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Division 44

Environment and Infrastructure

Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable


Module 7a
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Sector project
Transport Policy Advisory Service
OVERVIEW OF THE SOURCEBOOK
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-Makers in Developing Cities

What is the Sourcebook? Modules and contributors


This Sourcebook on Sustainable Urban Transport (i) Sourcebook Overview and Cross-cutting Issues
addresses the key areas of a sustainable transport of Urban Transport (GTZ)
policy framework for a developing city. The Institutional and policy orientation
Sourcebook consists of more than 20 modules. 1a. The Role of Transport in Urban Development
Who is it for? Policy (Enrique Pealosa)
The Sourcebook is intended for policy-makers in 1b. Urban Transport Institutions (Richard Meakin)
developing cities, and their advisors. This target 1c. Private Sector Participation in Urban Trans-
audience is reected in the content, which port Infrastructure Provision
provides policy tools appropriate for application (Christopher Zegras, MIT)
in a range of developing cities. 1d. Economic Instruments
How is it supposed to be used? (Manfred Breithaupt, GTZ)
The Sourcebook can be used in a number of 1e. Raising Public Awareness about Sustainable
ways. It should be kept in one location, and the Urban Transport (Carlos F. Pardo, GTZ)
dierent modules provided to ocials involved Land use planning and demand management
in urban transport. The Sourcebook can be easily 2a. Land Use Planning and Urban Transport
adapted to t a formal short course training (Rudolf Petersen, Wuppertal Institute)
event, or can serve as a guide for developing a 2b. Mobility Management (Todd Litman, VTPI)
curriculum or other training program in the Transit, walking, and cycling
area of urban transport. GTZ is elaborating 3a. Mass Transit Options
training packages for selected modules, being (Lloyd Wright, University College London;
available since October 2004. Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)
What are some of the key features? 3b. Bus Rapid Transit
The key features of the Sourcebook include: (Lloyd Wright, University College London)
A practical orientation, focusing on best prac- 3c. Bus Regulation & Planning (Richard Meakin)
tices in planning and regulation and, where 3d. Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non-
possible, successful experience in developing motorised Transport (Walter Hook, ITDP)
cities; 3e. Car-Free Development
Contributors are leading experts in their elds; (Lloyd Wright, University College London)
An attractive and easy-to-read, colour layout; Vehicles and fuels
Non-technical language (to the extent pos- 4a. Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies
sible), with technical terms explained; (Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke, UBA)
Updates via the Internet. 4b. Inspection & Maintenance and Roadworthiness
How do I get a copy? (Reinhard Kolke, UBA)
Please visit http://www.sutp.org or http://www. 4c. Two- and Three-Wheelers (Jitendra Shah,
gtz.de/transport for details on how to order a World Bank; N.V. Iyer, Bajaj Auto)
copy. The Sourcebook is not sold for prot. Any 4d. Natural Gas Vehicles (MVV InnoTec)
charges imposed are only to cover the cost of 4e. Intelligent Transport Systems (Phil Sayeg, TRA;
printing and distribution. You may also order Phil Charles, University of Queensland)
via transport@gtz.de. 4f. EcoDriving (VTL; Manfred Breithaupt,
Oliver Eberz, GTZ)
Comments or feedback?
We would welcome any of your comments or Environmental and health impacts
suggestions, on any aspect of the Sourcebook, by 5a. Air Quality Management (Dietrich Schwela,
e-mail to transport@gtz.de, or by surface mail to: World Health Organization)
Manfred Breithaupt 5b. Urban Road Safety (Jacqueline Lacroix, DVR;
GTZ, Division 44 David Silcock, GRSP)
P. O. Box 5180 5c. Noise and its Abatement
65726 Eschborn, Germany (Civic Exchange Hong Kong; GTZ; UBA)
Further modules and resources Resources
Further modules are anticipated in the areas of 6. Resources for Policy-makers (GTZ)
Financing Urban Transport and Benchmarking. Social and cross-cutting issues on transport
Additional resources are being developed, and an 7a. Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and
Urban Transport Photo CD-ROM is available. Aordable (Mika Kunieda; Aime Gauthier)
Module 7a Acknowledgements
Special thanks should be given to the following
Gender experts for their peer-review of this module or
and Urban Transport: proofreading of the nal text. Their contribu-
tions were invaluable to developing this module
to its present form (order is alphabetical by name):
Fashionable and Affordable n Betty Babirye-Ddungu (Socio-Economic Im-
pact Assessment Group, Kampala, Uganda)
Findings, interpretations, and conclusions n Carlos F. Pardo (GTZ SUTP)
expressed in this document are based on infor- n Charles Amoatey (Transport Research and
mation gathered by GTZ and its consultants, Policy Consultant)
partners, and contributors from reliable sources. n Ellen R. Mitchell (Potomac News)
GTZ does not, however, guarantee the accuracy n Maria Teresa Gutirrez (Forum for Rural
or completeness of information in this document, Transport Development Peru)
and cannot be held responsible for any errors, n Marie Thynell (Goteborg University, School
omissions, or losses which emerge from its use. of Global Studies)
n Maryvonne Plessis-Fraissard (Sustainable
Development Network, World Bank)
n Michael King (Nelson Nygaard)
n Priyanthi Fernando (Centre for Poverty
Analysis and Lanka Forum for Rural
Transport Development)
n Rachel Flanary (IT Transport Ltd.)
n Walter Hook (ITDP)

About the authors


Mika Kunieda is a consultant at the World
Bank, working on social issues within transport.
After a bachelors degree in Policy Management,
she obtained a masters degree in Social Policy
and Planning in Developing Countries at the Authors: Mika Kunieda
Aime Gauthier
London School of Economics. She established
a community development NGO in Kenya and Editor: Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
then worked for a Japanese social development P. O. Box 5180
consulting rm. She has been involved in the 65726 Eschborn, Germany
http://www.gtz.de
work on gender and transport at the World
Bank since 2000. Division 44, Environment and Infrastructure
Sector Project "Transport Policy Advisory Service"
Aime Gauthier is a Senior Program Director
Commissioned by
at the Institute for Transportation and Develop-
Bundesministerium fr wirtschaftliche
ment Policy that promotes environmentally Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ)
sustainable and equitable transportation world- Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 40
53113 Bonn, Germany
wide. She has been working at ITDP for four http://www.bmz.de
years, mainly on Sub-Saharan Africa transport
Manager: Manfred Breithaupt
projects in Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, and
Tanzania. Before joining ITDP, Aime worked Editing: Carlos F. Pardo, Bogot, Colombia
for ve years at the Moriah Fund as the grants Cover photo: Luc Nadal, Dakar, Sngal
and oce manager. Aime holds a Masters in
Layout: Klaus Neumann, SDS, G.C.
Urban Planning from the University of Michi-
gan at Ann Arbor. Eschborn, March 2007

i
Preface
This module examines transport systems around
the world to establish what is important for A fashion that does not reach the
transport users in general and how gender af- streets is not fashion.
fects the ways users view transport. Ultimately, Coco Chanel
these are universal concerns. When gender-
based needs are not taken into consideration, For too long, transport has ignored the needs
transport is inecient and unsustainable. Urban of women in planning and designassum-
transport systems are frequently overlooked ing a purported neutral stance of benets to
in discussions of quality of life issues for city all. By attaching fashionable to transport, the
dwellers. Moreover, transport is often seen as authors aim to highlight the feminine side of
gender neutrala road or bus system benets transportation demands, while recognizing that
all equally. However, this isnt a given. Urban the success of any transport solution is that it is
transport systems are dynamic, inuenced by competitive.
society and inuencing the choices members Poor women and men do not travel less; they
of that society can make. The objective of this just travel under more duress and in worse
module is to provoke thinking about the con- conditions. They lack real options and the ones
cept of gender in urban transport through two available are usually under-resourced, under-
conceptsfashion and aordability. capitalized, and over-utilized. Women are usually
the last to have access to the most modern and
Fashionable expensive (higher status) forms of transport. Men
For transport to be competitive, it needs to have to rely on dangerous and unreliable mass
be more than just safe, convenient, clean, transit or paratransit. It is imperative that trans-
and of high qualityit needs to be fashion- port seriously addresses concerns for themsat-
able. Fashionable transport isnt expensive or isfying their consumer mobility needs with
frivolous. It is transport that, at a minimum, fashionable options that help them gain access.
heeds consumer needs and then oers good Women are most concerned with the safety and
quality alternatives to achieve transport for all. personal security aspect of transport - a funda-
Transport is demand driven. Safety, reliability, mental and critical component to decision-mak-
and convenience are important fundamental ing about transport. They may forego trips and
considerations in meeting that demand. But to seek less ecient and/or more costly alternatives
be fashionable, public transport, cycling, and when there is a perceived threat. Women, who
walking need to be attractive to the consumer are unequally aected by violence, are often
by oering personally satisfying advantages that prime targets of violent crime, and have dif-
can compete with the perceived safety, cleanli- ferent and greater safety needs than men. Men
ness, and convenience of private cars. If public are more often the victims of road fatalities
transport, cycling, and walking fail to be fash- and injuries because they are more likely than
ionable, demand will move on to other modes as women to be sitting at the driving wheel and
soon as it can. more likely than women to be traveling.

ii
Convenience is another motivator in the trans-
port decision-making process. All users want
transport that oers punctuality, predictability,
shortened travel time, proximity, exibility,
etc. Men tend to prefer speed, punctuality, and
predictability and usually have greater access
to the types of modes that deliver that type of
service, whether it is public transport, private
vehicles, motorcycles, or bicycles. Women have
less access and tend to have multiple purposes in
their trips, since they balance multiple roles of
work, household and childcare. Because of this,
they favor more exible services that bring them
closer to their varied destinations.
Finally, fashionableness in transport includes
integrating activities more closely with transport
so that it becomes more than just a service; it
becomes a place where the busy urban citizen
can, for example, get the latest news or access
needed services. Streets become more than
thoroughfares, they become prime public space
that people enjoy and have pride in using.

Affordable
Aordability is a matter of time and money.
More aordable transportation systems need to
be developed to give both women and men real
and aordable choices. No matter how fash-
ionable or attractive a transport choice is, the
rst consideration for both men and women
when making a decision about transport is
whether or not they can aord it. Women
often choose to walk rather than to pay for
transporta sign of their reduced mobil-
ity. This restriction has ramications with a
corresponding reduction of opportunities in
revenues and services.

iii
1. Introduction 1 4. In conclusion 35
1.1 Why gender? 1
1.2 Urban transportation systems Resources 36
in developing countries 2
Main references 36
2. Gender and urban transport 6 Further references 38

2.1 Travel behavior and patterns 6


2.2 Mobility versus accessibility 7
2.3 Passenger transport services /
mass transit 10
2.4 Private vehicle ownership
and use 11
2.5 Land use and transport 12
2.6 Safety 13
2.7 Security 14
2.8 Affordability 15
2.9 Fashionable 16

3. Moving forward 19
3.1 Planning 19
3.1.1 Planning: Gender analysis 19
3.1.2 Planning: Economic analysis 19
3.1.3 Planning: Data collection 20
3.1.4 Planning: Measuring gender
equity in urban transport 22
3.1.5 Planning: Safety 24
3.1.6 Planning: Participation 24
3.2 Design 24
3.2.1 Design: Complete streets 24
3.2.2 Design: Considering safety 24
3.2.3 Design:
Considering infrastructure 27
3.2.4 Design:
Considering vehicles 30
3.2.5 Design:
Considering operations 31
3.3 Implementation:
Leadership and governance 33
3.4 Governance 33
3.5 Monitoring: Gender audits 34

iv
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

urban transport from the perspective of men,


1. Introduction women, the elderly, the youth and the disabled.
Transportation systems make cities function.
They are the critical link between activities, pro- 1.1 Why gender?
ductive or reproductive, of a thriving metropolis. Just as transportation systems dene the struc-
They are both a cause and eect of urban devel- ture of the city, gender denes the structure
opment. Cities are engines of growth in many of society. Gender, based on the biological
countries. Transportation systems are what construct of male and female, dierentiates
make these engines work. Transport contributes economic and social roles and responsibilities.
to quality of life and personal well-being by Gender is an integral part of the broader social
enabling individuals to access health care, edu- context interacting with class, race, ethnicity,
cation, and employment, which ultimately leads income, education, religion, and geographic
to greater productivity and economic growth. location. Gender denes how men and women
are expected to act, dress, and behave; this
Policy makers have a responsibility includes travel behavior and patterns. In fact,
travel patterns are argued to be one of the most
to deliver a [transportation] system clearly gendered aspects of life (Wachs, 1996).
that is ecient, responsive to user re-
Urban Population Growth 199398
quirements, and sensitive to nonuser Disaggregated by Gender
concerns. The objective is clear and 6%

straightforward. Developing the game 5%


population growth (male)

plan for achieving the goal, however, population growth (female)

is an extraordinarily challenging 4%

endeavor. 3%
(Jeff and McElroy, 81)

2%
95% of all urbanization is expected to occur in
cities in developing countries. These are cities
1%
that are already facing crisis in urban transpor-
tation, manifested in poor accessibility for the
0%
majority and increasing congestion. The result:
e

hi
re

il
h

re

re
o

no

qu

cities do not function well and people are faced


cif

go
in
ul

c
po

ra

alo
ra
Ha
iM
Pa
Re

ya
n

Ha
a

Ka

ng
Ya
ng

ua
Ch
o

Ba

with higher transport costs and a lower quality


Sa

G
Si
Ho

of life. While the impacts of urban growth are


well-documented, the impacts of this growth on The denition of gender roles and responsibili- Fig. 1
dierent genders are not. ties varies from place to place1 and changes over Women are a faster
time and between generations. This makes it dif- growing population
This module has been developed to look at in the above cities.
where gender and urban transport intersect, cult to assume an overriding general denition (UN Habitat Global Indicators)

specically in developing countries. The focus of of roles and responsibilities. However, the main
gender and transportation studies and projects point is that in each specic location or cultural
in developing countries has been mostly rural. context, gendered behavior, patterns and deni-
While there is a growing literature base on the tions need to be understood and accounted for
subject in more developed countries, there is in designing and planning urban transportation
a lack of analysis of transport planning and systems. Women and men have dierent trans-
projects by gender in developing countries. This port needs, dierent travel behaviors, and dif-
module aims to bridge that void by bringing to-
1
See EC glossary of gender and development terms
gether existing studies and current best practices at: http://ec.europa.eu/comm/europeaid/projects/gender/
to oer policymakers ways to address gender and documents/toolkit_section_3.pdf

1
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

ferent levels of access. To that end it is necessary attain gender equality. Equity is the means;
to look at planning from these roles and respon- equality is the result.
sibilities. If this does not occur, transportation n Gender mainstreaming is the process of as-
planning and projects will not adequately meet sessing the implications for women and men
demand and there will be ineciencies in the of any planned action, including legislation,
system. Men and women will face higher costs policies or programs, in all areas and at all
in time and money. They will have a harder time levels. It is a strategy for making womens as
accessing services and economic opportunity. well as mens concerns and experiences an
With limited transport options, people will have integral dimension of the design, implemen-
to forego trips, such as to school or for health tation, monitoring and evaluation of poli-
care, will have a higher incidence of absentee- cies and programs in all political, economic
ism or tardiness, and will forego employment and societal spheres so that women and men
because the costs of transport are greater than benet equally and inequality is not perpetu-
the benet of employment. Poor transportation ated2. There is also a signicant capacity
systems give people no choice other than to building aspect involved in gender main-
ineciently allocate their time and money. streaming as this process entails the transfor-
Addressing gender in urban transportation mation of the institutional procedures as well
projects has the following benets: as the organizational culture.
1. It increases economic rates of return on in- n Gender integration means taking into ac-
vestment in infrastructure and increasing the count both the dierences and the inequali-
protability of mass transport systems; ties between women and men in program
2. It meets demand for transportation services planning, implementation, and evaluation.
through a better understanding of the diver- The roles of women and men and their rela-
gent needs, preferences and constraints of end tive power aect who does what in carrying
users, both women and men; out an activity, and who benets. Taking into
3. It lowers transaction costs by optimizing the account the inequalities and designing pro-
transport system for all users; grams to reduce them should contribute not
4. It increases access to employment, education, only to more eective development programs
and services that ultimately raise productiv- but also to greater social equity/equality. Ex-
ity; and perience has shown that sustainable changes
5. It enables women to better meet the needs of are not realized through activities focused on
the household, for which they have primary either women or men alone.
responsibility and ultimately strengthens the The goals are gender equality and mainstream-
base economic unit of the household. ing. To reach those goals, gender equity and
While gender is much more nuanced, for the integration become the main means and will be
sake of simplicity we will be referring to men the focus of this module.
and women as the pervasive gender typologies of
masculine and feminine, respectively. For the sake
1.2 Urban transportation systems in
of clarity and to express the authors point of view
in this module, gender terms are dened below: developing countries
n Gender equality permits women and men Cities in most developing countries account
equal enjoyment of human rights, socially for at least 50% of the gross national product
valued goods, opportunities, resources, and (GNP) (World Bank, 2002). When cities do not
the benets from development results. function well, there are huge economic rami-
n Gender equity is the process of being fair to cations for the country. Urban economic growth
women and men. To ensure fairness, meas- tends to accelerate urban transport problems
ures, such as armative action, must be avail- (Fjellstrom, 2002). Thus, this growth begets
able to compensate for historical and social transportation problems (congestion, road fatali-
disadvantages that prevent women and men ties, etc.) that slow down economic growth. In
from operating on a level playing eld. Gen- 2
The Report of the Economic and Social Council for
der equity strategies are used to eventually 1997. United Nations, 1997.

2
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

other words, ecient urban transport systems


are an imperative for economic growth. Box 1: Transport planning decisions
have signicant and diverse equity
An ecient and eective urban impacts
transport system is a powerful tool Litman (2006) writes that equity (also called jus-
tice and fairness) is the distribution of impacts
for improving the eciency and (benets and costs). The quality of transpor-
accessibility of the labor market, and tation available affects peoples opportunities
and quality of life.
providing better access to education n Transport facilities, activities and services
and health services. A key challenge impose many indirect and external costs,
such as congestion delay and accident risk
is, therefore, to develop a reliable imposed on other road users, infrastructure
and aordable urban transport costs not funded through user fees, pollution,
and undesirable land use impacts.
system with satisfactory conditions n Transport expenditures represent a major
of safety. At this time, no city in SSA share of most household, business and gov-
ernment expenditures. Price structures can
[Sub-Saharan Africa] meets all these
signicantly affect nancial burdens.
criteria fully. n Transport planning decisions affect the lo-
Setty Pendakur, 2005 cation and type of development that occurs
in an area, and therefore accessibility, land
As mentioned earlier, cities in developing values and developer prots.
countries are growing at a much faster rate n A signicant amount of valuable land is de-
voted to transport facilities. This land is gener-
(approximately 6%) than in more developed
ally exempt from rent and taxes, representing
countries. Only 7% of the top 200 fastest grow- an additional but hidden subsidy of transport
ing cities are located in more developed coun- activity.
tries (http://www.citymayors.org). Most of these n Transport investments are often used to
fastest growing cities face poorer and younger stimulate economic development and support
populations than in more developed countries. other strategic objectives. The location and
This growth is leading to increased transport nature of these investments have distribu-
tional impacts.
problems and costs. For example, it is estimated
n Transportation equity analysis can be difcult
that road fatalities are costing South Africa an because there are several types of equity,
estimated 43 billion Rand (US$5.73 billion) various ways to categorize people for equity
per year and that toll is rising. Congestion analysis, numerous impacts to consider, and
slows down eciency and economic growth. In various ways of measuring these impacts.
Dakar, it is estimated that 1 million working
hours are lost per day due to congestion (Pen- While aordability of transport for the urban
dakur, 2005). In Lima, Peru, the World Bank poor, time-saving accessibility and economic
estimated that US$500 million in man-hours and social equity have recently become con-
and operational costs are lost every year due to cerns in urban transport, the reality is that
congestion and to the ineciencies of the system the travel of the urban poor is often neglected.
(Gomez, 2000). However, congestion is a mark
Women account for two-thirds of the 1.2
of urban transports ineciency and not that the
billion people living in extreme poverty3. Ten
private car is the predominant mode choice.
years ago Gannon and Liu found that only a
Urban transport is concerned with moving peo- third of World Bank transport projects had
ple and goods to achieve operational eciency, poverty alleviation as an objective. The most
economic viability, environmental sustainability, common intervention in urban transport has
safety and comfort. While dicult and possibly
been to build roads that have only served to
unfair to generalize urban transport systems
exacerbate the situation and serves only the
within regions, let alone across them, there are
few private car owners at the expense of the
commonalities that cities have with each other,
as well as shared concerns. 3
http://www.dd.gov.uk/pubs/les/gender-factsheet.pdf

3
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

majority of the population. 73% of World Bank are trying to understand the relationship be-
transport funding is for roads and highways, tween urban poverty and transport.
mainly rural and interurban in focus. Urban
transport projects represent less than 10% of Now with the Millennium Develop-
the total World Bank transport portfolio. The
Bank is making concerted eorts to rectify ment Goals (MDGs), more and more
this with its new transport strategy focusing on transport projects aim to alleviate
urban transport and poverty alleviation. Urban poverty.
projects now are focused on dedicated bus lanes
for improved public transport, space for pedes- There is a strong correlation between poverty
trians and bicycles but there have only been and urban mobility, but its extent is not suf-
a select few projects that have mainstreamed ciently well known or quantied. The time and
gender, despite half of the urban population money that the poor must spend meeting basic
(the beneciaries) being women4. However, one mobility needs keeps low-income families from
of the sectors of focus for the World Banks new accumulating the assets that would lift them
Gender Action Plan is transport. out of poverty. Transport service and transport-
This is partly due to the focus of poverty allevia- related construction also are frequently critical
tion from the Millennium Development Goals. sources of employment for the urban poor.
In 2000, at the UN Millennium Summit, gov- Goods and services are sometimes more expen-
ernments committed to reducing the number of sive in low-income communities due to poor
people living in poverty in half by 2015 through transport infrastructure and services (Hook,
agreeing to eight goals that have specic and 2006). Poverty complicates mobility and lack of
measurable targets. None of these goals include transport options complicates poverty. The poor
any specic goals or targets related to transpor- do not travel less, they just travel under worse
tation, although transport sector interventions conditions. Lack of transport options hamper
are critical to meeting many of them. But it access to employment, as well as contribute to
has given focus to governments and donors for weakened social networks. Moreover, transport
transport projects. Now with the Millennium
costs put a lot of nancial pressure on house-
Fig. 2 Development Goals (MDGs), more and more
holds where nancial pressures already exist
Modal split comparison transport projects aim to alleviate poverty and
by region from 1998 (SSATP Report No 09/04/Dla).
UN Habitat Global 4
Williams, Brian, "xxx," Habitat Debate, Walking and non-motorized transport is the
Urban Indicators. March 2005, p. 10
most common mode of travel for both men
and women in developing cities, especially for
Modal Split Comparison by Region
(from 1998 UN Habitat Global Urban Indicators)
the poor. Mass transit is the main means of
100% transport for most people in developing cities.
Car ownership is not a realistic option for most
people living in developing cities.
80%
In many cities, buses and paratransit systems
are owned and operated by private companies or
60% individuals and, in many cases, are a part of the
informal sector. However, the competition for
passengers among privately owned and managed
40%
mass transport makes for an inecient and cha-
otic. This creates an environment where drivers
20% constantly speed, weave in and out of trac,
picking up and letting o passengers in non-
designated spots, bribing trac police ocials
0%
Africa Arab States Asia-Pacific HIC LAC Transitional and rarely maintaining their vehicles. Neverthe-
Cars Motorcycle Mass Transit (minibus/bus/tram/train) Nonmotorized (walking/bicycling)
less, these paratransit operators manage to run
with no subsidy from the government.

4
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

In Asian cities, despite heavy public subsidies Table 1: Modal split of urban transport trips in Asian cities
for the road-based and rail-based public transit and Sub-Saharan African cities (%)
systems, the urban poor who usually cannot af-
Private Motorized
ford the fares, travel by walking, riding bicycles, Non-
Mass Transit Vehicles
taking non-motorized tricycles or rickshaws, City Walking motorized
(Public/Para) (Motorcycles/
Vehicles
riding paratransit vehicles like tuktuks, becaks, Cars)
or jeepneys, or traveling in packed, overcrowded, Addis Ababa 60 26 4
polluting and poorly maintained buses. Bamako 42 2 17 21
In Africa, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, most Bangkok 1 5 45 49
people walk. For example, in Dakar, Senegal, Beijing 12 48 26 14
based on the 2002 household survey, about 73% Calcutta 15 7 46 30
of all trips were done on foot. Publicly provided Dakar 81 1 17 1
transport has failed in many cases, with the
Dar Es Salaam 47 3 43 7
majority being provided by small-scale private
Delhi 20 12 61 7
sector transport operators which are inecient,
Dhaka 40 20 28 12
provide fragmented services, and are under-
capitalized (Pendakur, 2005). The government Eldoret 70 12 24 16
control and regulation of the remaining public Harare 60 1 16 20
transport and of paratransit is inadequate and Jakarta 23 2 28 47
ineective, there is paltry enforcement of trac Kinshasa 70 20 10
laws, and roads are in poor condition with little Metro Manila 12 3 42 43
or no concessions made to walking or cycling. Morogoro 67 23 12 4
This results in people walking on the streets Mubai 15 3 37 45
(including vendors) that on average occupy 25
Nairobi 48 1 42 7
to 35% of road space (Pendakur, 2005). This
Niamey 60 2 9 32
chaotic environment lends itself to a high rate of
Osaka 24 11 38 28
trac accidents and fatalities.
Ouagadougou 63 10 3 45
Seoul 5 75 20
In Dakar, Senegal, based on the
Shanghai 31 33 25 11
2002 household survey, about 73% Tinjin 14 64 12 10
of all trips were done on foot. Tokyo 8 53 39
Source: Laquian, Aprodicio. Who are the Poor and How Are They Being Served in Asian Cities? Pp. 14-22
In Latin America, the majority of urban trips in Public Transport in Asia and Pendakur, p. 10

are walking, with public transit following sec-


ond. Bus and minibus transport is in every city
(greater than 20,000), with rail-based transport
in 20 Latin American cities. The situation of
privately provided transport is similar to other
regions and the extent of cycling is low.
Table 2: Mode share in Latin American cities
on average
Mode Percent
Walking 43%
Public 33%
Fig. 3
Auto 16% Two school children cross a chaotic street
Bicycle/Motorcycle 8% in Accra, as cars park on the sidewalk.
Photo by Aime Gauthier
Source: Vasconcellos, Eduardo, presentation to WRI, January 2005

5
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

2. Gender and urban transport Box 2: Flexible transport and women


in Dhaka
2.1 Travel behavior and patterns
Rickshaws are popular in Dhaka as they pro-
Generally, when compared to men, women in
vided door-to-door transport, enabling women
urban areas tend to take more and shorter trips
and girls as well as the disabled to travel to the
at more varied times. These trips are more ex-
workplace, schools, and other areas without
pensive in terms of in time and money. Women
being harassed or feeling uncomfortable in
tend to make more o-peak trips, traveling to
overcrowded buses and inadequate sidewalks.
more disperse locations. Since women are more
When the Dhaka, Bangladesh Urban Transport
likely to be employed as informal workers, their
Project revealed womens exclusion from pub-
destinations are not necessarily concentrated in
lic transport to be the result of overcrowded
the Central Business District (CBD) or in one
buses and inadequate sidewalks which hinder
or two main areas. As more women than men
their access to the workplace, the project was
work as domestic servants, their travel times can
redesigned to contain provisions to increase the
be much earlier or later than the typical work
number and the quality of sidewalks, as well as
day around which most transit is planned.
building in an intervention component with bus
Women tend to make more trips associated operators to address gender specic concerns.
with their reproductive work in maintaining Premium service buses and women-only bus
the household. Women are more likely to trip services were tested but many women found that
chain, meaning that when they travel, they tend premium services were unaffordable to women
to have multiple purposes and multiple destina- and women only bus services had limited use as
tions within one trip. For example, they might Bangladeshi women do not travel alone.
be going to the market, but on the way there
they might stop at day care, a pharmacy, etc. or household. A woman or man who is single,
For that reason, women tend to value exibility married with no children, or married with
over time savings in their travel choices. This children, etc. will all have dierent transport
type of combined trip making is irregular from needs. As the household composition changes,
most urban transport system designs. Women
so do the travel requirements. For example,
require low-cost, reliable, and consumer-
female-headed households have dierent travel
friendly, exible, door-to-door service with
needs, as the woman is now both responsible
many route options to meet their needs.
for productive and reproductive activities for
Men tend to have much more linear origin the household, and the children also bear more
destinations centered on employment. Men responsibility within the household.
tend to value speed, reliability, and road safety
Socio-economic dierences and race also cre-
in public transport. Since income-generating
ate dierent travel patterns. A woman of low
(productive) trips are more valued than domestic
income will not have a lot in common with
(reproductive) trips, vehicle use (both individual one of high income in terms of trips needs
as in car, motorcycle or bicycle, as well as paid and patterns. However, what they will have in
transit) is higher for those trips, and thus, common is that there will be less of a dierence
men usually benet rst. Low-income men in between men and womens travel behavior in
particular are hostage to poor transport systems the very rich (as all can aord to travel as they
which also barely meet their needs. Overcrowd- wish) and the very poor (where no one can
ing and unreliability frequently mean that men aord to follow gender stereotypes), but that
have long travel times and cannot rely on the may also vary from place to place. In Ibadan,
transport network to eciently take them to Nigeria, there was only a signicant relation-
their destinations as well. ship between socio-economic status (including
Naturally, there is no such thing as a universal stages in the life cycle) and travel behavior
denition of man or woman. Within the cat- of women but not men (Abidemi, 2002).
egorization of men and women, characteristics The situation in Johannesburg illustrates the
dier because of age, income, race, ethnicity, importance that socio-economic factors play in

6
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

transport choice. The graphs below from 2002


Census data show how mode choice diers Mode Choice Grouped by Race
between gender and race. 100%

2.2 Mobility versus accessibility 80%


Delving a little bit deeper translates into dier-
ent levels of mobility. Gender dierences show
60%
very dierent travel behaviors and dierent
levels of mobility and accessibility. Mobility
refers to the movement of people and goods 40%
and is usually measured as the number of trips
per day per person (person-trips), but can also
20%
include person-miles, ton-miles, average trip
speeds, and cost per person- or ton-mile. Acces-
sibility is the ease with which people can travel 0%
African African Men Coloured Coloured Indian/Asian Indian/Asian White White Men
and the ability to reach desired goods, services, Women Women Men Women Men Women

or activities. It is usually measured by using Walk Minibus-taxi Car driver Car passenger
generalized costs in time, money, and comfort.
Accessibility should be the ultimate goal for
transport systems, not the level of service for the Mode Choice Grouped by Gender
vehicles (trac), which should be considered
100%
as one means to the end (Vasconcellos, 2001;
Litman, 2003).
80%
There are three main ways in which transport
planners analyze travel behavior and the impact
and quality of transport projects: 60%
1. Trac: involves addressing levels of serv-
ice, which measures trac performance
40%
related to speed and travel time, freedom to
maneuver, trac interruptions, comfort and
convenience. It can also include wait time 20%

for public transport as well as frequency of


service. The higher level of service usually, 0%
though, corresponds to speed, or what is re- African Coloured Indian/Asian White African Men Coloured Indian/Asian White Men
Women Women Women Women Men Men
ferred to as free ow.
Walk Minibus-taxi Car driver Car passenger
2. Mobility: builds on the analysis of eciency
and ow (levels of service) and looks at how
one utilizes transit, ridesharing and cycling access diers by gender. One reason planning Fig. 4 and Fig. 5
options. decisions favor automobile-oriented improve- Johannesburg mode
ments over non-motorized modes or mass tran- choice grouped by
3. Accessibility: considers mobility, building race and gender.
on how people utilize transport services to sit is that the problems and impacts are more
incorporate how they access these dierent easily identied, based on the existing measur-
services, including land use strategies and able data. Conventional transportation surveys
activities. also are to blame since they tend to undercount
The lack of comprehensive, accurate, disag- non-motorized trips because they are shorter,
gregated data for urban transport is the rst leisure trips, travel by children, and the walk-
constraint of analysis. The rst step in achieving ing links of motorized trips. Recent personal
gendered urban transport is to disaggregate (or transportation surveys have found that walking
collect disaggregated) data by gender to enable is about twice as common than what previous
analysis of accessibility and understand how travel surveys have indicated. (Litman, 2003).

7
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Table 3: Comparing transportation measurements


Trafc Mobility Access
Denition Person and goods Ability to obtain goods,
Vehicle travel
of Transportation movement services, and activities
Vehicle-miles and Person-miles, person-
Unit of measure Trips
vehicle-trips trips, and ton-miles.
All modes, including
Automobile, truck and
Modes considered Automobile and truck mobility substitutes
public transit
such as telecommuting
Vehicle trafc volumes Person-trip volumes Multi-modal level
Common and speeds, roadway. and speeds, road and of service, land
performance Level of service, costs transit. Level of Service, use accessibility,
indicators per vehicle-mile, cost per person-trip, generalized cost to
parking convenience travel convenience reach activities
Maximum vehicle Maximum transport
Assumptions Maximum personal
mileage and speed, options, convenience,
concerning what travel and goods
convenient parking, low land use accessibility,
benets consumers movement
vehicle costs cost efciency
Favors low-density, Favors some land Favors land use
Consideration
urban fringe use clustering, to clustering, mix and
of land use
development patterns accommodate transit connectivity
Favored transport Increased road and Increased transport Improved mobility,
improvement parking capacity, speed system capacity, mobility substitutes and
strategies and safety speeds and safety land use accessibility
Source: Taken from Litman, 2005

Generally, women have a lower incidence of vehi- 28% of women walk to work compared to
cle use, and a higher incidence of walking. This 14% of men; 7% of women commute by car as
is partly a reection of lack of money to aord to compared to 20% of men; and 10% of women
buy vehicles or pay for services. This reinforces use transport provided by the workplace as
womens time poverty. Typically, men have compared to 20% of men. Womens waiting
greater mobility when looking only at motorized times are longer than mens and their average
modes. When considering all trips (motorized total journey time is 10 to 15% greater. Women
and non-motorized), women make more trips were also found to have lower incomes. There-
per day (more mobility), but the costs in both fore, improvements in public transportation,
time and money are higher (less accessibility). and particularly, in bus and trolley services were
seen to directly serve the needs of women.
A study on the urban travel behavior character-
istics of 13 cities across dierent regions shows
that, on average, women make more trips than
men. Net trip generation by gender was high-
est in Tokyo and Kuala Lumpur with roughly
3 trips per day (3.5 in the case of Tokyo). In
Cairo, it was the lowest with fewer than 2 trips
per day. Men traveled more than women in cer-
tain stages of life (usually older) and in mainly
in cities in Islamic countries. This suggests that
cultural factors, including religion, inuence
travel behavior.
In transport-user surveys in the Turkmenistan,
Ashgabat Urban Transport Project found that
the use of various modes of transport services
is highly dierentiated by gender. For example,

8
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

-9 Tripoli -9 Damascus -9 Manila


3.5 3.5 3.5

3 3 3

2.5 2.5 2.5


60- 10- 60- 10- 60- 10-
2 2 2

1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5

0 0 0

50- 20- 50- 20- 50- 20-

male male male


40- 30- female
40- 30- female 40- 30- female

-9 Chengdu -9 Managua -9 Belem


3.5 3.5 3.5

3 3 3

2.5 2.5 2.5


60- 10- 60- 10- 60- 10-
2 2 2

1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5

0 0 0

50- 20- 50- 20- 50- 20-

male male male


40- 30- female 40- 30- 40- 30- female
female

-9 Bucharest -9 Cairo -9 Jakarta


3.5 3.5 3.5

3 3 3

2.5 2.5 2.5


60- 10- 60- 10- 60- 10-
2 2 2

1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5

0 0 0

50- 20- 50- 20- 50- 20-

male male male


40- 30- 40- 30- female 40- 30- female
female

-9 Kuala Lumpur -9 Tokyo


3.5 3.5

3 3

2.5 2.5
60- 10- 60- 10-
2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0

50- 20- 50- 20-

Fig. 6
Number of generated trips per person
male male
by age and gender in various world
40- 30- female 40- 30- female
cities.
Source: Hyodo, T. et al., 2005

9
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

2.3 Passenger transport services /


mass transit Box 3: Public transport services NOT
religion the deterrent for Karachi
After walking, mass transit is the most common
form of transport for both men and women. For
women
the urban poor in developing countries, urban Women in Karachi seem to have some liberty
mass transit means buses, minibuses, and various to travel as only 8% of the 200 female transport
forms of shared taxis. In Latin America, large users surveyed in 2005 gave resistance by
buses predominate, but minibuses have a grow- male members of the house to travel. Almost
ing share of the market. In African cities, buses a quarter of the women surveyed listed the lim-
represent a marginal share of the public transport ited amount of seats, and a fth of them listed
market, where minibuses or combi-taxis heavily the lack of accessibility and affordability of
dominate. In Senegal, for example, some 58% transportation as barriers for them in access-
of total passenger trips are made by 10 to 15-seat ing transportation. 17% of them answered that
paratransit vehicles called Car Rapides or Ndiaga bus frequencies and low level of services, bus
Ndiayes, and large buses account for only 2.7% staff behavior were also deterrents to public
of total motorized trips. transportation use.
Source: Qureshi, I.A. et al., 2006
Women and men have dierent expectations
of and experiences with public transport and packages or because the steps are too steep. Men
passenger services. The dierences in travel have less aversion to overcrowding, although
behaviour listed previously come most into play it aects them too. Overcrowding becomes a
here. Women and men tend to use public transit security issue for women as that facilitates grop-
at dierent times, with women more likely to ing and inappropriate behaviour. Women more
travel at o-peak hours. In Lima, women tend often than men meet with discrimination in
to travel more consistently across the day while transport services. Women will also not travel in
Fig. 7 men concentrate their trips during peak hours. insecure environments, such as take a taxi alone.
Crowding in buses Women prefer more exible service and have a
Finally, men are often the operators of the
is common in many harder time boarding and alighting, whether it
mass transit systems. paratransit. The conductors often stand above
is because they are travelling with children and
However, it is an un- the tailpipe outside the vehicle calling for cus-
comfortable situation, tomers. They breathe in the exhaust of what are
especially for women. usually 15-year-old, poorly maintained vehicles.
Photo by Carlos F. Pardo
They bear the unhealthy consequences of the
system the most.

Fig. 8
A typical situation in paratransit in Delhi:
men are exposed to fumes and unsafe travel.
Photo by Carlos F. Pardo

10
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

2.4 Private vehicle ownership and use


Schedules for Use of Public Transportation
Because private four-wheel motor vehicle owner- (multiple responses)
ship is likely to be out of reach for most of the 35%
poorest in Africa and Asia, the vehicles most
suited to enhancing the personal movement of Male
28%
the poor must be, by denition, of compara- Female
tively low capital value (Hook, 2006). Within
this constraint, women face an additional con- 21%

straint since men are more likely to get access to


private vehicles in the household. 14%
Vehicles are an important asset that families
use to lift themselves out of poverty. A bicycle 7%
can reduce daily commuting costs by saving
bus fare, reducing travel time otherwise spent
walking, allowing the owner to run a small 0%

informal business, and allowing vendors to


00

on
9

0 9

0 9

0 9

0 9

0 9

0 9

9
:5

:5

:5

:5

:5

:5

17 16:5

:5

:5

:5

0
6:

2:

4:

8:

9:
6

10

13

17

20

21
1

:0
re

by-pass middlemen. In rapidly urbanizing and


00

00

00

00

22
fo

6:

7:

8:

9:

:0

:0

:0

:0

:0

:0

:0

:0

:0

:0
be

10

11

13

14

15

18

19

20

21
developing countries such as Vietnam and
China, motorcycles signify success in breaking restricted access to a car, while with men it is Fig. 9
out of the poverty cycle, freedom of poverty only 15% with no or restricted access to a car. Schedules for use of
and movement and independence. Some bicycle In Nairobi, 9% of women heads of households public transportation
and motorbike owners have become bicycle in Lima.
used a private car, compared to 24% of men. In Source: Gomez, Lara, 1997
taxi operators in parts of Uganda and Kenya,
Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 6% of women used a car
for example. In Indonesia, the owner of a used
motorcycle can become anojek (motorcycle taxi) to get to work, compared to 23% of men. This
driver. In India, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, a can also be seen in the degree to which women
cycle rickshaw or pedicab is often the rst job get a drivers license. In the UK, the proportion
obtained by recent migrants to urban areas, and of men with drivers licenses increased from 63% Fig. 10
owning the vehicle itself an important rst step to 68% from 1972 to 1980. The proportion of Men are the rst to use
out of poverty. Thus, bicycles and other low-cost women increased from 21% to 31% during that a vehicle in a house-
hold, and when possible
vehicles are assets that the poor can aord to same time period. While this is a signicant to motorize. Women
own, which can permanently reduce their daily increase of licensed female drivers, it is still less will use the vehicle
transport costs. Even the poorest families, once than half of licensed male drivers (Hamilton, that is left behind.
given access to a bike, can usually cover the Jenkins, Gregory, 1991).
Photo by Karin Romark/
Torsten Derstroff
costs of its maintenance (Hook, 2006).
Automobile ownership rates are very low in
much of the world. For every 1,000 people, less
than 5 are car owners in Haiti, Pakistan, India,
and Indonesia, less than 7 in Bolivia, Zaire,
and Honduras, and less than 14 in Liberia and
Thailand. The rate of car ownership in Brazil
and Mexico is 60 per 1,000, in Europe 300,
and in the USA 500 (that is, one car for every
two people). In the richer countries, even poor
people own a used car, whereas in a majority
of developing countries, only a handful of the
wealthiest can aord to own and maintain a car.
When it comes to female vehicle ownership
rates, the rates become even lower. About 75%
of women in the United Kingdom have no or

11
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Men are typically the rst to motorize co- walka fact that needs to be linked to land use
opting new technologies rst in the household. plans and strategies.
However, there is a trickle down eect, as The reality is, though, most cities in developing
women gain access to older vehicles, such as countries may not have land use plans and if
bicycles when men move to motorcycles, mo- they do, may not be able to enforce the plans
torcycles when men move to cars, etc. In 1990, and/or do not integrate land use and transport.
only 35% of households had access to some People will make choices that address this
form of motorized vehicles in Ho-Chi Minh problem. For example, sick of the extremely
City. Four years later, that percentage rose to long commuting distances and the poor trans-
63%, mainly due to motorcycles. In Hanoi, the port system, residents in Johannesburg began
share of trips made by motorcycles rose by 5 to moving into the inner city (Beavon, 1997).
10% annually and now accounts for 37% of all
Often though, people do not have that option.
trips. Meanwhile the share of bicycles has fallen
For more information, this topic is extensively
from 65% to 45%. Previously, women made up
discussed in the Sourcebook Module 2a: Land
half of all bicyclists. Now, they are the major-
use planning and urban transport.
ity as men move to motorized means of travel
(Godard and Cusset, 1996). In Latin Americas sprawling cities, unequal
access to urban services and public facilities is
connected to other issues such as security of
Men are typically the rst to
tenure, poverty and social exclusion. The current
motorize co-opting new technologies situation is exacerbated for the poor who have
rst in the household. limited or no access to credit, cannot aord the
overvalued, expensive housing in the city, and
are forced to move to informal settlements on
2.5 Land use and transport the peripheries due to gentrication. Because of
Typically, transportation and land use policies limited transportation alternatives, they must
are considered separately and results in inef- spend many hours a day and pay a large share of
cient use of resources, including time and their incomes to reach jobs in the city. In addi-
money, and greater environmental damage. The tion to this, transport planners in Latin America
outcome tends to be one that leads to automo- have focused on motorization at the expense of
bile dependence and sprawl. The structure and the poor and elderly.
location of the household inuences womens Although in a developed country, Boulder,
travel patterns or the mode choice of transporta- Colorado illustrates the power of political
tion (Fouracre and Turner, 1992). By integrat- leadership and the eectiveness of budget
ing land use and transportation planning, mandates as a tool to provide multimodal
eciency improves, negative environmental transportation systems integrated with land
eects are reduced, the costs of infrastructure use. Strong local government leadership led to a
investments reduced, and access to jobs and mandate that directed nearly 20% of the city's
services is ensured. annual transportation department budget from
Integrating land use and transport includes car-related expenditures such as road widening,
integrating dierent types of transport and double turn lanes, more car parking, and more
reducing car use through trac demand stop lights, to alternative mode functions, such
management. Multimodal transportation as smaller buses with bicycle racks, improved
systems reduce demand on any single mode of pedestrian crossings and footpaths, and an
transport, giving options for people in terms of expanded network of o-roadway bike paths
mobility, and improve air quality by including for commuters. Programs are in place to reduce
non-motorized transport options. Multi-modal trac and speeding in neighborhoods with
transportation systems can provide much roundabouts, speed bumps, photo radar, new
needed options for people who typically lack small buses and private shuttle services using
options, like women, children, the disabled and main transit corridors. Specic car disincen-
the poor. Most importantly, most urban poor tive programs have been implemented such as

12
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

doubling rates for car parking to more closely pacing other health problems to the extent that
reect car park land values, doubling parking it was threatening to become a pandemic. Road
nes, creating neighborhood parking permits trac injuries are the leading cause of death by
for residents only, and reducing the number of injury and the ninth leading contributor to the
car spaces required in new residential and com- burden of disease worldwide.
mercial development. The encouragement of In terms of road safety, more men than women
cycling through a citywide bicycle network, 300 are involved in road crashes. Since more men
free bicycles in the Central Business District own, drive, and use motorized transport, they
(Spokes for Folks), Bike to Work weeks, and are the most aected by crashes, whether they
bicycle mounted police ocers are part of the be fatalities or injuries. This has ramications
demand management strategy that encourages on women as caretakers who now must take
non-car mobility. Development does not have to care for the injured and on the economic status
lead linearly to more and more private car use. A of the household after loosing one of its main
city can progress more and oer a better quality income generators.
of life for its citizens by ensuring modal choice.
This again is very important for women who 100%

walk and use intermediate modes of transport


90%
in greater numbers.
80%

2.6 Safety 70%


Safety incorporates two main components:
60%
road safety and perceptions of personal security.
% Probability

Although safety is a concern for both sexes, 50%


men tend to be more concerned about road
40%
safety and women more concerned about per-
sonal security. 30% Minor Injury
Major Injury
Road safety 20%
Death

10%
Box 4: Road safety facts (from the
World Health Organization) 0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
n About 1,200,000 people died from road trafc Motor Vehicle Speed (km/h)
injuries worldwide in 1998;
n Of those deaths, 88% were in developing Statistics show that the probability of injury Fig. 11
countries; or death from road trac accidents increases Probability of Injury
n Worldwide, up to two-thirds to trafc ac- dramatically as speeds increase. Thus, one of and Death as compared
to Motor Vehicle Speeds
cident injuries are suffered by pedestrians the best ways to increase road safety is to reduce Source: Gute Argumente,
and cyclists; speed. A 5-kilometer per hour drop in speed Verkehr, 1991

n Of those, one-third are children ; results in:


n In developing countries, the injury rates of n 15% fewer collisions,
pedestrians and cyclists are much higher; n 10% fewer pedestrian fatalities, and
n In developing countries, trafc accidents are n 20% less severe pedestrian injuries.
the second leading cause of death.
Death and injury due to trac crashes are four
to ve times more likely for men than women.
Injuries and deaths from trac accidents are In Latin America, male fatality rates are always
a major public health and socio-economic higher than female fatality rates, about a
problem around the world. The World Health proportion of 3 or 4 to 1. For example, in So
Organization made trac safety the topic for Paulo, men average 2 trips per day and women
World Health Day 2004 because the rise in traf- take 1.7. However, men account for 76% of pe-
c-related injuries and deaths was quickly out- destrian fatalities and 86% of vehicle fatalities,

13
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

revealing a disproportionate exposure to danger if they perceive them to be unsafe. Thus, women
(Vasconcellos, 2001). will make the decision not to travel at night, not
to get out at a particular spot, to take a longer
In Latin America, male fatality rates route home if it is safer. Women in Johannes-
burg have men escort them to the taxi ranks in
are always higher than female fatality the morning when it is dark. Women will avoid
rates, about a proportion of 3 or 4 to 1. using public space if there is a chance of danger
or violation. Further, if they have the oppor-
tunity to use a car for most trips under these
2.7 Security circumstances, they will use it.
Women are more vulnerable users of public Links to public transport are important
space in general and this aects how they use considerations for safety in urban areasthe
public space, including transport. Women who journey from the door of the home to public
tend to carry packages or children and have
their hands full, are targeted and are easy prey
for petty theft. Because they can be overpow-
Box 5: A sense of security in
ered by men, physical safety is threatened as women-only train carriages
well. Women will change their transport behav- The Tokyo Metro System, although being one
ior and have their transport options constrained of the largest and most efficient urban rail
systems, is sometimes 200% over capacity
with people being transported to work in very
crowded conditions. These crowded conditions
become a place where women can be harassed
or touched by men, which has led to the intro-
duction of women-only carriages in the Kanto
(the Tokyo metropolitan) and Kansai (Osaka
and Kobe) areas. Women-only carriages were
advocated for, by a former opposition party
known for its welfare approach. The Prime
Minister set up a committee to discuss the is-
sue of female sexual harassment in the trains
and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport and than issued an avis requesting
private companies to introduce women-only
carriages in their trains.

Fig. 12 Table 4: Personal security issues for women and their behaviour change strategies
Lighting in a Mass
Transit system such as Issue Strategy
Metrova in Guayaquil Dress n Exposed to verbal harassment is wear- n Wear only "appropriate" clothing
are an ecient means ing short skirts, shorts, or tight clothes when using public transportation
to increase safety during
Physical Strength n Perceived as less able to defend them- n Travel in groups
operating hours.
Photo by Guayaquil Municipality
selves against aggressors n Only board units that are not full
Verbal n Aggressors's feeling of impunity: n Ignore, look away
Harassment driver / collector / passengers passive
Physical n Fonding and touching by men n Say "something" loudly
Harassment n Collector rubs himself against women n Carry pins / needles
as they exit the combi n Stand against a window or on the
n Rape back of the bus
n Avoid riding taxis alone
n Avoid riding vehicles where only
men are riding
Source: Gomez, 2000

14
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

transport, public transport itself and the journey


from public transport to the destination and
back. This includes lighting both internally for
stations and vehicles, and the approach to the
station. For pedestrians, land use and landscap-
ing is important to the perception of safety on
the streets.
Safety also aects non-motorized transport.
Women are less likely to use a bicycle without
the provision of cycle lanes or safe areas for
cycling. 24% of women surveyed in San
Francisco, CA indicated that they felt unsafe
on the road with cars, and that other trac
was a signicant impediment to them using a
bicycle. In Lima, the existence of bike paths

Box 6: Integrating a gender


perspective into public transit,
Montreal, Canada were a necessary but not sucient condition for Fig. 13
In Montreal, fear of violence reduces night use the use of bicycles. Bike paths protected bikers Woman with stroller
of public transportation by women. Since 1992, from trac, but they do not provide security trying to enter bus.
Photo by Carlos F. Pardo
the Comit dAction Femmes et Securit Urbaine against theft orin the case of womensexual
(CAFSU) has been actively promoting ways to harassment.
increase womens sense of security in and ac-
cess to the urban environment specically 2.8 Affordability
by instituting in 1996 the Between Two Stops Poverty is one of the largest challenges to urban
service, which allows women to get off the bus transport and to providing public transport.
at night in between scheduled bus stops at a A cross-cutting issue in all developing cities is Fig. 14
location closer to their destination. Because expense. Transport accounts for an estimated Cycleways promote
women are the principal users of public trans- 10 to 30% of a households total expenditures. greater safety to all
population, such as
portation, this program generates an increase In Mexico City and the Krgyz Republic, this one in Bogot.
in ridership as well as more security for all household surveys revealed that households Photo by Carlos F. Pardo

other users. Partnership of CAFSU with public


authorities was key to the projects success.
The program managed to establish strategic
partnerships between local authorities, wom-
ens organizations and girls and women utilizing
public transportation. Success was achieved by
recognizing the specic needs of women in the
overall allocation of public resources and creat-
ing a low-cost strategic policy that transformed
the economic and social lives of women. The
networks of women's groups involved in local
and regional development help to publicize the
service as well. On an international scale, the
service has also being promoted through the
"Women in City" program by UN Habitat.
Adapted from:
http://www.bestpractices.org/bpbriefs/women.html

15
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

were spending up to 25% of daily earnings on n Children and youths are more price sensitive
transport; in Nairobi 14 to 30% of income; and than adults;
in Delhi 20 to 25%. n Private vehicle (bicycle, motorcycle, car) own-

Everyone has to make choices about whether ership increases demand elasticity because it
to pay. As a higher value is attached to income oers an alternative;
generating trips, more often than not, men pay n Low-income groups are least price sensitive.

for transport, since it is usually work related. Although the fare level is particularly impor-
This might be one explanation (within the power tant for them, they tend not to have a real
dynamic of the household) for mens higher choice;
access to motorized means of transport. It is an n Price elasticity is higher on very long trips
economic decision based on limited resources. (when the car becomes a more feasible alter-
For reproductive work, or the non-remunerative native for those can aord it) and very short
work that mainly women and children under- trips (where walking and cycling are alterna-
take, the decision is usually to forego the trip tives to short public transport trips).
or to walk. That is why women trip-chain more Women are known to forgo an opportunity to
than men, as they combine their reproductive work outside their neighborhoods if they per-
trips together to make them more aordable or ceive transport fares and services to be expensive
link them to a work-related, productive trip. The and unreliable. A social assessment in Ashgabat,
following are general characteristics associated Turkmenistan found that job turnover rates
with price and aordability: were high because to avoid long commutes, peo-
n Peak passengers are the least price sensi- ple tried to nd work near their homes. When
tive, since their freedom to choose their 700,000 squatters resettled on the periphery
trip timing is limited by school and work of Delhi, female employment fell 27% because
requirements. They have limited freedom of travel time increase three-fold. Male employ-
choice between transport modes because of ment only decreased by 5%.
congestion, availability of parking, and (for
students) age limits to obtaining a driving
Fig. 15 Women are known to forgo an
licence;
Paratransit in most n Leisure trips are more price sensitive because opportunity to work outside their
developing countries
uses old vehicles they are more exible as to whether to travel neighborhoods if they perceive
that are unsafe. or not, where, when and why, and with which
Photo by Aime Gauthier mode;
transport fares and services to be
expensive and unreliable.

2.9 Fashionable
As stated before, the poor do not travel less, they
just have to travel under greater duress. Poor
people lack real options and the ones available
are usually under-resourced, under-capitalized,
and over-utilized. Women are usually the last to
have access to the most modern and expensive
(higher status) forms of transport. Men have to
rely on dangerous and unreliable mass transit or
paratransit. Women have to walk because they
cannot aord other options. Girls cannot attend
school because they are required to help with
household duties since the transport burden of
reproductive work is too great for their mothers
to shoulder alone. All these groups, who make
up the majority in most developing cities, will

16
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

continue to be disadvantaged and fail to reach


their potential. This means the city and ulti-
mately the country as a whole is failing to reach
its full socio-economic potential.
If transport is to be fashionable or demand
driven, it ultimately needs to be responsive to
those consumer needs. But most mass transit
fails to provide good services and does not meet
consumer needs. For many, once they can aord
private vehicles, they switch modes as quickly
as they can. This is seen in the explosive growth
of motorcycles in cities. Moreover, the rise in
taxi services is an indicator of how poorly mass
transit meets the needs of the populationfrom
shared taxis to motorcycle taxis that provide a
better, more fashionable service. This will lead
to continued increase in congestion and the
environmental and economic costs faced by a
growing city.
Unless a city provides a mass transit system
that provides a competitive service, unless
mass transit recognizes that to be competitive This bus rapid transit system also costs a frac- Fig. 16
it needs to retain the existing trips and attract tion of the cost of rail-based solutionsoering Guayaquil BRT system
trips from other modes, unless mass transit an aordable transit system for the end user is more attractive
is fashionable, it will always lose out to other that requires no operational subsidy from the (and fashionable)
than other options.
forms of transport, resulting in lost revenue and government. Photo by Guayaquil Municipality
failure to serve the people. As many cities have In Guayaquil, Ecuador, a city where 84% of its
demonstrated, transportation systems can be 2.3 million residents made trips by private cars
fashionableoering reliable, clean, safe, af- or a 20-year-old eet of buses, Metrovia, its
fordable transit that attracts users and gives the bus rapid transit system, opened 15 kilometers
city a good image. in 2006 and now provides cleaner, higher
In Portland, Oregon, it has become fashionable quality service that reduces travel time in key
to use the light-rail system called MAX. MAX corridors. Previously deteriorated public spaces,
was built in the 70s when plans for a freeway including Guayaquil's waterfront and Santa
were scrapped. At rst, the system was ridiculed Ana district, were refurbished to encourage
as the Streetcar named Expire. However, pedestrian use and form an important part of
now patronage of the MAX light rail line is the citys resurgence.
double that of the bus system it replaced and it Just a few years ago, Seoul, a city of over 10
has a large o-peak usage by families, proving million, was seemingly spiraling into ever-wors-
it be more a streetcar named desire. Many ening congestion, declining public transport
other corridors want the MAX, which have the and generally deteriorating livability. But in the
revitalization through good urban design and course of a few years, Seouls leaders have shown
greening along the MAX routes. that political will and imagination can turn
TransMilenio, the bus rapid transit system in around even a mega-city. This transformation
Bogot, Colombia, was fashionable enough to was executed largely through improvements to
attract private car users to use the system. 15% transportation and public space. The restora-
of the system are former car drivers. This is due tion of the Cheonggyecheon River is the most
in part to a trac management strategy that spectacular symbol of Seouls ongoing paradigm
restricts driving, but it is also because a viable, change from a car-oriented city to one favoring
reliable transit system exists for people to use. transit, walking, and cycling.

17
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

In the 1960s, as Korea embarked on rapid mod-


ernization, the Cheonggyecheon was entombed
beneath a drab, concrete elevated expressway
running through the heart of the city. The
stunning success of the dismantling of this
six-kilometer highway, and its replacement with
the reclaimed river, high quality walkways and
public space, holds many lessons for other cities
about what it really means to modernize. The
grand opening of the restored Cheonggyecheon
took place on Oct. 1, 2005, accompanied by the
World Mayors Forum and street festivals around
each of its 22 bridgesve of which are for the
exclusive use of pedestrians and bicycles. The
dismantling of the elevated expressway has been
so popular that 84 other elevated roadways have
been short-listed for demolition in coming years.
Seouls revitalization extends beyond the
Cheonggyecheon restoration. Among the most
striking urban transportation improvements are
the ve median busway corridors that became
operational in July 2004. More than 80 kilo-
meters of congested streets have been retrotted
with exclusive median bus lanes, providing
faster transit services that are safe and comfort-
able (Fjellstrom, 2005).

Fig. 17a, b
Seouls Cheonggyecheon river restoration
(before and after).
Photo by SDIK

18
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

and dierent kinds of statistics which can be


3. Moving forward generated (e.g., sex-disaggregated statistics which
Providing fashionable and aordable transport simply provide numbers of women and men in a
solutions can be done, but need to be based given population and gender statistics which can
on the dierences faced by men and women reveal the relationships between women and men
living in urban areas. Policymakers should that underlie the numbers).
seek improvements in transport that benet the
urban poor increasing social equity while also 3.1.2 Planning: Economic analysis
improving men and womens mobility and the Economic analyses generally consider two objec-
urban environment. Transport policy should tives: eciency and equity. Eciency assumes
emphasize access and equity and aim to reduce that policies should strive to maximize social
air and noise pollution through a modal shift to welfaretotal benets to everybody in society.
clean mass transit and non-motorized transport, Equity assumes that policies should insure that
as this improvement in the urban environment benets and costs are distributed in some way
ultimately benets the urban poor, of which at a that is considered most fair. The examples and
disproportionate number are women. experience of women and other transporta-
tion disadvantaged populations show that
This section is broken down into three sections: economic analysis within transport has tended
Planning, Design, and Implementationto to focus more on eciency than horizontal or
help policymakers move toward more aordable vertical equity. Horizontal equity assumes that
and fashionable solutions which meet the needs everybody should be treated equally. Vertical
of both men and women. At the end of this equity assumes that physically, economically or
module is a resource section directing users to socially disadvantaged people should be favored
further information. compared with relatively advantaged people.
An equitable policy or program would have the
3.1 Planning following characteristics:
Ultimately, design solutions exist for any prob- n Treats everybody equally;

lem; the key is to identify the problem. Follow- n User-Pays Principle: individuals bear the costs

ing are frameworks for conducting analysis and they impose unless a subsidy is specically
obtaining the right data to design appropriate justied;
solutions. n Progressive with respect to income. Lower-
income households benet relative to higher-
3.1.1 Planning: Gender analysis income households;
n Benets the transportation disadvantaged.
Gender analysis begins with by recognizing that
we live in societies full of gender dierences and Benets people with disabilities, non-drivers,
inequalities and that each intervention has gender people who cannot aord a car, etc.
n Improves basic mobility. Helps satisfy basic
implications. A gender analysis seeks to reveal
the dierences and inequalities by examining the mobility (travel that society considers valu-
situations and relationships between women and able).
men in a particular context and provide informed Economic analysis and evaluation can be ar-
understanding of the potential dierential aects rived at by studying the distribution of costs
proposed programs or projects have on women and benets (such as by income and need), and
and men. Such information facilitates identifying by learning the degree to which options tend
eective strategies. This process is what makes to achieve or contradict equity objectives. This
the gender analysis a powerful and essential requires an explicit statement of who pays and
gender-mainstreaming tool. There are a number who benets, from both transport infrastructure
of dierent frameworks and approaches to gender and services.
analysiseach suited to a particular context and/ Multiple accounts evaluation and cost eective-
or situation (for example the Harvard Analytical ness analysis may also be valid for gendered
Framework, the Gender Analysis Matrix and urban transport projects. Multiple accounts
the Social Relations Framework amongst others) evaluation uses various rating and ranking

19
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Table 5: Strategies for achieving equity objectives


Treats People Bear Progressive Benets
Improves
Strategy Everybody the Costs With Respect Transport
Basic Access
Equally They Impose To Income Disadvantaged

Pricing reforms (higher fuel taxes, road and


parking pricing, distance based fees)

Increased transport system diversity


(improvements to modes used by
disadvantaged people).

More accessible land use and location-


efcient development

More affordable automobile options (PAYD


insurance, carsharing, need-based discounts
etc.)
Correct policies that favor automobile travel
over other modes (planning and investment
reforms)

Improve public involvement in transport


planning

Improve data collection (more information on


disadvantaged people and alternative modes)

Monitoring

Source: Litman, T., 2006. p. 34

systems. The most accurate way of evaluating n Household surveys: Through a random or
eectiveness for an urban transport system for stratied sample of urban households in-
gender considerations is by using an evaluation cluding the slum areas as much as possible,
matrix with weighted points (see Litman 2006 compile gender specic household statistics
for more details). Cost eectiveness analysis on size, structure, assets, education, employ-
measures the cost of achieving a special objective ment, income, and health, travel needs and
without trying to quantify the benets. However, patterns. Johannesburg, in its recent census
one must be careful when using the cost-benet collection, included a subcomponent that
analysis, net benet analysis and lifecycle cost had more questions about travel behavior
analysis since it is dicult to measure the benets and needs. The survey focuses on the trans-
by sex, age or disability disaggregated populations. port elements of day-to-day activities in and
around the urban area and on travel patterns
and trip purposes; utilization and availability
3.1.3 Planning: Data collection
of transportation means and costs incurred.
The rst step in providing an equitable urban One note on household surveys is that it
transport system is to collect data on all users treats the household as a singular unit with
and to know how they use existing services and similar needs and does not recognize the dif-
what they need in other words, understanding ferences within the household. Thus, the male
the disaggregated demand. There are a variety head of household, answers from his perspec-
of ways of getting this data that include, but are tive, sublimating the needs of the women and
not limited to the ones stated below (some of children of the household. In addition, it is
them are described in greater detail in the GTZ important to collect household information
Training document on Public awareness and across dierent social groups to ensure repre-
behavior change in sustainable transport): sentation of data.

20
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

n Time use diaries. These provide informa-


tion on how women and men structure their
everyday lives as well as to calculate the time
spent to access activities, the amount of time
spent on activities and the type of activity,
whether paid or unpaid.
n On board passenger surveys, boarding and
alighting surveys. These surveys are a targeted
way to understand existing demand and usage
of transit services. Again, it is important to
disaggregate the data and ensure equal repre-
sentation in who is being surveyed.
n Socio-economic surveys. Socio-economic sur-
veys can be administered to collect baseline
and gender-specic information on the target
or beneciary population. These surveys help
to construct a set of indicators aimed at meas-
uring the socio-economic impacts of urban
transport projects so that the socio-economic
n Willingness to pay surveys. These surveys are Fig. 18
benets of urban roads and urban access can
administered among a select and representa- On-street survey
be assessed. during carfree day.
tive group of beneciaries and user groups to
n Semi-structured interviews. An interview Photo by Carlos F. Pardo
determine the willingness to pay for and/or
questionnaire gauges households perceptions
maintain urban road improvements and ur-
regarding access to resources, services, oppor-
ban transport services.
tunities, transport constraints and needs, pri-
n Survey questionnaires. These questionnaires
ority problems; and the importance they as- are distributed to key service providers and
sign to improving their transport conditions, transport operators and distributors to under-
willingness to participate in the maintenance stand the nature of their constraints in service
of the road network. Through the question- delivery and to establish an estimation of the
naire, existing transport options and services level, frequency and quality of service result-
available to user groups, frequency of use, ing from urban road improvements.
costs of services and impact on household n Participatory stakeholder workshops. These
income, and preferences for transport options workshops are conducted with beneciar-
are revealed. The questionnaire also assesses ies and key stakeholders to present ndings
bottlenecks in using available transport op- of the surveys, focus group discussions and
tions and services as well as the needs of interviews; to establish and agree on priori-
beneciaries and other user groups for serv- ties in a transparent manner, and to achieve
ices, such as low-cost non-motorized means consensus around project objectives. An out-
of transport, which may complement urban put of this workshop is to recommend how
transport investments. to incorporate stakeholders priorities and
n Focus group discussions. These discussions perceived constraints into project design.
are held with varied urban stakeholders to When developing a transport project, there
obtain background data on the population should be terms of References (TOR) to collect
and an overview of travel patterns, transport this data which in turn should clearly specify
constraints and problems. Focus group dis- the need for a gender sensitive, multi-discipli-
cussions are held separately with each stake- nary team that works with policy makers to
holder group (by sex, income, age, occupa- build their capacity to monitor and use the
tion) to draw their experience and knowledge disaggregated data. In addition to the TOR,
of the issues involved in project selection, prequalication, bidding and contract docu-
preparation and implementation. ments can also address equity issues, as long as

21
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

gender analysis and other sociological analytical mechanisms. The project indicators should
and implementation have been budgeted for. assess the dierent role and nature of consulta-
tions and participation among women and men,
Defining the "Trip"
and suggest what the best organizational forms
Within data collection, dening the trip is the would be for enhancing womens roles and
next critical parameter in ensuring the collected benets through the project. Care must be given
data is capturing the travel behavior of both to the weighting of the multiply disadvantaged
women and men. Typically, a trip is dened as such as women with disabilities so that they
a discreet origin and destination that focuses on also benet from the project and ultimately the
economic tripsthe work trip. How the trip benets of transport through increased mobility
is dened will structure the information going and accessibility.
into the trac model and the main output of
trac modelingthe transport plan. Some indicators which would help measure the
degree of gender integration in urban transport
The traditional approach to understanding
are:
travel behavior is through the household sur-
n Passenger-mile by sex and age units reect a
veyusing the household as the appropriate
mobility perspective that values automobile
unit of analysis. However, as stated previously,
and transit travel, but gives less value to non-
the household survey assumes that a man and a
motorized modes because they tend to be
woman in a household have access to the same
used for short trips;
resources, have similar needs for transport, and
n Per-trip by sex and age units reect an ac-
will make the same travel decisions. The main
problem with this is that it ignores the division cess perspective which gives equal value to
of labor within a household and the dierent automobile, transit, cycling, walking and tel-
impact that has on the individual in a house- ecommuting;
n Transport related expenses by sex and age
holds transport needs.
lower-income households should pay a
A trip is typically thought of as having an smaller share of their income, or gain a larger
origin, a destination, a specic mode of travel,
share of benets, than higher income house-
a specic purpose (Bamberger and Peters,
holds and transportation modes should be
1998). This obscures the complex patterns of
aordable;
linked multi-purposed trips (trip chaining),
n Travel time by gender and age units reect an
which are typical to what many women use.
access perspective that gives higher priority to
Trip chaining is the recognition that trips are
walking, cycling and transit travel, because
often more than just origin and destinations,
they tend to represent a relatively large por-
but a chain of related trips. They are dened by
tion of travel time;
anchors (home, work) and look at what happens
n Existence and mechanisms of special discounts
between those anchors. Also, trips are usually
prescribed and prioritized as wage-earning for transport services based on income and eco-
trips. Thus, (equally important) unpaid trips are nomic need regardless of sex.
not accounted for as highly. Policies that aim to achieve gender equity in-
clude, but are not limited to:
3.1.4 Planning: Measuring gender n Ensuring geographical disbursement so that
equity in urban transport transport investments and service improve-
A measurement of gender equity in urban ments favor lower-income areas and groups
transport should assess the dierential impacts including women;
on men and women; the extent to which women n Creating a more diverse, less automobile-de-
have been able to take full advantage of support pendent society and transport which eectively
mechanisms and opportunities oered; and how serves non-drivers of which a majority are
appropriate the project assistance has been for women;
the socially disadvantaged (women included). n Improving non-motorized accessibility, of
Issues to be addressed in a project include train- which women may use for short or chained
ing opportunities, credit, and other support trips;

22
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

n Incorporating universal design (design ac- n Combining urban travel centers with other
commodating the needs of not only people services, such as medical services, schools,
with disabilities but also the special needs of employment opportunities and other basic
women with loads (transporting goods) to the activities.
market, the elderly or mothers using strollers) The table below lists various types of equity,
in transportation services and facilities; categories of people, impacts and measurement
n Providing required special mobility services for units.
people with special mobility needs; and
Table 6: Transportation equity indicators and categories
Types of Equity Categories of People Impacts Measurement
Horizontal Demographics Public Facilities and Services Per capita
n Equal treatment n Age n Funding for facilities and n Per man, per woman
n Equal allocation of funds n Gender services n Per commuter male, female/
and other resources n Race n Parking requirements child
n Equal use of public facilities n Ethnic group n Subsidies and tax exemp- n Per male/female/young stu-
n Cost recovery n Family status tions dent
Vertical With-Respect-To n Lifecycle stage n Planning and design of fa- n Per disabled person
Income and Social Class Income Class cilities Per vehicle-mile or kilometer
n Transport affordability n Quintiles n Public involvement
Per trip
n Housing affordability n Below poverty line User Costs and Benets n Per commute trip
n Discounts for low-income n Lower-income community n Mobility and accessibility n Per basic mobility trip
travelers residents n Vehicle expenses n Per peak-period trip
n Impacts on low-income Geographic location n Taxes and government fees
Per dollar
communities n Jurisdictions n Road tolls and parking fees n Per dollar of user fees paid
n Employment opportunities n Residents of impacted n Public transportation fares n Per dollar of total taxes paid
n Quality of services of low- neighborhoods/streets n Fitness (use of active n Per dollar of subsidy
income travelers n Urban/suburban/rural modes)
Vertical With-Respect-To Ability Service Quality
Need and Ability n People with disabilities n Number of modes available
n Universal design n Licensed drivers n Road and parking facility
n Special mobility services Mode quality
n Disabled parking policies n Public transport service
n Walkers
n Quality of services of non- n Cyclists quality
drivers n Land use accessibility
n Motorists
n Universal design
n Public transit users
Vehicle Type External Impacts
n Trafc congestion and crash
n Cars/SUVs/motorcycles
n Trucks (light and heavy) risk
n Pollution emissions
n Bus
n Barrier effect
n Rail
n Hazardous material and
Industry
waste
n Freight (trucks, rail, etc.)
n Aesthetic impacts
n Personal transport
n Land use impacts
n Vehicle manufacturers
n Community cohesion
Trip Type and Value
Economic Impacts
n Emergency
n Access to economic oppor-
n Commute
tunities
n Commercial/freight
n Impacts on economic devel-
n Recreational/tourist
opment
n Expenditures and employ-
ment
Regulation and Enforcement
n Regulation or transport in-
dustries
n Trafc and parking regulation
n Regulation of special risks
Source: Litman, T., 2006

23
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

3.1.5 Planning: Safety transit users, as well as private vehicle users.


When planning a project, safety audits are These bring benets to all, especially the poor,
one way to incorporate safety issues into the of which women make up the majority.
project, but they can be done in any phase from As stated previously, design solutions exist for
planning, to design, to implementation. Safety most problems. The critical issue is identifying
audits not only help prevent accidents but are the problem and understanding the dierent
also a crime prevention initiative that aims to expectations and experiences faced by women
reduce opportunities for crime, particularly and men and making them known to decision-
violent crime, in public places. Safety audits makers. Below are some suggestions towards
allow local people to provide accurate and addressing these issues and all have been de-
useful information to planners, designers and tailed more extensively in other modules of the
service providers and to participate in bettering GTZ Sourcebook.
the environment through consultations. Safety
audits are about improving the physical environ- 3.2.2 Design: Considering safety
ment in ways that will reduce the opportunities Road safety
for crime, making public places like parks, bus As stated previously, the best way to increase
stops and streets safer for everyone. Ultimately, road safety is to slow trac down. One way
a safety audit allows for recommendations to be to help reduce speeds and increase safety is by
made to policymakers and planners directed at using trac calming measures such as trac
removing or reducing opportunities for crime humps and bumps, raised crosswalks, reduc-
and allows for monitoring. UN Habitat oers ing sight lines, medians and forced turns to
some tools for conducting a womens safety name a few. They are low-cost, self-enforcing
audit, neighborhood watch groups, and other design-based solutions, using physical design
tools which can be accessed from their website, to enforce driver compliance. The way a street
under the Safer Cities Programme: http://www. is designed gives physical and visual clues to
unhabitat.org/list.asp?typeid=16&catid=375. the usershow fast to drive, where to walk,
and where to ride. This is especially critical in
3.1.6 Planning: Participation resource constrained environments where typi-
The analysis methodology is important but the cally enforcement has been lax. Appropriate
participation of the transport users, male and road design is self-enforcing.
female, may be the most important element to Appropriate pedestrian and bicycle infrastruc-
ensure through involvement and monitoring of ture is also necessary for road safety. Pedestri-
gender integration in urban transport. The fact ans are forced to cross the street in darkness
that the urban population is concentrated com- in non-designated areas, are forced to walk
pared to rural areas, and that there are better the main road with vehicles coming on from
communication facilities is a sign that participa- behind due to the lack of marked crossings,
tory urban transport planning may be the best lighting and trac signals. Non-motorized
way in achieving gender equity and inclusive transport such as bicycles also have to compete
transport for all. In addition, participatory in already constrained road ways. Road safety
planning raises the awareness of both urban would be greatly improved with a better non-
residents and the municipality or local urban motorized infrastructure. For more information
government, which leads to better transparency on both trac calming and non-motorized
at dierent stages of decision making and ap- infrastructure, please see Modules 3d: Expand-
propriate urban transport governance. ing the role of non-motorized transport and
3e: Car-free development and the GTZ NMT
3.2 Design training document.
3.2.1 Design: Complete streets Safety can be increased by changing the
The best way to think about infrastructure paradigm in which mass transit is provided.
design for transport is complete streetsroads Most private paratransit operators are paid
designed for all: pedestrians, cyclists, mass per passenger and the incentive is to pick up

24
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

Box 7: Case study An activity based survey reveals details on womens travel
Surveys were taken of women who live in Pudahuel, expensive METRO. The modal split for commuting
Santiago de Chile at bus stops from 7:30 am to was 65% bus, 9% walking, 3% biking, and 0%
8:30 am and between 6:45 pm to 8:00 pm during METRO. 53.1% walked, 37.7% took the bus, 4.6%
peak travel time and at the medical centers and drove, and no women reported using the METRO to
municipality centers during the day. Almost 30% access medical facilities. Time wise- 22.1% spent
of the womens income went into traveling to and one hour; 33.8% spent 1-2 hours, and 25% spent
from work every week despite not using the more more than two hours traveling to work.

Women who had younger children were more in bus was crowded and the majority of people had
need of child-friendly public transportation sys- to stand. While some kind of unofcial bus policy
tems, such as the METRO. This includes stroller existed for people to give up their seats to women
accessibility modes of transportation and policy who had young children, this usually did not hap-
that favors seating room for mothers with young pen. Therefore, many women were forced to carry
children. The majority of women living in Pudahuel their children and groceries; be aware of others
took the bus more than the METRO to access work and pick-pocketing; and steady their balance
and medical centers. This mode of transport made while traveling for long periods of time.
it difcult to bring and carry young children while Source: Ballas, 2006 Photo by Manfred Breithaupt

traveling, especially during peak hours when the Photo and case study are not directly related.

as many passengers as possible. Bus operators building a competitive industry instead of an


essentially ght in the streets, competing to get industry that competes within itself, the incen-
the passengers, quickly pulling over to get one tive then becomes providing a good service.
more cent, cutting each other o in order to get After TransMilenio, the bus rapid transit system
that passenger. Drivers work 1216 hours day in Bogot (Colombia) was built, fatalities along
and operate unsafe, polluting, old vehicles. By the corridor decreased by 93% after one year of

25
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Fig. 19 and murder. Harassment of women in public


Pedestrian path that spaces and on public transport is a real and
leads to bike path serious problem that impacts womens travel
and pedestrian way behavior and patterns.
along the waterfront
in Dakar, Senegal Some ways to solve this issue in transit are
(now destroyed). greater security personnel presence on buses and
Photo by Aime Gauthier
cars and at stations, a greater and gender-mixed
sta presence from transport ocials, a con-
certed eort to not have overcrowding in cars
and buses, and having women-only carriages.
Segregation of buses and carriages is complex.
For example, in Pune, India, women rejected
women-only buses, but approved women-only
carriages on the train. This might be due to
earlier experiences where sections of the buses
were caged for female security. The preference of
women in Pune was for more buses, as a higher
service frequency would create a less crowded,
safer environment with less potential for harass-
ment (Astrop, 1996).
It is equally important to think about door-to-
operation. TransMilenio paid the bus operators door security. Potentially dangerous areas are
per kilometer and by operating in segregated dark streets, recessed doorways and dark spaces,
median busways, the operators are able to have deserted or abandoned buildings. Good lighting
protable business with better operating condi- and good landscaping is extremely important
tions. This is explained in greater detail in the on streets and around public transit stations and
Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide from ITDP/ terminals. By strongly aligning mixed land use
UNEP/Hewlett Foundation/GTZ. policies with transport, active spaces are created
Education is also another means towards where women will not feel isolated and more
reducing injuries and fatalitiesboth in rais- vulnerable to attack. By having commercial
ing awareness and teaching safe driving. One
campaign has painted over 1,500 black stars
on the streets of Bogot, Colombia, as a stark
reminder of each pedestrian death caused by car
crashes over the last ve years. The educational
campaign promoted by the government asked
Bogot, We are getting used to this; what's
the matter with us? The campaign aimed to
reduce the death rate by 10%. Driver education
on road safety is also other form of increasing
safety on the streets. This can be accomplished
with formal training and education classes
oered or through public awareness campaigns,
such as seat belt use. These and other strategies
are discussed in detail in the GTZ Training
document on Public awareness and Behavior
change in sustainable transport.
Fig. 20
Personal security
Woman sta in Tokyo subway supervises train
Personal security encompasses physical and arrival.
verbal harassment, assault, mugging, theft, rape Photo by Mika Kunieda

26
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

Fig. 21
Mumbai women-only train wagon.
Photo by Manfred Breithaupt

spaces open and near to transit, there is a con- further social benet is that all these projects Fig. 22
stant public presence that helps reduce possibili- employ former street childrenat the time Khao San road in
ties for crime. As Jane Jacobs called it, eyes on Bangkok is a good
of writing, one hundred have been employed
the street is one of the best deterrents to crime. example of how eyes
through this venture.
When spaces are dead (such as abandoned on the street generate
buildings and boarded-up store fronts), there is Another resource is business improvement greater safety.
more likelihood that the activities that do occur districts, partnership in which property and Photo by Carlos F. Pardo

will be of a violent or criminal nature. business owners of a dened area elect to make
a collective contribution to the maintenance,
development and marketing/promotion of their
There must be eyes on the street, eyes
commercial district, BIDs (business improve-
belonging to those we might call the ment districts).
natural proprietors of the street typically provide services such as street and
they cannot turn their backs or blank sidewalk maintenance, public safety ocers,
park and open space maintenance, marketing,
sides on it and leave it blind.
capital improvements, and various development
Jane Jacobs
projects. The services provided by BIDs are a
Given the limited resources that governments supplement to the services already provided by
have these days, private sector social ventures the municipality. In Johannesburg, the Central
are also providing a more secure environment. Business District private partnership has been
In Nairobi, Kenya, Adopt a Light Limited installing cameras and hiring private security
is a company incorporated to steer advertising in an eort to make the downtown a safer and
revenues into community development. The thus more attractive place for people to come
company was inspired by the need to achieve and businesses to invest in.
safer cities through the provision of adequate
street lighting. Under the motto Advertising 3.2.3 Design:
with a purpose, this company has erected over Considering infrastructure
185 streetlights along the major highways, and Road design again should focus on the modes
in slums in Nairobi. This rehabilitation has been that will most clearly benet women and men:
undertaken by inviting businesses to adopt and walking, bicycles and mass transit. As women
rehabilitate a streetlight. In return, the business are the least likely to benet from roads, con-
can place advertisements on the streetlight. A gestion charging, increasing parking fees for

27
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

very little pedestrian infrastructure to protect


these walkers. Where there are sidewalks,
they are often occupied by parked cars and
obstructed by vendors. This means many walk-
ers are walking on the roads, crossing the roads
wherever convenient but putting themselves at
risk of being run over by a speeding car. The
rst consideration is actually providing side-
walks with sucient width to accommodate
the demand. Raised crosswalks, guardrails,
crossings and street signals are all part of im-
proving the environment for pedestrians. Bol-
lards work well to protect sidewalks from cars.
Sidewalks need to be accessible for all users,
such as women with strollers and the physically
challenged.
There is a greater extent of non-motorized trans-
port, from handcarts to three-wheeled cycles,
in use in cities in developing countries. These
Fig. 23 on-street parking, and other demand manage-
tend to operate in the roadway at much lower
Inappropriate ment measures are potentially progressive forms
pedestrian speeds than motorized vehicles, causing inher-
of taxation that could be used to nance meas-
infrastructure near ent conicts leading to accidents. These, too,
ures that directly benet the poor (Hook, 2006).
Petronas towers need to be incorporated into plans and designs,
in Kuala Lumpur, These are also described in GTZs Sourcebook
such as cycle lanes that can accommodate three
despite the great Module 2b: Mobility management.
wheeler widths.
space dedicated to Most people have no choice but to walk to
automobiles. In addition, a large majority of the urban
school, to market, to work. However, there is
Photo by Carlos F. Pardo population lives in slum areas where there are
not many roads, those roads are not paved, and
most access is through dirt walking paths. In
Bogot, recognizing the limited access from
roads and that the majority of slum dwellers do
not own cars, the government decided to focus
its infrastructure investments on cycleways,
pedestrian paths, open space and parks, schools,
and libraries. The paved greenways called alame-
das run adjacent to unpaved roads and lead to
TransMilenio stations.
Mass transit is the other main mode that women
and men use in most cities. A growing body of
evidence indicates that public investment in the
transit sector in developing countries should
be focused on infrastructure that allows for the
protable private operation of bus-based mass
transit systems called bus rapid transit (BRT),
Fig. 24 rather than on bus procurement by public agen-
When space for cies BRT systems are spreading rapidly through
pedestrians isnt the larger cities of developing countries, prima-
provided, pedestrians
are forced to make rily because they can provide transit capacity
their own. and speeds equivalent to xed-rail systems but
Photo by Aime Gauthier with 1/20 to 1/50 of the capital costs. BRT

28
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

mass transit. Deep steps make it dicult to Fig. 26


easily board and alight buses. A gender audit Alamedas in Bogot
in the United Kingdom found that step height were built on the side
of dusty roads, showing
prevented easy boarding, the lack of leg room that pedestrians
caused sti knees and preventing shopping were more important
trolleys from being brought on, and that there than automobiles.
Photo by Oscar E. Diaz
was insucient storage space for shopping bags
and buggies.
Good, conscientious design can improve all
of these issues, including pre-paid, on-level
Fig. 25
In Johannesburg, a woman with stroller
doesnt use the safety median in street because
there are no ramps to access it. She remains
in the street, competing with big trucks.
Photo by Aime Gauthier

capital costs of US$1-5 million per kilometer


are typical. BRT systems can generally yield
an operating prot if properly designed. By
contrast, subways and elevated light rail systems
are extremely expensive to construct, maintain,
and operate. The Hong Kong metro is the only
system in the world which fully recovers its
operating costs. Rail-based transit systems tend
to cost more than US$50 million per kilometer,
and in some specic situations may cost as much
as US$1 billion per kilometer (Hook, 2006).
This is also discussed in GTZs Sourcebook Fig. 27
Module 3a: Mass transit options. Women carrying
babies in transport
More often than men, women are usually are a frequent sight.
carrying children or packages when utilizing Photo by Carlos F. Pardo

29
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

boarding at stations. Terminals and stations are capacity of the bicycle is therefore around 5
critical to the experience of the consumer, both times greater than on foot, apart from the physi-
women and men, including integrating other cal energy and time saved.
services into them. Public toilets are an often There are over 460 million bicycles in China,
overlooked but are a much needed transporta- and the urban bicycle ownership rate is about
tion infrastructure facility. Other services that 0.5 per person. In India, there are about 30
can be found at transit stops include grocery million bicycles, with about 25 times as many
and convenience stores, as well as child care bicycles as motor vehicles per capita and urban
facilities, such Kid Stops, child daycare centers bicycle ownership growing rapidly. In medium-
located at commuter rail stations in Maryland sized Indian cities, about 80% of trips are made
where parents can easily drop o and pick up by foot or bicycle. Increasingly more women
their children on their way to work. are taking to bicycles as they prove to be the
Tokyos underground subway is integrated with means to earning an income as they provide
many small, fashionable and convenient shops, access to the market, as seen in the case of
which stock many essentials, as well as a range Vietnam and Uganda, where small bicycle taxis
of options on the platforms. Remaining space in (a padded seat on the back of a regular bicycle)
the ticket gate area is converted to commercial are being used to transport women to and from
space. Recognizing the need of time-conscious the market. The use of the bicycle by women
clients, especially women, to combine their in Tamil Nadu (India) has increased, due to a
trips with other tasks and responsibilities, these literacy drive, better mobility, earning potential,
shops cater to busy commuters with coee and ability to access goods and services including
bread shops, gift shops, convenience stores, and education and health care for themselves and
aromatherapy salons. their children. In one district, 50,000 women
learned to cycle in one year. The large number
3.2.4 Design: Considering vehicles of women cycling meant that men no longer
Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs) opposed the idea of women cyclingprobably
because womens economic productivity had
Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs),
also increased.
which range from wheelbarrows and handcarts,
to bicycles, three wheelers, animal-drawn Further, bicycles should be designed for both
carts, to mopeds and motorcycles, tend to be genders and diering contexts. Women tend
overlooked as an ecient means of transport. to have shorter torsos and narrower shoulder
But there is some evidence that IMTs provide widths which aect the frame design. Bicycles
economic benets for women. A World Bank can also be designed for the typical activities
report describes a situation in Ghana. Women that men and women do. In Japan for exam-
transport oranges on their heads to villages 15 ple, the bicycles used mostly by mothers and
kilometers outside the capital city of Accra. housewives are called mamachari or mama
In Accra, the supply of oranges is low and the bicycles. These bicycles are lightweight, have
prices are high. A distance like this can easily be baskets in the front and sometimes the back
covered by bicycle. If these women had bicycles, to transport groceries, or child seats attached
they could increase their income considerably. to them and have a stable bicycle stand. In a
Furthermore, they would then have more time dierent context, women seem to prefer mens
and energy to cultivate their land and then bikes over womens bikes as they perceive them
increase their production. The bicycle would to be stier. The bicycle market has developed
increase both their sphere of activity and their to a great extent in designing dierent kinds of
transport capacity. A bicycle can transport up to bicycles for all uses, but most of these special-
approximately 50 kg of goods at a speed of 8 to ized bicycles are too expensive for low-income
10 kilometers per hour (km/h) with less eort, people.
while with walking, it is possible to transport If the car industry has taught us anything,
around 25 kg at a speed of 3 to 4 km/h (half it is that marketing is powerful in inducing
the load at less than half speed). The transport demand. Cars have positioned themselves as the

30
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

Box 8: Feminine car design


The 1950s was the golden age of feminine car
design. In 1955 Daimler introduced the 104
Ladies Model which came with a cosmetics
pack, tted luggage, an umbrella and a shooting
stick. However, only 50 were ever made, but the
company persisted with the theme: Daimler CEO
Lord Dockers wife designed extravagant show
cars; the Docker Daimlers, featured gold plating,
zebra-skin upholstery, and ivory dashboards.
At about the same time, Dodge introduced a
pink car known as La Femme with cosmet-
ics cabinets built into the seats. However these
also did not succeed and led Detroit to steer
clear of cars that played on gender stereotypes.
More recently, Volvo came out with a car de-
signed by women for women. However, the cars
feminine featuresan inaccessible engine,
teon bumpers, computer-assisted parking, constrained settings or drive people away form Fig. 28
seat-covers that can be changed to match your using the system because the public fare is too Transjakarta BRT hires
outtproved controversial with some critics high. Thus, the fare structure has to balance women drivers, giving
calling the prototype, sexist. protability form a private operator point of them higher income
than their typical jobs.
view with customer convenience and willing- Photo by Carlos F. Pardo
most attractive and fashionable choice. Thus, all ness to pay.
transport providers and operators should learn When transport is subsidized, most govern-
that to be competitive and ultimately sustain- ments have policies that give fare discounts to
able, it needs to be fashionable and attractive. special groups, such as students or the elderly.
However, it must also learn from the car indus- These subsidies aim to achieve social equity.
try has also excelled in passenger comfort and Tokyo oers silver passes for elderly users of the
reliability of vehicles. transit system. However, it is recommended that

3.2.5 Design: Considering operations


It is recommended that the government man-
ages and regulates mass transit but contract the
actual operations to the private sector. Within
this structure, the government can encourage
certain practices, such as hiring women drivers
and demanding a gender mix of personnel at
stations, on buses, and even in management.
Fare structure
The fare structure is the most obvious way that
the government determines who pays and who
benets. The rst consideration is that the fare
covers the costs of operation (the technical fare) Fig. 29.
while remaining aordable to the population Free bicycle parking at
(the public fare). This is a very sensitive issue TransMilenio Americas
and can undermine the viability of a system portal increases
accessibility and the
if the fare doesnt cover operational costs systems catchment area.
requiring government subsidies in resource Photo by Carlos F. Pardo

31
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

indirect or cross subsidies are used instead of


direct subsidies. In Bogot, the at fare acts as a
cross subsidy. The rich typically live in the inner
city and take shorter trips but pay the same as
a poorer person who lives on the periphery and
travels much farther (thus a more expensive
in operational costs trip). Feeder services are
also at no cost to the user (included in the user
fare), and bicycle parking facilities are provided
at terminal stations for free. This extends the
catchement area of the system to more users in
the periphery. Fig. 30
As these discounts aect the operational vi- Smartcards have lowered their cost, which
makes it easier to have more exible fare
ability of the system, it is important that the systems.
government pays the cost of the subsidy and Photo by Carlos F. Pardo

not the private operators. In Dar es Salaam, by


the actual operating costs of the system. If the
law, students travel for free. What this means
poor live at the periphery, then they would end
is that students are frequently not picked up
up paying the highest transport costs;
and are left standing on the street or walking.
Discounts and subsidies are often the source of 3. Time-based fare: is usually for systems that
fraud within a system. Once a discounted pass have transfers between the dierent parts. Time
is issued, it is dicult to verify correct usage. based fares incorporate trip-chaining more
In Brazil, private bus operators are not com- easily, allowing people to leave the system for a
pensated for the provision of this service, and short period (to drop children o at school) and
the cost burden related to this service and its re-enter without paying again to continue the
fraudulent abuse is a continuing cause of opera- trip; and
tor claims that they need fare increases. This 4. Peak versus non-peak pricing: creates incen-
also has implications on the technology, and its tives to use the transit system during non-peak
associated costs, on the entire system. times and spread demand more consistently.
When Pariss RATP oered a loyalty youth pro- This also allows the system to charge the least
gram as part of its targeting strategy in its shift price sensitive commuters a higher price.
towards personal mobility, it attracted 700,000 It is possible to have a mix of the dierent
members. The modal split for the youth in- structures, but that will increase the complex-
creased 10% The youth group was oered a pass ity of the system for the consumer, as well the
with associated benets oriented to their needs technology requirements for the fare collection
and lifestyles, such as loss and theft insurance, system. For example, the busways in So Paulo
targeted publications, discounts with retailers, (Brazil) charge a at fare in central areas but
special oers for movies, museums, concerts, revert to a distance-based scheme for continuing
sports, and other special events. onto satellite destinations. Regardless, other
There are several types of fare that can be con- than at fare, all other fare structures require a
sidered: more sophisticated fare collection technology.
1. Flat fare: is when the same fare is charged However, fare collection technologies costs
regardless of distance or time. This helps cross have lowered in recent years. This information is
subsidize poorer groups if they tend to live in found in greater detail inside the BRT Planning
periphery and the richer live more in the center Guide (for more detailed information about
of the city, like the case of Bogot. However, it setting a tari policy, please see Chapter 14 of
does not discourage continued sprawl nor moti- such Planning Guide).
vate mixed land use;
2. Distance-based fare: is where the fare is based
on the length of the trip and most closely mirrors

32
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

3.3 Implementation: Leadership and Fig. 31


governance Female police ocer
in Lima, Peru.
Ultimately, when the government decides gen- Photo by Manfred Breithaupt

der is important to address in transport, steps


can be taken to address it easily. It takes politi-
cal will and vision.
Labor-based road construction is one of the best
ways for roads to have a positive impact on the
poorboth men and women. Working with the
existing industry to formalize has great impacts
both within the industry and the quality of jobs
it has, as well as the kind of service it gives.
By explicitly requiring women to be part of the
transport system and encouraging their eco-
nomic and political representation, the govern-
ment sets a clear mandate of its social equity
objectives. Women can be incorporated into
jobs from construction (like in Addis Ababa), to
enforcement, to street cleaners, to meter maids.
In Peru, women police ocers were found
to be more eective in enforcing the law and
trac management, as they had a reputation Women are often discouraged or unable to
amongst drivers as being incorruptible. About get into the industrydue to various reasons
a fourth of Lima's trac ocers are women. ranging from a lack of capital to a lack of
Women are playing an increasingly large role acceptance. There are however, promising
in South Africa which has a female Direc- examples, such as in Jakarta, where women
tor General equivalent to a Minister for the are being trained and hired as bus drivers for
Department of Transport and increasingly TransJakartathe rst in the country. Because
growing cadre of female transport planners at the industry is formalized and regulated,
all levels in government. women now have space to enter into these jobs
In 2005, the London Underground won the and greater income earning opportunities.
Equality Award. Latest employment gures Employing women in transport will lead to
show that between 2000 and January 2005 not only a gender perspective being naturally
female train operators increased from 2.6% to integrated into the sector, but also contributes
to reducing urban poverty as these employed
6.9%, female signal operators from 4% to 7.4%,
women will be bringing home an income.
women in rst line management from 15.6%
to 17.9%, women in middle management from
17.2% to 22.6% and women in senior manage- 3.4 Governance
ment from 13% to 20.1%. In the end, it is up to the central government
The main operator of public transport in the and local municipalities, road authorities
Paris urban area is the Rgie Autonome des whether womens urban travel needs and
Transports Parisiens (RATP). Although there behaviors will be adequately considered in the
are only 8,000 women to 45,000 male workers planning and implementation of gender-sensi-
in this traditionally male-dominated industry, tive urban transport policies and programs and
the RATP has planned an exhibition5 on women whether women will benet from transport in-
working within the RATP. Sex disaggregated frastructure and services. Transport governance
statistics have been collected since 1995. should be transparent, approachable so that
women will interest and perhaps involve them-
5
http://www.imagesdelles.org/expo3.html selves in improving transport infrastructure

33
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

and services. Good transport governance will The UK gender audit checklist was designed
be especially important where public transport to be utilized as a management tool or a com-
systems are in a state of crisis as a result of munity tool. As a management tool, the gender
accelerate urbanization, economic and nancial audit checklist
crisis (which may have led to the disappearance n assesses how well the organization meets
of national corporations and haphazard develop- womens needs,
ment of small, unstructured private operators) n identies priorities for improvement,
or the lack of a regulatory authority in charge of n measures progress towards gender-based
organizing and coordinating transport modes targets.
(Insted, 2005) may impact urban womens lives As a community tool, the gender audit checklist
and in particular low-income women and single
n assesses how well a local transport provider
mother households.
or local authority meets womens transport
needs,
3.5 Monitoring: Gender audits n identies priorities for campaigning, lobbying
The UK Department of Environment, Trans- and negotiations,
port and the Regions (DETR) commissioned n measures the progress of operators and local
gender audit checklist or similar checklist is authorities towards gender-based targets.
useful as a gender in transport monitoring tool. (Hamilton, K. et al., 1999)

Box 9: Basic gender and urban transport checklist


1. Has the urban transport program or project 7. Has the issue of personal mobility and access
identied male and female participants, clients of non-drivers, of which a majority are women
and stakeholders? and the elderly, been thought through? Have
2. Has baseline data been collected and ana- policy, planning or investment practices that
lyzed on gender relations, roles and identities favor automobile travel over other modes or lead
within the urban environment and the use of to automobile dependency been avoided?
transport? 8. Have the implications of policies and projects
that degrade pedestrian and cycling conditions,
3. Has the urban transport program or project
such as new highways that divide existing com-
taken into consideration the analysis of gender
munities or eliminate walkways been considered.
relations, roles and identities and introduced a
Have measures been implemented to control
component or transport measure to address a
vehicle trafc volumes and speeds, particularly
gender issue?
in urban neighborhoods?
4. Has the urban transport program or project
9. Has the participation of various stakeholders in
developed an indicator that measures gender
the transportation planning and decision making
specic outcomes and evaluate the effective-
been facilitated?
ness of the component or measure designed to
10. Has comparative advantage been given to tra-
address the above-mentioned gender issue?
ditionally socially and transport disadvantaged
5. Has transportation planning been based on lo- by applying full-cost pricing to automobile
cal conditions and specic and local needs of travel, road pricing, parking pricing and fuel
men, women, youth, elderly and the disabled? taxes and distance-based charges?
Have statistics and situations in developed 11. Provide transportation consultation and infor-
countries been referenced and adapted to re- mation on transportation choices available.
ect the needs and resources in developing 12. Have you looked at the supply of females into
countries? the transportation eld? Has gender been inte-
6. Have jobs and social services been brought grated in engineering education and measures
closer to men and women by developing ac- put in place to groom womens leadership in
cessible land use patterns transport planning?

34
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

n Think who will be aected by a particular


4. In conclusion policy or project, such as reduction in trac
Integrating gender into urban transport does congestion delay, an increase in transit trip
not require extra eort; it is just a matter of ex- speeds, or a reduction in barriers to non-mo-
tra perspective. Transport is not gender neutral torized travel.
and it is time for transport policymakers and n Imagine and dene the public you are

experts to stop assuming it is. It is time to think thinking about.


of how to make urban transport fashionable n Ask how this will impact the dierent in-
and aordable, giving people real choices and tended beneciariesthe poor, the disabled,
real access to opportunity and a better quality the elderly.
of life. The benets will not only be the people n Imagine using the services from your pub-
of the cityboth women and men, but the city lics perspectiveas a women carrying a
as a whole as it becomes more competitive in baby with another child in tow, as a man
the global market place and more ecient in who lives in the periphery who needs to get
providing services. to work in the morning, as a girl trying to
get to school, elderly pushing their shopping
The point of cities is multiplicity of trolleys.
n Is their a way to provide integrated and inclu-
choice.
sive transport facilities and services?
Jane Jacobs
Retrotting existing urban facilities to become
When planning and setting indicators for an gender, age or disability considerate can be
urban transport project or program, dont think very expensive and may discourage some
about just access abstractly, but access for whom municipalities or companies in investing more
who wins and who loses. The solutions are out on making their transport infrastructure and
there; it is up to you to ask the right questions to services more accessible. Time and cost savings
identify the problems aecting the publicboth can be achieved just by having the vision of
the women and the men and then to provide making urban transport more accessible to all
fashionable and aordable options for them. before implementing the project.

35
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

11. Efoymson, Debra and Maruf Rahman.


Resources May 2005. Transportation Policy for Poverty
Reduction and Social Equity. WBB Trust,
Main references Roads for People
1. Abidemi, Asiyambola. 2002. Gender dier-
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ences in intra-urban travel behavior: a pre-
Overview and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban
liminary survey in Ibadan, Nigeria in Urban
Transport, Introductory Module GTZ
Mobility for All La Mobilite Urbaine pour
13. Fouracre, P R and Je Turner. 1992. Travel
Tous, Godard & Fetonzoun (eds) Swets &
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Zeitlinger ceedings of the 6th World Conference on
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Saharan Cities. Sub-Saharan Africa Trans- 30 Washington DC, World Bank
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www.adb.org/Documents/Manuals/
unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu23me/
Gender_Checklists/Urban/urban500. uu23me00.htm# Contents Tokyo, United
asp?p=gencheck Nations University
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Projects: A Toolkit. First draft. World Bank, the Integrating Gender into World Bank
PREM Gender Unit Finance Transport Programs study
8. Beavon, Kevin S.O. 1997. Johannesburg: A 21. Hamilton, Kerry, Linda Jenkins, Abigail
City and Metropolitan Area in Transforma- Gregory. 1991. Women and Transport: Bus
tion" in C. Rakodi (ed.). The Urban Chal- deregulation in West Yorkshire. Bradford:
lenge in Africa: Growth and Management University of Bradford
of its Large Cities. United Nations Univer- 22. Hamilton, Kerry, Susan Ryley Holyle and
sity, Tokyo, pp. 150-91 Linda Jenkins. 1999. The Public Transport
9. Buck, Karen. 2005. Keynote speech by Karen Gender Audit, UK Department of Transport,
Buck to the Women's Transport Network Con- London. Accessible from http://www.dft.gov.
ference. Delivered: 13 December 2005 uk/pgr/inclusion/women/ptgenderaudit
10. Carruthers, Robin, Dick, Malise and Sau- 23. Hamilton, Kerry. 2001. Gender and Trans-
rkar, Anuja. January 2005. Aordability of port in Developed Countries, background
Public Transport in Developing Countries, paper for the expert workshop Gender Per-
Transport Paper 3, The World Bank spectives for Earth summit 2002: Energy,

36
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

Transport, Information for Decision-Mak- 33. Litman, Todd. 2006. Evaluating Transporta-
ing", Berlin, Germany, 1012 January 2001. tion Equity: Guidance for Incorporating Dis-
24. Hook, Walter. 2006. Urban transport and the tributional Impacts
Millennium Development Goals Global Ur- 34. Padeco Co. Ltd., 2000. Study on Urban
ban Development Magazine, March 2006, Transport Development, Washington DC,
Vol 2 Issue 1 accessible at http://www.global- World Bank
urban.org/GUDMag06Vol2Iss1/Hook.htm 35. Pendakur, V. Setty. 2005. Non-Motorized
25. Hyodo Testuro, Fujiwara Akimasa, Soe- Transport in African Cities, Lessons From
hodho Sutanto and Montalbo Cresencio M. Experience in Kenya and Tanzania. Sub-
Jr. Urban Travel Characteristics of 13 Cit- Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program
ies Based on Household Interview Survey (SSATP) Working Paper No. 80
Data in the The Journal of the Eastern Asia 36. Peters, Deike. 2001. Gender and Transport
Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 6, in Less Developed Countries: A Background
pp. 23-38, 2005 accessible from http://www. Paper in preparation for CSD-9 expert
easts.info/on-line/journal_06/23.pdf workshop Gender Perspectives for Earth
26. Ireland NDP. Gender equality unit, Gender summit 2002: Energy, Transport, Informa-
Equality and Transport: Fact Sheet for the tion for Decision-Making, Berlin, Ger-
Economic and Social Infrastructure Opera- many, 1012 January 2001.
tional Programme of the National Develop- 37. Peters, Deike. 1999. Gender Issues in Trans-
ment Plan 2000 to 2006, August 2001. portation: A Short Introduction. Presentation
27. Institut des Sciences et des Techniques de notes for the UNEP Deals on Wheels
Seminar, San Salvador, July 2830, 1999.
lEquipment et de lEnvironmment pour
38. Rankin, Elizabeth. 1999. Gender and Trans-
le Dveloppement (Insted). 2005. Build-
port: A Strategy for Africa.
ing Blocks of Urban Transport Development
39. Rosenbloom, Sandra. 1997. Trends in Wom-
Strategy in the Developing Country, La
ens Travel Patterns. Chapter 2 in of Pro-
Dfence
ceedings from the Second National Confer-
28. Je, Gloria J. and McElroy, Regina. 1997.
ence in October 1996. US Department of
Womens Travel: Consequences and Oppor-
Transportation, Federal Highway Admin-
tunities. Chapter 5 of Proceedings from the
istration, Oce of Highway Information
Second National Conference in October Management, HPM-40.
1996. US Department of Transportation, 40. Sub Saharan Africa Transport Policy Pro-
Federal Highway Administration, Oce gram. 2004. Poverty and Urban Mobility in
of Highway Information Management, Douala: Final Report. SSATP Report No.
HPM-40. 09/04/Dla.
29. Laquian, Aprodicio. Who are the Poor and 41. SDU. The Economic Signicance of Cycling
How Are They Being Served in Asian Cities? A study to illustrate the costs and benets
Pp. 1422 in Public Transport in Asia of cycling http://www.vnguitgeverij.nl, Den
30. Litman, Todd. 2003. Mobility Management Hague
module (http://www.vtpi.org/gtz_mod- 42. Sohail, M. (ed). 2000. Urban public trans-
ule.pdf) of the Sustainable Transport port and sustainable livelihoods for the poor: a
Sourcebook, published by the Sustainable case study: Karachi, Pakistan
Urban Transport Project in Asia (http:// 43. Tiwari, Geetam. Planning for bicycles and
www.sutp.org) and GTZ (http://www.gtz. other non motorised modes: The critical ele-
de), 2003 ment in city transport system. Transportation
31. Litman, Todd. 2005. Measuring Transporta- Research and Injury Prevention programme
tion: Trac, Mobility and Accessibility VTPI (TRIPP)Indian Institute of Technology,
32. Litman, Todd and Tom Rickert. 2005. Eval- Delhi 110016, India
uating Public Transit Accessibility: Inclusive 44. Tiwari, Geetam. 2003. Social dimension
Design Performance Indicators For Public of transport planning Discussion paper for
Transportation In Developing Countries. DFID. Delhi, India.

37
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

45. Transportation Research Board. 2006. Re- web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/


search on Womens Issues in Transportation COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTAFRREGTOP-
Report of a Conference Volume 1 Confer- TRA/EXTAFRSUBSAHTRA/
ence Overview and Plenary Papers 0,,contentMDK:20625633~menuPK:1532073
46. Transportation Research Board. 2006. Re- ~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSite
search on Womens Issues in Transportation PK:1513930,00.html
Report of a Conference Volume 2: Techni-
cal Papers http://onlinepubs.trb.org/on- Further references
linepubs/conf/CP35v2.pdf n Women in Cities International focused on
47. UNDP. 2005. Making Infrastructure Work gender equity and participation of women in
for the Poor, New York, USA. policymaking in a networking event. Vari-
48. UN Habitat Global Indicators ous discussions were held on the problems
49. University of East London. Transport Stud- faced by women in urban areas, especially
ies. Public Transport Gender Audit with regard to transportation and sanitation;
50. Vasconcellos, E.A. 2001. Urban transport, the importance of implementing legislation
environment and equity: the case for develop- for gender equality; and the role of train-
ing countries, Earthscan ing and education programs for poor girls
51. Vasconcellos, Eduardo. presentation to to provide them with working skills and the
WRI, January 2005 ability to protect themselves against abuse
52. Wachs, Martin. 1996. Chapter 6: The Auto- and violence. Delegates also highlighted the
mobile and Gender: An Historical Perspective importance of political will, action plans and
Chapter 6 in Proceedings from the Second accountability.
National Conference in October 1996. US n GTZ, Sustainable Transportation: A
Department of Transportation, Federal Sourcebook for Policy-Makers in Develop-
ing Countries, (http://www.sutp.org), by the
Highway Administration, Oce of High-
Sustainable Urban Transport Project Asia
way Information Management, HPM-40
(http://www.sutp-asia.org) and Deutsche
53. Welsh, Margaret. Gender and the Auto-
Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit
mobile Life in Society website http://www.
(GTZ) GmbH (http://www.gtz.de), 2003.
autolife.umd.umich.edu/Gender/Walsh/G_
Many of these documents are now avail-
Overview7.htm#walsh
able in various languages including Spanish,
54. Williams, Brian. 2005. Gender and Urban
French, Chinese, Indonesian, Romanian,
Transport in Habitat Debate, March 2005 Thai, and Vietnamese.
Vol. 11 No. 1 http://ww2.unhabitat.org/hd/ n The City Mayors Transport Section (http://
hdv11n1/10.asp
www.citymayors.com/sections/transport_
55. Wonfor, Cheri. 1998. Women and Urban content.html) deals with urban transport
Transport: Improving Public Taxi Transport issues in developed and developing countries
and Energy Eciency in South Africa. Ener- and features the worlds metro systems.
gia News Issue 2.3, August 1998 n Practical Action (http://www.practicalac-
56. World Bank. 1994. Infrastructure for Devel- tion.org) formerly Intermediate Technology
opment, 1994 World Development Report Development Group believes that one of the
World Bank, 2000. Evaluation of Urban major causes of poverty is isolation and that
Transport in Metropolitan Lima: Gender improving the access and mobility of the
Analysis of December 1997 Household isolated poor paves the way for access to mar-
Survey kets, services and opportunities is important
57. World Bank. 2002. Chapter 3 Urban Trans- but that road systems do not solve the urban
port and Poverty Reduction and Chapter 5 and rural poor transport problems.
Urban Transport Safety and Security in Cities n Access Exchange International (http://www.
on the Move: A World Bank Urban Trans- globalride-sf.org) is a non-prot organization
port Strategy Review. World Bank. that promotes cost-eective access to public
58. World Bank. 2006. The Gender and Trans- transportation for disabled persons in devel-
port Resource Guide: An Introduction http:// oping countries.

38
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable

n Karachi Urban Resource Centre (http://www. n Mobility in the Developing World and Sus-
urckarachi.org) is an advocacy group of urban tainable Transportation Live (http://www.
planning related professionals, representatives movingtheeconomy.ca), by Moving the
of NGOs and grass-root community organi- Economy and the Canadian International
sations and teachers at professional colleges. Development Agency, is a website that pro-
The situational descriptions of Karachis vides information on how developing country
transport and trac management, mass tran- cities are applying sustainable transportation
sit system are detailed. principles to help reduce trac congestion,
n The Sustran Discuss List (http://www.geoci- facility costs, pollution and other transport
ties.com/sustrannet) is an email discussion problems.
list devoted to people-centred, equitable and n Murdoch University Institute for Sustain-
sustainable transport with a focus on develop- ability and Technology Policy (http://www.
ing countries, sustainability.murdoch.edu.au) has a unique
n Global Development Research Center Sus- collection of papers and case studies on urban
tainable Transportation (http://www.gdrc. transport.
org/uem/sustran/sustran.html) has a great n Transport Links- Transport for Development
entrance point for web-based material on sus- Website (http://www.transport-links.org), UK
tainable transportation, but no gender angle. Department for International Development,
n Institute for Transportation and Develop- provides extensive information resources and
ment Policy (http://www.itdp.org) promotes links to research on developing region trans-
socially equitable and environmentally sus- portation.
tainable transportation policies and projects n U.S. Department of Transportation Federal
worldwide. The ITDP publishes a quarterly Highway; Administration Women's Travel
on-line newsletter, Sustainable Transport, issues: proceedings from the Second National
available free at their website and was one of Conference, October 1996 http://www.fhwa.
the rst organizations to recognize gender is- dot.gov/ohim/womens/wtipage.htm has links
sues in transportation (1999, available from to the papers not to be found elsewhere. And
ITDP website>publications section). presented at this conference.
n International Forum for Rural Transport and n The Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Development (IFRTD) (http://www.ifrtd. (http://www.vtpi.org) is an independent
org) is a global network of organizations and research organization dedicated to develop-
individuals working to improve accessibility ing innovative and practical solutions to
and mobility in rural communities, functions transportation problems. A variety of recent
as the webmaster/secretariat of GATNET the resources are available free from the website
gender and transport network, and has pub- to help improve transportation planning and
lished a newsletter dedicated to gender and policy analysis.
transport in the past. n World Bank, Background Resource Materials
n The Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for on Transport and Poverty, World Bank (http://
Transportation Studies http://www.easts.info/ www.worldbank.org/transport/pov&tra_re-
on-line/journal_06.htm has 314 papers under sources.htm), updated occasionally.
various topics such as transportation survey, n World Bank Transport and Social Responsi-
transportation demand analysis, urban road bility thematic group (http://www.worldbank.
system, data collection, land use and spatial org/responsibletransport) includes informa-
analysis, project evaluation to name a few. tion on various equity issues.
n The Journal of World Transport Policy and n UN-Habitat, Best Practices Database in Im-
Practice (http://www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wtj_ proving the Living Environment, Women
index.htm) is an independent electronic jour- Empowerment Practices http://www.best-
nal of transport, the environment, economics practices.org/bpbriefs/women.html
and ecology and the development of a better n World Bank. Cities on the Move: An Urban
transport system. All articles can be down- Transport Strategy Review, 2001. http://
loaded for free. www.worldbank.org/transport

39
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

n Public Transport International (UITP bi- Road safety


monthly): http://www.uitp.com/publications n http://www.trafccalming.org
The Mobility in Cities Database CD-ROM n http://www.ite.org/trafc
just published in July 2006 contains the main n http://www.trafccalming.net
results of a major research project of UITP n http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/tcalm/
on the economics of urban mobility. A total index.htm
of 120 indicators were collected in a sample n http://www.estrellasnegras.com/2005/index.
of 52 cities worldwide for the year 2001 but htm
none of the data seems to be gender disaggre- n http://www.grsproadsafety.org
gated.
n UK Commission for Integrated Transport Personal security
n http://www.adopt-a-light.com/aboutus.php
http://www.ct.gov.uk/factsheets/05/index.
htm lists Barcelona, Munich, Stuttgart and Safety audits
Graz in Austria as benchmarking cities in n http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/safer-
terms of urban transport although the gures cities/tools.asp
listed are not gender disaggregated. n http://www.roadwaysafetyaudits.org
n Global Transport Knowledge Partnership: n http://www.police.qld.gov.au/programs/
http://gtkp.com/Index.aspx is an initiative crimePrevention/audit
to promote and disseminate sustainable
transport knowledge, whilst encouraging
greater participation from the developing
world. The GTKPs activities are focused
around 1) Transport & Health, 2) Transport
& Exclusion, 3) Demand Management, 4)
Employment & Income Opportunities and
maintains a website on transport related
knowledge relevant to developing and emerg-
ing countries
n Brazil National Association of Public Trans-
port http://portal.antp.org.br/default.aspx
Gender
n The Gender and Transport Resource Guide:
An Introduction http://web.worldbank.org/
WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRIC-
AEXT/EXTAFRREGTOPTRA/
EXTAFRSUBSAHTRA/
0,,contentMDK:20625633~menuPK:1532073~
pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK
:1513930,00.html
n GENDERSTATS: The World Bank Data-
base of Gender Statistics http://genderstats.
worldbank.org/home.asp gives basic statistics
about gender by country
n International Research and Training Insti-
tute for the Advancement of Women (IN-
STRAW) Gender Mainstreaming Site
http://www.un-instraw.org/en/index.php?opti
on=content&task=category...lists

40
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Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

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