exposure limit (WEL), control of that substance shall, so far as
inhalation is concerned, only be treated if the level of exposure is reduced so far as is reasonably practicable and
in any case below the WEL.

8) Respiratory protection must be suitable and of a type or conforming to a standard approved by the HSE.

9) In the event of failure of a control measure which may result in the escape of carcinogens, the employer shall
ensure:

Only those who are responsible for repair and maintenance work are permitted in the affected area and are
provided with PPE

Employees and other persons who may be affected are informed of the failure forthwith.

Regulation 8 Control Measures

Employer shall take all reasonable steps to ensure control measures, PPE, etc. are properly used, applied.

Employee shall make full and proper use of control measures, PPE etc. and shall report defects to employer.

Regulation 9 Maintenance of Control Measures

Employer providing control measures to comply with Reg.7 shall ensure that it is maintained in an efficient state,
in efficient working order and in good repair and in the case of PPE in a clean condition, properly stored in a well-
defined place checked at suitable intervals and when discovered to be defective repaired or replaced before
further use.

Contaminated PPE should be kept apart and cleaned, decontaminated or, if necessary destroyed.

Engineering controls employer shall ensure thorough examination and tests.

Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) - Once every 14 months unless process specified in Schedule 4.

Others at suitable intervals.

Respiratory protective equipment employer shall ensure thorough examination and tests at suitable intervals.
Records of all examinations, tests and repairs kept for five years.

Regulation 10 Monitoring Exposure

Employer shall ensure exposure if monitored if

Needed to ensure maintenance of adequate control.

Otherwise needed to protect health of employees.

Substances/processes specified in Schedule 5.

Records kept if:

There is an identified exposure of identifiable employee 40 years.

Otherwise 5 years

Regulation 11 Health Surveillance

1) Where appropriate for protection of health of employees exposed or liable to be exposed, employer shall
ensure suitable health surveillance.

2) Health surveillance is appropriate if>

Employee exposed to substance/process specified in Schedule 6

Exposure to substances is such that an identifiable disease or adverse health effect can result, there is a
reasonable likelihood of it occurring and a valid technique exists for detecting the indications of the disease or
effect.

3) Health records kept for at least 40 years.

4) If employer ceases business, HSE notified and health records offered to HSE.

5) If employee exposed to substance specified in schedule 6, then health surveillance shall include medical
surveillance ,under Employment Medical Adviser (EMA) at 12 monthly intervals or more frequently if specified
by EMA.

6) EMA can forbid employee to work in process or specify certain conditions for him to be employed in a process.

7) EMA can specify that health surveillance is to continue after exposure has ceased. Employer must ensure.

8) Employees to have access to their own health record.

9) Employee must attend for health/medical surveillance and give information to EMA.

10) EMA entitled to inspect workplace.

11) Where EMA suspends employee from work exposing him to substances hazardous to health, employer of
employee can apply to the HSE in writing within 28 days for that decision to be reviewed.

Regulation 12 Information etc.

Employer shall provide suitable and sufficient information, instruction and training for him to know:
Risks to health

Precautions to be taken

This should include information on:

Results of monitoring of exposure at workplace .

Results of collection health surveillance.

If the substances have been assigned a maximum exposure limit, then the employee/Safety Representative must
be notified forthwith if the MEL has been exceeded.

Regulation 13 Arrangements to deal with accidents, incidents and emergencies.

To protect the health of employees from accidents, incidents and emergencies, the employer shall ensure that:

Procedures are in place for first aid and safety drills (tested regularly).

Information on emergency arrangements is available.

Warning, communication systems, remedial action and rescue actions are available.

Information made available to emergency services: external and internal.

Steps taken to mitigate effects, restore situation to normal and inform employees.

Only essential persons allowed in area.

These duties do not apply where the risks to health is slight or measures in place Reg 7(1) are sufficient to
control the risk.

The employee must report any accident or incident which has or may have resulted in the release of a biological
agent which could cause severe human disease.

Schedule 3 Additional Provisions Relating to Work with Biological Agents.

Regulation 7 (10)

Part 1 Provision of general application to biological agents

1. Interpretation

2. Classification of biological agents.

The HSC shall approve and publish a categorisation of biological agents according to hazard and categories of
containment which may be revised or re-issued.

Where no approved classification exists, the employer shall assign the agent to one of four groups according to
the level of risk of infection.

Group 1 unlikely to cause human disease

Group 2 can cause human disease

Group 3 Can cause severe disease and spread to community

Group 4 can cause severe disease, spread to community and there is no effective treatment.

3. Special control measures for laboratories, animal rooms and industrial processes.

Every employer engaged in research, development teaching or diagnostic work involving group 2,3, or 4
biological agents; keeping or handling laboratory animals deliberately or naturally infected with those agents, or
industrial processes involving those agents, shall control them with the most suitable containment.

4. List of employees exposed to certain biological agents

The employer shall keep a list of employees exposed to Group 3 or 4 biological agents for at least 10 years. If
there is a long latency period then the list should be kept for 40 years.

5. Notification of the use of biological agents

Employers shall inform the HSE at least 20 days in advance of first time use of storage of Group 2, 3 or 4
biological hazards. Consequent substantial changes in procedure or process shall also be reported.

6. Notification of the consignment of biological agents

The HSE must be informed 30 days before certain biological agents are consigned.

Part 2 Containment measures for health and veterinary care facilities, laboratories and animal rooms.

Part 3 Containment measures for industrial processes

Part 4 Biohazard sign

The biohazard sign required by regulation 7(6) shall be in the form shown below

Part 5 Biological agents whose use is to be notified in accordance with paragraph 5(2) of Part 1 of this Schedule.

Any group 3 or 4 agent, or

Certain named Group 2 agents.

Which regulations require operators of major hazard establishments to take all measures necessary to prevent
major accidents and limit their consequences to persons and the environment?

1.

A. ? Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards Regulations (CIMAH) 1984

B. ? Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) 2005

C. ? Control of Major Accident Hazard Regulations (COMAH)1999

6.0 Assessment of Environmental Toxicity

Principles of environmental toxicity and ecotoxicity testing.
Definition

Environmental toxicology or ecotoxicology studies the effects of chemicals released into the environment on
animals and plants.

Chemicals in the Environment

Many chemicals are released into the environment as a by-product of industrial processes or as a result of
purposeful agricultural or domestic use (as in the case of fertilisers and pesticides). It is estimated that there are
between 20,000 and 70,000 compounds Worldwide in common use; these chemicals may or may not have a toxic
effect upon different species.

As Paraclesus, a 16th century scientist said all substances are poisonous: it is the dose that determines whether
they act as a poison or a remedy.

A chemical may be potentially harmful but if there is no exposure to people or wildlife, there is no risk of harm.
Thus, in determining the toxicity of a chemical in the environment it is important to establish the exposure to the
chemical and the dose received.

6.1 Biological Effects

It is impossible to predict exactly what will happen when potentially toxic compounds enter the natural world, so
it is essential to monitor the fate of such substances. It is possible to measure directly the amounts of chemicals
in fresh waters, marine waters, in soils or the air, but it is really the effects of these chemicals on living organisms
which are of interest. Thus, the detection of biological effects (such as hormone disruption or behavioural
changes) can be used to indicate exposure of organisms to toxic levels of substances in the environment. Such
biological effects may also be warning that permanent or extensive damage to the biota could occur if there is
continued exposure to these contaminants. Tests using the biological response of an indicator organism to
pollutants in this way are called bioassays.

There are many advantages to using ecotoxicological tests. Organisms integrate the effects of pollution over long
periods, whereas chemical analyses only provide information about concentrations at the point in time when the
sample was taken. This may not reflect the levels of contaminant in the animals and plants. Many organisms
accumulate chemicals in their tissues: this is called bioaccumulation. As predators eat their prey, they may gain
the chemicals which have bioaccumulated in the tissues of those prey and hence the chemical concentration may
increase up the food chain: this is called biomagnification.

6.2 Sub-Lethal Effects

In the past most attention has been focused on the lethal effects of chemicals, but sublethal effects in organisms,
such as altered reproductive rate, physiological function or behavioural changes may be just as important in an
ecosystem and may predict more dramatic effects in the future.

Sublethal effects may be seen at the molecular level through to the level of the whole ecosystem, and can be
measured using ecotoxicological studies.

There is an increasing level of interest in, and publicly about, those chemicals that cause hormone disruption in
wildlife, but there are many other important sublethal effects of chemicals, for example, in shellfish exposure to
metals and oils interferes with the detection of waterborne pheromones (chemicals secreted by the organism)
used in mating, and many animals decrease their feeding rate when exposed to contaminants.
6.3 Species to Monitor
How do we decide which species to monitor in ecotoxicological tests?

In many cases this may be determined by the ease with which a species can be monitored, and the level of
knowledge about certain species. Monitoring those species which are particularly vulnerable to, and the first
affected by, a pollutant may be particularly useful and act as an early warning system for the effects
of pollution on an ecosystem.

Ecotoxicological tests have predominantly been used in fresh and marine waters, although tests that
indicate pollution in soil (e.g. in situ bioassays using the survival of earthworms to assess contaminated soils) and
the atmosphere are also being researched.

6.4 Ecotoxicological Methods

Ecotoxicological methods are used for a variety of purposes:

to monitor the toxicity of the general environment (for example river water, soil and air quality;

to determine the toxicity of inputs (which may be single substances or mixtures) to different animals and

plants at different levels in the ecosystem',

to estimate threshold values for concentrations of substances above which damage to the ecosystem will

be incurred (this information may then be used to set standards for release of the substances) and
to predict the effects of sustained exposure to an effluent or contaminant.

Many different ecotoxicological tests are currently used by the Environment Agency and other organisations, and
more are in development. Some of these are: The oyster embryo bioassay, where the number of oyster embryos
developing normally into larvae in a water sample is measured. Water samples are removed from various sites
around the coast of the UK and taken to the laboratory, where the test is performed.

Sublethal toxicity of different chemicals in soil can be assessed using earthworms. Adult earthworms are placed in
a soil sample containing the test substance in different concentrations and the effects on modality, growth and
reproduction of the worms are measured.

Fish can also be used to give an indication of the levels of chemical pollutants in the waters in which they live.
When oil spills occur, the amount of the enzyme Ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase (EROD) increases in fish livers - a
biochemical response to increased exposure to the chemicals in oil.

Following the Braer oil spill, off Shetland in 1993, EROD activity in caged Atlantic salmon was measured. The
results showed that immediately following the spill there was an increase in amount of the EROD enzyme that
correlated with the hydrocarbon levels in the water. Thus, the amount of this enzyme in fish livers gives an
indication of the level of pollution in the environment by specific contaminants.
Scope for growth is a physiological measurement which determines the health of an organism based on its energy
budget, i.e how much energy is available for growth after all essential functions have been met.

Mussels around the coast of the UK have been analysed in this way by the Centre for Coastal and Marine Sciences
(Plymouth Marine Laboratory). It has been suggested that the scope for growth of these mussels could be an
indicator of 3 Predicted no effect concentrations ( PNEC) the environment, but they are often species
specific, and do not give an indication of the effect of pollutants on the whole ecosystem.

Some organisms are unaffected by certain pollutants and different organisms will be affected to differing degrees,
for example, insecticides, which are potent neurologies for insects, do not have as great an effect on mussels.

Many ecotoxicological tests reveal the effects of pollution but do not tell us which out of many candidate
substances is the cause. These problems may be overcome by using a suite of ecotoxicological tests which detect
different groups of substances. In this way it is possible to identify contaminant types in a complex mixture, and
to identify the most sensitive pads of the ecosystem. When several tests are used together, it becomes possible
to identify more clearly the effects of specific toxic compounds or specific effluents within ecosystems.

6.5 New Methods

The Environment Agency is funding research into the development of a variety of ecotoxicological tests, for
example, the Direct Toxicity Assessment Programme, a collaborative research and development project, involves
research into the use of acute ecotoxological tests for estimating toxicity of whole effluent and receiving watery.

Existing and new ecotoxicological methods are being evaluated and selected for use in pollution control or
environmental monitoring.

It is hoped that a suite of several techniques will be implemented in the future to provide a comprehensive
picture of the biologicalimpacts of pollution.

Biomagnification is .....

1.

A. ? The build up of chemicals in an organisms tissue

B. ? The increase of chemical concentrations up the food chain

ioassays are tests using the biological response of an indicator organism to pollutants?

1.

A. ? True

B. ? False

6.6 Summary
Ecotoxicological studies, such as the oyster embryo bioassay, reveal the effect of pollution on animals and plants.
Together with chemical analyses, these studies provide us with a view of the potential and real dangers to
wildlife, and by extension to human health, from chemicals in the environment.

These studies can help support decisions to be made about the necessary controls that need to be imposed on
the amount and nature of chemicals which are discharged into the environment, and help to predict possible
threats to the health of the environment.