Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Sector project
Transport Policy Advisory Service
OVERVIEW OF THE SOURCEBOOK
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-Makers in Developing Cities
i
Preface
This module examines transport systems around
the world to establish what is important for A fashion that does not reach the
transport users in general and how gender af- streets is not fashion.
fects the ways users view transport. Ultimately, Coco Chanel
these are universal concerns. When gender-
based needs are not taken into consideration, For too long, transport has ignored the needs
transport is inecient and unsustainable. Urban of women in planning and designassum-
transport systems are frequently overlooked ing a purported neutral stance of benets to
in discussions of quality of life issues for city all. By attaching fashionable to transport, the
dwellers. Moreover, transport is often seen as authors aim to highlight the feminine side of
gender neutrala road or bus system benets transportation demands, while recognizing that
all equally. However, this isnt a given. Urban the success of any transport solution is that it is
transport systems are dynamic, inuenced by competitive.
society and inuencing the choices members Poor women and men do not travel less; they
of that society can make. The objective of this just travel under more duress and in worse
module is to provoke thinking about the con- conditions. They lack real options and the ones
cept of gender in urban transport through two available are usually under-resourced, under-
conceptsfashion and aordability. capitalized, and over-utilized. Women are usually
the last to have access to the most modern and
Fashionable expensive (higher status) forms of transport. Men
For transport to be competitive, it needs to have to rely on dangerous and unreliable mass
be more than just safe, convenient, clean, transit or paratransit. It is imperative that trans-
and of high qualityit needs to be fashion- port seriously addresses concerns for themsat-
able. Fashionable transport isnt expensive or isfying their consumer mobility needs with
frivolous. It is transport that, at a minimum, fashionable options that help them gain access.
heeds consumer needs and then oers good Women are most concerned with the safety and
quality alternatives to achieve transport for all. personal security aspect of transport - a funda-
Transport is demand driven. Safety, reliability, mental and critical component to decision-mak-
and convenience are important fundamental ing about transport. They may forego trips and
considerations in meeting that demand. But to seek less ecient and/or more costly alternatives
be fashionable, public transport, cycling, and when there is a perceived threat. Women, who
walking need to be attractive to the consumer are unequally aected by violence, are often
by oering personally satisfying advantages that prime targets of violent crime, and have dif-
can compete with the perceived safety, cleanli- ferent and greater safety needs than men. Men
ness, and convenience of private cars. If public are more often the victims of road fatalities
transport, cycling, and walking fail to be fash- and injuries because they are more likely than
ionable, demand will move on to other modes as women to be sitting at the driving wheel and
soon as it can. more likely than women to be traveling.
ii
Convenience is another motivator in the trans-
port decision-making process. All users want
transport that oers punctuality, predictability,
shortened travel time, proximity, exibility,
etc. Men tend to prefer speed, punctuality, and
predictability and usually have greater access
to the types of modes that deliver that type of
service, whether it is public transport, private
vehicles, motorcycles, or bicycles. Women have
less access and tend to have multiple purposes in
their trips, since they balance multiple roles of
work, household and childcare. Because of this,
they favor more exible services that bring them
closer to their varied destinations.
Finally, fashionableness in transport includes
integrating activities more closely with transport
so that it becomes more than just a service; it
becomes a place where the busy urban citizen
can, for example, get the latest news or access
needed services. Streets become more than
thoroughfares, they become prime public space
that people enjoy and have pride in using.
Affordable
Aordability is a matter of time and money.
More aordable transportation systems need to
be developed to give both women and men real
and aordable choices. No matter how fash-
ionable or attractive a transport choice is, the
rst consideration for both men and women
when making a decision about transport is
whether or not they can aord it. Women
often choose to walk rather than to pay for
transporta sign of their reduced mobil-
ity. This restriction has ramications with a
corresponding reduction of opportunities in
revenues and services.
iii
1. Introduction 1 4. In conclusion 35
1.1 Why gender? 1
1.2 Urban transportation systems Resources 36
in developing countries 2
Main references 36
2. Gender and urban transport 6 Further references 38
3. Moving forward 19
3.1 Planning 19
3.1.1 Planning: Gender analysis 19
3.1.2 Planning: Economic analysis 19
3.1.3 Planning: Data collection 20
3.1.4 Planning: Measuring gender
equity in urban transport 22
3.1.5 Planning: Safety 24
3.1.6 Planning: Participation 24
3.2 Design 24
3.2.1 Design: Complete streets 24
3.2.2 Design: Considering safety 24
3.2.3 Design:
Considering infrastructure 27
3.2.4 Design:
Considering vehicles 30
3.2.5 Design:
Considering operations 31
3.3 Implementation:
Leadership and governance 33
3.4 Governance 33
3.5 Monitoring: Gender audits 34
iv
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
is an extraordinarily challenging 4%
endeavor. 3%
(Jeff and McElroy, 81)
2%
95% of all urbanization is expected to occur in
cities in developing countries. These are cities
1%
that are already facing crisis in urban transpor-
tation, manifested in poor accessibility for the
0%
majority and increasing congestion. The result:
e
hi
re
il
h
re
re
o
no
qu
go
in
ul
c
po
ra
alo
ra
Ha
iM
Pa
Re
ya
n
Ha
a
Ka
ng
Ya
ng
ua
Ch
o
Ba
G
Si
Ho
specically in developing countries. The focus of of roles and responsibilities. However, the main
gender and transportation studies and projects point is that in each specic location or cultural
in developing countries has been mostly rural. context, gendered behavior, patterns and deni-
While there is a growing literature base on the tions need to be understood and accounted for
subject in more developed countries, there is in designing and planning urban transportation
a lack of analysis of transport planning and systems. Women and men have dierent trans-
projects by gender in developing countries. This port needs, dierent travel behaviors, and dif-
module aims to bridge that void by bringing to-
1
See EC glossary of gender and development terms
gether existing studies and current best practices at: http://ec.europa.eu/comm/europeaid/projects/gender/
to oer policymakers ways to address gender and documents/toolkit_section_3.pdf
1
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
ferent levels of access. To that end it is necessary attain gender equality. Equity is the means;
to look at planning from these roles and respon- equality is the result.
sibilities. If this does not occur, transportation n Gender mainstreaming is the process of as-
planning and projects will not adequately meet sessing the implications for women and men
demand and there will be ineciencies in the of any planned action, including legislation,
system. Men and women will face higher costs policies or programs, in all areas and at all
in time and money. They will have a harder time levels. It is a strategy for making womens as
accessing services and economic opportunity. well as mens concerns and experiences an
With limited transport options, people will have integral dimension of the design, implemen-
to forego trips, such as to school or for health tation, monitoring and evaluation of poli-
care, will have a higher incidence of absentee- cies and programs in all political, economic
ism or tardiness, and will forego employment and societal spheres so that women and men
because the costs of transport are greater than benet equally and inequality is not perpetu-
the benet of employment. Poor transportation ated2. There is also a signicant capacity
systems give people no choice other than to building aspect involved in gender main-
ineciently allocate their time and money. streaming as this process entails the transfor-
Addressing gender in urban transportation mation of the institutional procedures as well
projects has the following benets: as the organizational culture.
1. It increases economic rates of return on in- n Gender integration means taking into ac-
vestment in infrastructure and increasing the count both the dierences and the inequali-
protability of mass transport systems; ties between women and men in program
2. It meets demand for transportation services planning, implementation, and evaluation.
through a better understanding of the diver- The roles of women and men and their rela-
gent needs, preferences and constraints of end tive power aect who does what in carrying
users, both women and men; out an activity, and who benets. Taking into
3. It lowers transaction costs by optimizing the account the inequalities and designing pro-
transport system for all users; grams to reduce them should contribute not
4. It increases access to employment, education, only to more eective development programs
and services that ultimately raise productiv- but also to greater social equity/equality. Ex-
ity; and perience has shown that sustainable changes
5. It enables women to better meet the needs of are not realized through activities focused on
the household, for which they have primary either women or men alone.
responsibility and ultimately strengthens the The goals are gender equality and mainstream-
base economic unit of the household. ing. To reach those goals, gender equity and
While gender is much more nuanced, for the integration become the main means and will be
sake of simplicity we will be referring to men the focus of this module.
and women as the pervasive gender typologies of
masculine and feminine, respectively. For the sake
1.2 Urban transportation systems in
of clarity and to express the authors point of view
in this module, gender terms are dened below: developing countries
n Gender equality permits women and men Cities in most developing countries account
equal enjoyment of human rights, socially for at least 50% of the gross national product
valued goods, opportunities, resources, and (GNP) (World Bank, 2002). When cities do not
the benets from development results. function well, there are huge economic rami-
n Gender equity is the process of being fair to cations for the country. Urban economic growth
women and men. To ensure fairness, meas- tends to accelerate urban transport problems
ures, such as armative action, must be avail- (Fjellstrom, 2002). Thus, this growth begets
able to compensate for historical and social transportation problems (congestion, road fatali-
disadvantages that prevent women and men ties, etc.) that slow down economic growth. In
from operating on a level playing eld. Gen- 2
The Report of the Economic and Social Council for
der equity strategies are used to eventually 1997. United Nations, 1997.
2
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
3
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
majority of the population. 73% of World Bank are trying to understand the relationship be-
transport funding is for roads and highways, tween urban poverty and transport.
mainly rural and interurban in focus. Urban
transport projects represent less than 10% of Now with the Millennium Develop-
the total World Bank transport portfolio. The
Bank is making concerted eorts to rectify ment Goals (MDGs), more and more
this with its new transport strategy focusing on transport projects aim to alleviate
urban transport and poverty alleviation. Urban poverty.
projects now are focused on dedicated bus lanes
for improved public transport, space for pedes- There is a strong correlation between poverty
trians and bicycles but there have only been and urban mobility, but its extent is not suf-
a select few projects that have mainstreamed ciently well known or quantied. The time and
gender, despite half of the urban population money that the poor must spend meeting basic
(the beneciaries) being women4. However, one mobility needs keeps low-income families from
of the sectors of focus for the World Banks new accumulating the assets that would lift them
Gender Action Plan is transport. out of poverty. Transport service and transport-
This is partly due to the focus of poverty allevia- related construction also are frequently critical
tion from the Millennium Development Goals. sources of employment for the urban poor.
In 2000, at the UN Millennium Summit, gov- Goods and services are sometimes more expen-
ernments committed to reducing the number of sive in low-income communities due to poor
people living in poverty in half by 2015 through transport infrastructure and services (Hook,
agreeing to eight goals that have specic and 2006). Poverty complicates mobility and lack of
measurable targets. None of these goals include transport options complicates poverty. The poor
any specic goals or targets related to transpor- do not travel less, they just travel under worse
tation, although transport sector interventions conditions. Lack of transport options hamper
are critical to meeting many of them. But it access to employment, as well as contribute to
has given focus to governments and donors for weakened social networks. Moreover, transport
transport projects. Now with the Millennium
costs put a lot of nancial pressure on house-
Fig. 2 Development Goals (MDGs), more and more
holds where nancial pressures already exist
Modal split comparison transport projects aim to alleviate poverty and
by region from 1998 (SSATP Report No 09/04/Dla).
UN Habitat Global 4
Williams, Brian, "xxx," Habitat Debate, Walking and non-motorized transport is the
Urban Indicators. March 2005, p. 10
most common mode of travel for both men
and women in developing cities, especially for
Modal Split Comparison by Region
(from 1998 UN Habitat Global Urban Indicators)
the poor. Mass transit is the main means of
100% transport for most people in developing cities.
Car ownership is not a realistic option for most
people living in developing cities.
80%
In many cities, buses and paratransit systems
are owned and operated by private companies or
60% individuals and, in many cases, are a part of the
informal sector. However, the competition for
passengers among privately owned and managed
40%
mass transport makes for an inecient and cha-
otic. This creates an environment where drivers
20% constantly speed, weave in and out of trac,
picking up and letting o passengers in non-
designated spots, bribing trac police ocials
0%
Africa Arab States Asia-Pacific HIC LAC Transitional and rarely maintaining their vehicles. Neverthe-
Cars Motorcycle Mass Transit (minibus/bus/tram/train) Nonmotorized (walking/bicycling)
less, these paratransit operators manage to run
with no subsidy from the government.
4
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
In Asian cities, despite heavy public subsidies Table 1: Modal split of urban transport trips in Asian cities
for the road-based and rail-based public transit and Sub-Saharan African cities (%)
systems, the urban poor who usually cannot af-
Private Motorized
ford the fares, travel by walking, riding bicycles, Non-
Mass Transit Vehicles
taking non-motorized tricycles or rickshaws, City Walking motorized
(Public/Para) (Motorcycles/
Vehicles
riding paratransit vehicles like tuktuks, becaks, Cars)
or jeepneys, or traveling in packed, overcrowded, Addis Ababa 60 26 4
polluting and poorly maintained buses. Bamako 42 2 17 21
In Africa, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, most Bangkok 1 5 45 49
people walk. For example, in Dakar, Senegal, Beijing 12 48 26 14
based on the 2002 household survey, about 73% Calcutta 15 7 46 30
of all trips were done on foot. Publicly provided Dakar 81 1 17 1
transport has failed in many cases, with the
Dar Es Salaam 47 3 43 7
majority being provided by small-scale private
Delhi 20 12 61 7
sector transport operators which are inecient,
Dhaka 40 20 28 12
provide fragmented services, and are under-
capitalized (Pendakur, 2005). The government Eldoret 70 12 24 16
control and regulation of the remaining public Harare 60 1 16 20
transport and of paratransit is inadequate and Jakarta 23 2 28 47
ineective, there is paltry enforcement of trac Kinshasa 70 20 10
laws, and roads are in poor condition with little Metro Manila 12 3 42 43
or no concessions made to walking or cycling. Morogoro 67 23 12 4
This results in people walking on the streets Mubai 15 3 37 45
(including vendors) that on average occupy 25
Nairobi 48 1 42 7
to 35% of road space (Pendakur, 2005). This
Niamey 60 2 9 32
chaotic environment lends itself to a high rate of
Osaka 24 11 38 28
trac accidents and fatalities.
Ouagadougou 63 10 3 45
Seoul 5 75 20
In Dakar, Senegal, based on the
Shanghai 31 33 25 11
2002 household survey, about 73% Tinjin 14 64 12 10
of all trips were done on foot. Tokyo 8 53 39
Source: Laquian, Aprodicio. Who are the Poor and How Are They Being Served in Asian Cities? Pp. 14-22
In Latin America, the majority of urban trips in Public Transport in Asia and Pendakur, p. 10
5
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
6
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
or activities. It is usually measured by using Walk Minibus-taxi Car driver Car passenger
generalized costs in time, money, and comfort.
Accessibility should be the ultimate goal for
transport systems, not the level of service for the Mode Choice Grouped by Gender
vehicles (trac), which should be considered
100%
as one means to the end (Vasconcellos, 2001;
Litman, 2003).
80%
There are three main ways in which transport
planners analyze travel behavior and the impact
and quality of transport projects: 60%
1. Trac: involves addressing levels of serv-
ice, which measures trac performance
40%
related to speed and travel time, freedom to
maneuver, trac interruptions, comfort and
convenience. It can also include wait time 20%
7
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Generally, women have a lower incidence of vehi- 28% of women walk to work compared to
cle use, and a higher incidence of walking. This 14% of men; 7% of women commute by car as
is partly a reection of lack of money to aord to compared to 20% of men; and 10% of women
buy vehicles or pay for services. This reinforces use transport provided by the workplace as
womens time poverty. Typically, men have compared to 20% of men. Womens waiting
greater mobility when looking only at motorized times are longer than mens and their average
modes. When considering all trips (motorized total journey time is 10 to 15% greater. Women
and non-motorized), women make more trips were also found to have lower incomes. There-
per day (more mobility), but the costs in both fore, improvements in public transportation,
time and money are higher (less accessibility). and particularly, in bus and trolley services were
seen to directly serve the needs of women.
A study on the urban travel behavior character-
istics of 13 cities across dierent regions shows
that, on average, women make more trips than
men. Net trip generation by gender was high-
est in Tokyo and Kuala Lumpur with roughly
3 trips per day (3.5 in the case of Tokyo). In
Cairo, it was the lowest with fewer than 2 trips
per day. Men traveled more than women in cer-
tain stages of life (usually older) and in mainly
in cities in Islamic countries. This suggests that
cultural factors, including religion, inuence
travel behavior.
In transport-user surveys in the Turkmenistan,
Ashgabat Urban Transport Project found that
the use of various modes of transport services
is highly dierentiated by gender. For example,
8
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
3 3 3
1 1 1
0 0 0
3 3 3
1 1 1
0 0 0
3 3 3
1 1 1
0 0 0
3 3
2.5 2.5
60- 10- 60- 10-
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
Fig. 6
Number of generated trips per person
male male
by age and gender in various world
40- 30- female 40- 30- female
cities.
Source: Hyodo, T. et al., 2005
9
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Fig. 8
A typical situation in paratransit in Delhi:
men are exposed to fumes and unsafe travel.
Photo by Carlos F. Pardo
10
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
on
9
0 9
0 9
0 9
0 9
0 9
0 9
9
:5
:5
:5
:5
:5
:5
17 16:5
:5
:5
:5
0
6:
2:
4:
8:
9:
6
10
13
17
20
21
1
:0
re
00
00
00
22
fo
6:
7:
8:
9:
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
:0
be
10
11
13
14
15
18
19
20
21
developing countries such as Vietnam and
China, motorcycles signify success in breaking restricted access to a car, while with men it is Fig. 9
out of the poverty cycle, freedom of poverty only 15% with no or restricted access to a car. Schedules for use of
and movement and independence. Some bicycle In Nairobi, 9% of women heads of households public transportation
and motorbike owners have become bicycle in Lima.
used a private car, compared to 24% of men. In Source: Gomez, Lara, 1997
taxi operators in parts of Uganda and Kenya,
Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 6% of women used a car
for example. In Indonesia, the owner of a used
motorcycle can become anojek (motorcycle taxi) to get to work, compared to 23% of men. This
driver. In India, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, a can also be seen in the degree to which women
cycle rickshaw or pedicab is often the rst job get a drivers license. In the UK, the proportion
obtained by recent migrants to urban areas, and of men with drivers licenses increased from 63% Fig. 10
owning the vehicle itself an important rst step to 68% from 1972 to 1980. The proportion of Men are the rst to use
out of poverty. Thus, bicycles and other low-cost women increased from 21% to 31% during that a vehicle in a house-
hold, and when possible
vehicles are assets that the poor can aord to same time period. While this is a signicant to motorize. Women
own, which can permanently reduce their daily increase of licensed female drivers, it is still less will use the vehicle
transport costs. Even the poorest families, once than half of licensed male drivers (Hamilton, that is left behind.
given access to a bike, can usually cover the Jenkins, Gregory, 1991).
Photo by Karin Romark/
Torsten Derstroff
costs of its maintenance (Hook, 2006).
Automobile ownership rates are very low in
much of the world. For every 1,000 people, less
than 5 are car owners in Haiti, Pakistan, India,
and Indonesia, less than 7 in Bolivia, Zaire,
and Honduras, and less than 14 in Liberia and
Thailand. The rate of car ownership in Brazil
and Mexico is 60 per 1,000, in Europe 300,
and in the USA 500 (that is, one car for every
two people). In the richer countries, even poor
people own a used car, whereas in a majority
of developing countries, only a handful of the
wealthiest can aord to own and maintain a car.
When it comes to female vehicle ownership
rates, the rates become even lower. About 75%
of women in the United Kingdom have no or
11
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Men are typically the rst to motorize co- walka fact that needs to be linked to land use
opting new technologies rst in the household. plans and strategies.
However, there is a trickle down eect, as The reality is, though, most cities in developing
women gain access to older vehicles, such as countries may not have land use plans and if
bicycles when men move to motorcycles, mo- they do, may not be able to enforce the plans
torcycles when men move to cars, etc. In 1990, and/or do not integrate land use and transport.
only 35% of households had access to some People will make choices that address this
form of motorized vehicles in Ho-Chi Minh problem. For example, sick of the extremely
City. Four years later, that percentage rose to long commuting distances and the poor trans-
63%, mainly due to motorcycles. In Hanoi, the port system, residents in Johannesburg began
share of trips made by motorcycles rose by 5 to moving into the inner city (Beavon, 1997).
10% annually and now accounts for 37% of all
Often though, people do not have that option.
trips. Meanwhile the share of bicycles has fallen
For more information, this topic is extensively
from 65% to 45%. Previously, women made up
discussed in the Sourcebook Module 2a: Land
half of all bicyclists. Now, they are the major-
use planning and urban transport.
ity as men move to motorized means of travel
(Godard and Cusset, 1996). In Latin Americas sprawling cities, unequal
access to urban services and public facilities is
connected to other issues such as security of
Men are typically the rst to
tenure, poverty and social exclusion. The current
motorize co-opting new technologies situation is exacerbated for the poor who have
rst in the household. limited or no access to credit, cannot aord the
overvalued, expensive housing in the city, and
are forced to move to informal settlements on
2.5 Land use and transport the peripheries due to gentrication. Because of
Typically, transportation and land use policies limited transportation alternatives, they must
are considered separately and results in inef- spend many hours a day and pay a large share of
cient use of resources, including time and their incomes to reach jobs in the city. In addi-
money, and greater environmental damage. The tion to this, transport planners in Latin America
outcome tends to be one that leads to automo- have focused on motorization at the expense of
bile dependence and sprawl. The structure and the poor and elderly.
location of the household inuences womens Although in a developed country, Boulder,
travel patterns or the mode choice of transporta- Colorado illustrates the power of political
tion (Fouracre and Turner, 1992). By integrat- leadership and the eectiveness of budget
ing land use and transportation planning, mandates as a tool to provide multimodal
eciency improves, negative environmental transportation systems integrated with land
eects are reduced, the costs of infrastructure use. Strong local government leadership led to a
investments reduced, and access to jobs and mandate that directed nearly 20% of the city's
services is ensured. annual transportation department budget from
Integrating land use and transport includes car-related expenditures such as road widening,
integrating dierent types of transport and double turn lanes, more car parking, and more
reducing car use through trac demand stop lights, to alternative mode functions, such
management. Multimodal transportation as smaller buses with bicycle racks, improved
systems reduce demand on any single mode of pedestrian crossings and footpaths, and an
transport, giving options for people in terms of expanded network of o-roadway bike paths
mobility, and improve air quality by including for commuters. Programs are in place to reduce
non-motorized transport options. Multi-modal trac and speeding in neighborhoods with
transportation systems can provide much roundabouts, speed bumps, photo radar, new
needed options for people who typically lack small buses and private shuttle services using
options, like women, children, the disabled and main transit corridors. Specic car disincen-
the poor. Most importantly, most urban poor tive programs have been implemented such as
12
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
doubling rates for car parking to more closely pacing other health problems to the extent that
reect car park land values, doubling parking it was threatening to become a pandemic. Road
nes, creating neighborhood parking permits trac injuries are the leading cause of death by
for residents only, and reducing the number of injury and the ninth leading contributor to the
car spaces required in new residential and com- burden of disease worldwide.
mercial development. The encouragement of In terms of road safety, more men than women
cycling through a citywide bicycle network, 300 are involved in road crashes. Since more men
free bicycles in the Central Business District own, drive, and use motorized transport, they
(Spokes for Folks), Bike to Work weeks, and are the most aected by crashes, whether they
bicycle mounted police ocers are part of the be fatalities or injuries. This has ramications
demand management strategy that encourages on women as caretakers who now must take
non-car mobility. Development does not have to care for the injured and on the economic status
lead linearly to more and more private car use. A of the household after loosing one of its main
city can progress more and oer a better quality income generators.
of life for its citizens by ensuring modal choice.
This again is very important for women who 100%
10%
Box 4: Road safety facts (from the
World Health Organization) 0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
n About 1,200,000 people died from road trafc Motor Vehicle Speed (km/h)
injuries worldwide in 1998;
n Of those deaths, 88% were in developing Statistics show that the probability of injury Fig. 11
countries; or death from road trac accidents increases Probability of Injury
n Worldwide, up to two-thirds to trafc ac- dramatically as speeds increase. Thus, one of and Death as compared
to Motor Vehicle Speeds
cident injuries are suffered by pedestrians the best ways to increase road safety is to reduce Source: Gute Argumente,
and cyclists; speed. A 5-kilometer per hour drop in speed Verkehr, 1991
13
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
revealing a disproportionate exposure to danger if they perceive them to be unsafe. Thus, women
(Vasconcellos, 2001). will make the decision not to travel at night, not
to get out at a particular spot, to take a longer
In Latin America, male fatality rates route home if it is safer. Women in Johannes-
burg have men escort them to the taxi ranks in
are always higher than female fatality the morning when it is dark. Women will avoid
rates, about a proportion of 3 or 4 to 1. using public space if there is a chance of danger
or violation. Further, if they have the oppor-
tunity to use a car for most trips under these
2.7 Security circumstances, they will use it.
Women are more vulnerable users of public Links to public transport are important
space in general and this aects how they use considerations for safety in urban areasthe
public space, including transport. Women who journey from the door of the home to public
tend to carry packages or children and have
their hands full, are targeted and are easy prey
for petty theft. Because they can be overpow-
Box 5: A sense of security in
ered by men, physical safety is threatened as women-only train carriages
well. Women will change their transport behav- The Tokyo Metro System, although being one
ior and have their transport options constrained of the largest and most efficient urban rail
systems, is sometimes 200% over capacity
with people being transported to work in very
crowded conditions. These crowded conditions
become a place where women can be harassed
or touched by men, which has led to the intro-
duction of women-only carriages in the Kanto
(the Tokyo metropolitan) and Kansai (Osaka
and Kobe) areas. Women-only carriages were
advocated for, by a former opposition party
known for its welfare approach. The Prime
Minister set up a committee to discuss the is-
sue of female sexual harassment in the trains
and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport and than issued an avis requesting
private companies to introduce women-only
carriages in their trains.
Fig. 12 Table 4: Personal security issues for women and their behaviour change strategies
Lighting in a Mass
Transit system such as Issue Strategy
Metrova in Guayaquil Dress n Exposed to verbal harassment is wear- n Wear only "appropriate" clothing
are an ecient means ing short skirts, shorts, or tight clothes when using public transportation
to increase safety during
Physical Strength n Perceived as less able to defend them- n Travel in groups
operating hours.
Photo by Guayaquil Municipality
selves against aggressors n Only board units that are not full
Verbal n Aggressors's feeling of impunity: n Ignore, look away
Harassment driver / collector / passengers passive
Physical n Fonding and touching by men n Say "something" loudly
Harassment n Collector rubs himself against women n Carry pins / needles
as they exit the combi n Stand against a window or on the
n Rape back of the bus
n Avoid riding taxis alone
n Avoid riding vehicles where only
men are riding
Source: Gomez, 2000
14
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
15
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
were spending up to 25% of daily earnings on n Children and youths are more price sensitive
transport; in Nairobi 14 to 30% of income; and than adults;
in Delhi 20 to 25%. n Private vehicle (bicycle, motorcycle, car) own-
Everyone has to make choices about whether ership increases demand elasticity because it
to pay. As a higher value is attached to income oers an alternative;
generating trips, more often than not, men pay n Low-income groups are least price sensitive.
for transport, since it is usually work related. Although the fare level is particularly impor-
This might be one explanation (within the power tant for them, they tend not to have a real
dynamic of the household) for mens higher choice;
access to motorized means of transport. It is an n Price elasticity is higher on very long trips
economic decision based on limited resources. (when the car becomes a more feasible alter-
For reproductive work, or the non-remunerative native for those can aord it) and very short
work that mainly women and children under- trips (where walking and cycling are alterna-
take, the decision is usually to forego the trip tives to short public transport trips).
or to walk. That is why women trip-chain more Women are known to forgo an opportunity to
than men, as they combine their reproductive work outside their neighborhoods if they per-
trips together to make them more aordable or ceive transport fares and services to be expensive
link them to a work-related, productive trip. The and unreliable. A social assessment in Ashgabat,
following are general characteristics associated Turkmenistan found that job turnover rates
with price and aordability: were high because to avoid long commutes, peo-
n Peak passengers are the least price sensi- ple tried to nd work near their homes. When
tive, since their freedom to choose their 700,000 squatters resettled on the periphery
trip timing is limited by school and work of Delhi, female employment fell 27% because
requirements. They have limited freedom of travel time increase three-fold. Male employ-
choice between transport modes because of ment only decreased by 5%.
congestion, availability of parking, and (for
students) age limits to obtaining a driving
Fig. 15 Women are known to forgo an
licence;
Paratransit in most n Leisure trips are more price sensitive because opportunity to work outside their
developing countries
uses old vehicles they are more exible as to whether to travel neighborhoods if they perceive
that are unsafe. or not, where, when and why, and with which
Photo by Aime Gauthier mode;
transport fares and services to be
expensive and unreliable.
2.9 Fashionable
As stated before, the poor do not travel less, they
just have to travel under greater duress. Poor
people lack real options and the ones available
are usually under-resourced, under-capitalized,
and over-utilized. Women are usually the last to
have access to the most modern and expensive
(higher status) forms of transport. Men have to
rely on dangerous and unreliable mass transit or
paratransit. Women have to walk because they
cannot aord other options. Girls cannot attend
school because they are required to help with
household duties since the transport burden of
reproductive work is too great for their mothers
to shoulder alone. All these groups, who make
up the majority in most developing cities, will
16
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
17
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Fig. 17a, b
Seouls Cheonggyecheon river restoration
(before and after).
Photo by SDIK
18
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
lem; the key is to identify the problem. Follow- n User-Pays Principle: individuals bear the costs
ing are frameworks for conducting analysis and they impose unless a subsidy is specically
obtaining the right data to design appropriate justied;
solutions. n Progressive with respect to income. Lower-
income households benet relative to higher-
3.1.1 Planning: Gender analysis income households;
n Benets the transportation disadvantaged.
Gender analysis begins with by recognizing that
we live in societies full of gender dierences and Benets people with disabilities, non-drivers,
inequalities and that each intervention has gender people who cannot aord a car, etc.
n Improves basic mobility. Helps satisfy basic
implications. A gender analysis seeks to reveal
the dierences and inequalities by examining the mobility (travel that society considers valu-
situations and relationships between women and able).
men in a particular context and provide informed Economic analysis and evaluation can be ar-
understanding of the potential dierential aects rived at by studying the distribution of costs
proposed programs or projects have on women and benets (such as by income and need), and
and men. Such information facilitates identifying by learning the degree to which options tend
eective strategies. This process is what makes to achieve or contradict equity objectives. This
the gender analysis a powerful and essential requires an explicit statement of who pays and
gender-mainstreaming tool. There are a number who benets, from both transport infrastructure
of dierent frameworks and approaches to gender and services.
analysiseach suited to a particular context and/ Multiple accounts evaluation and cost eective-
or situation (for example the Harvard Analytical ness analysis may also be valid for gendered
Framework, the Gender Analysis Matrix and urban transport projects. Multiple accounts
the Social Relations Framework amongst others) evaluation uses various rating and ranking
19
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Monitoring
systems. The most accurate way of evaluating n Household surveys: Through a random or
eectiveness for an urban transport system for stratied sample of urban households in-
gender considerations is by using an evaluation cluding the slum areas as much as possible,
matrix with weighted points (see Litman 2006 compile gender specic household statistics
for more details). Cost eectiveness analysis on size, structure, assets, education, employ-
measures the cost of achieving a special objective ment, income, and health, travel needs and
without trying to quantify the benets. However, patterns. Johannesburg, in its recent census
one must be careful when using the cost-benet collection, included a subcomponent that
analysis, net benet analysis and lifecycle cost had more questions about travel behavior
analysis since it is dicult to measure the benets and needs. The survey focuses on the trans-
by sex, age or disability disaggregated populations. port elements of day-to-day activities in and
around the urban area and on travel patterns
and trip purposes; utilization and availability
3.1.3 Planning: Data collection
of transportation means and costs incurred.
The rst step in providing an equitable urban One note on household surveys is that it
transport system is to collect data on all users treats the household as a singular unit with
and to know how they use existing services and similar needs and does not recognize the dif-
what they need in other words, understanding ferences within the household. Thus, the male
the disaggregated demand. There are a variety head of household, answers from his perspec-
of ways of getting this data that include, but are tive, sublimating the needs of the women and
not limited to the ones stated below (some of children of the household. In addition, it is
them are described in greater detail in the GTZ important to collect household information
Training document on Public awareness and across dierent social groups to ensure repre-
behavior change in sustainable transport): sentation of data.
20
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
21
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
gender analysis and other sociological analytical mechanisms. The project indicators should
and implementation have been budgeted for. assess the dierent role and nature of consulta-
tions and participation among women and men,
Defining the "Trip"
and suggest what the best organizational forms
Within data collection, dening the trip is the would be for enhancing womens roles and
next critical parameter in ensuring the collected benets through the project. Care must be given
data is capturing the travel behavior of both to the weighting of the multiply disadvantaged
women and men. Typically, a trip is dened as such as women with disabilities so that they
a discreet origin and destination that focuses on also benet from the project and ultimately the
economic tripsthe work trip. How the trip benets of transport through increased mobility
is dened will structure the information going and accessibility.
into the trac model and the main output of
trac modelingthe transport plan. Some indicators which would help measure the
degree of gender integration in urban transport
The traditional approach to understanding
are:
travel behavior is through the household sur-
n Passenger-mile by sex and age units reect a
veyusing the household as the appropriate
mobility perspective that values automobile
unit of analysis. However, as stated previously,
and transit travel, but gives less value to non-
the household survey assumes that a man and a
motorized modes because they tend to be
woman in a household have access to the same
used for short trips;
resources, have similar needs for transport, and
n Per-trip by sex and age units reect an ac-
will make the same travel decisions. The main
problem with this is that it ignores the division cess perspective which gives equal value to
of labor within a household and the dierent automobile, transit, cycling, walking and tel-
impact that has on the individual in a house- ecommuting;
n Transport related expenses by sex and age
holds transport needs.
lower-income households should pay a
A trip is typically thought of as having an smaller share of their income, or gain a larger
origin, a destination, a specic mode of travel,
share of benets, than higher income house-
a specic purpose (Bamberger and Peters,
holds and transportation modes should be
1998). This obscures the complex patterns of
aordable;
linked multi-purposed trips (trip chaining),
n Travel time by gender and age units reect an
which are typical to what many women use.
access perspective that gives higher priority to
Trip chaining is the recognition that trips are
walking, cycling and transit travel, because
often more than just origin and destinations,
they tend to represent a relatively large por-
but a chain of related trips. They are dened by
tion of travel time;
anchors (home, work) and look at what happens
n Existence and mechanisms of special discounts
between those anchors. Also, trips are usually
prescribed and prioritized as wage-earning for transport services based on income and eco-
trips. Thus, (equally important) unpaid trips are nomic need regardless of sex.
not accounted for as highly. Policies that aim to achieve gender equity in-
clude, but are not limited to:
3.1.4 Planning: Measuring gender n Ensuring geographical disbursement so that
equity in urban transport transport investments and service improve-
A measurement of gender equity in urban ments favor lower-income areas and groups
transport should assess the dierential impacts including women;
on men and women; the extent to which women n Creating a more diverse, less automobile-de-
have been able to take full advantage of support pendent society and transport which eectively
mechanisms and opportunities oered; and how serves non-drivers of which a majority are
appropriate the project assistance has been for women;
the socially disadvantaged (women included). n Improving non-motorized accessibility, of
Issues to be addressed in a project include train- which women may use for short or chained
ing opportunities, credit, and other support trips;
22
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
n Incorporating universal design (design ac- n Combining urban travel centers with other
commodating the needs of not only people services, such as medical services, schools,
with disabilities but also the special needs of employment opportunities and other basic
women with loads (transporting goods) to the activities.
market, the elderly or mothers using strollers) The table below lists various types of equity,
in transportation services and facilities; categories of people, impacts and measurement
n Providing required special mobility services for units.
people with special mobility needs; and
Table 6: Transportation equity indicators and categories
Types of Equity Categories of People Impacts Measurement
Horizontal Demographics Public Facilities and Services Per capita
n Equal treatment n Age n Funding for facilities and n Per man, per woman
n Equal allocation of funds n Gender services n Per commuter male, female/
and other resources n Race n Parking requirements child
n Equal use of public facilities n Ethnic group n Subsidies and tax exemp- n Per male/female/young stu-
n Cost recovery n Family status tions dent
Vertical With-Respect-To n Lifecycle stage n Planning and design of fa- n Per disabled person
Income and Social Class Income Class cilities Per vehicle-mile or kilometer
n Transport affordability n Quintiles n Public involvement
Per trip
n Housing affordability n Below poverty line User Costs and Benets n Per commute trip
n Discounts for low-income n Lower-income community n Mobility and accessibility n Per basic mobility trip
travelers residents n Vehicle expenses n Per peak-period trip
n Impacts on low-income Geographic location n Taxes and government fees
Per dollar
communities n Jurisdictions n Road tolls and parking fees n Per dollar of user fees paid
n Employment opportunities n Residents of impacted n Public transportation fares n Per dollar of total taxes paid
n Quality of services of low- neighborhoods/streets n Fitness (use of active n Per dollar of subsidy
income travelers n Urban/suburban/rural modes)
Vertical With-Respect-To Ability Service Quality
Need and Ability n People with disabilities n Number of modes available
n Universal design n Licensed drivers n Road and parking facility
n Special mobility services Mode quality
n Disabled parking policies n Public transport service
n Walkers
n Quality of services of non- n Cyclists quality
drivers n Land use accessibility
n Motorists
n Universal design
n Public transit users
Vehicle Type External Impacts
n Trafc congestion and crash
n Cars/SUVs/motorcycles
n Trucks (light and heavy) risk
n Pollution emissions
n Bus
n Barrier effect
n Rail
n Hazardous material and
Industry
waste
n Freight (trucks, rail, etc.)
n Aesthetic impacts
n Personal transport
n Land use impacts
n Vehicle manufacturers
n Community cohesion
Trip Type and Value
Economic Impacts
n Emergency
n Access to economic oppor-
n Commute
tunities
n Commercial/freight
n Impacts on economic devel-
n Recreational/tourist
opment
n Expenditures and employ-
ment
Regulation and Enforcement
n Regulation or transport in-
dustries
n Trafc and parking regulation
n Regulation of special risks
Source: Litman, T., 2006
23
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
24
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
Box 7: Case study An activity based survey reveals details on womens travel
Surveys were taken of women who live in Pudahuel, expensive METRO. The modal split for commuting
Santiago de Chile at bus stops from 7:30 am to was 65% bus, 9% walking, 3% biking, and 0%
8:30 am and between 6:45 pm to 8:00 pm during METRO. 53.1% walked, 37.7% took the bus, 4.6%
peak travel time and at the medical centers and drove, and no women reported using the METRO to
municipality centers during the day. Almost 30% access medical facilities. Time wise- 22.1% spent
of the womens income went into traveling to and one hour; 33.8% spent 1-2 hours, and 25% spent
from work every week despite not using the more more than two hours traveling to work.
Women who had younger children were more in bus was crowded and the majority of people had
need of child-friendly public transportation sys- to stand. While some kind of unofcial bus policy
tems, such as the METRO. This includes stroller existed for people to give up their seats to women
accessibility modes of transportation and policy who had young children, this usually did not hap-
that favors seating room for mothers with young pen. Therefore, many women were forced to carry
children. The majority of women living in Pudahuel their children and groceries; be aware of others
took the bus more than the METRO to access work and pick-pocketing; and steady their balance
and medical centers. This mode of transport made while traveling for long periods of time.
it difcult to bring and carry young children while Source: Ballas, 2006 Photo by Manfred Breithaupt
traveling, especially during peak hours when the Photo and case study are not directly related.
25
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
26
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
Fig. 21
Mumbai women-only train wagon.
Photo by Manfred Breithaupt
spaces open and near to transit, there is a con- further social benet is that all these projects Fig. 22
stant public presence that helps reduce possibili- employ former street childrenat the time Khao San road in
ties for crime. As Jane Jacobs called it, eyes on Bangkok is a good
of writing, one hundred have been employed
the street is one of the best deterrents to crime. example of how eyes
through this venture.
When spaces are dead (such as abandoned on the street generate
buildings and boarded-up store fronts), there is Another resource is business improvement greater safety.
more likelihood that the activities that do occur districts, partnership in which property and Photo by Carlos F. Pardo
will be of a violent or criminal nature. business owners of a dened area elect to make
a collective contribution to the maintenance,
development and marketing/promotion of their
There must be eyes on the street, eyes
commercial district, BIDs (business improve-
belonging to those we might call the ment districts).
natural proprietors of the street typically provide services such as street and
they cannot turn their backs or blank sidewalk maintenance, public safety ocers,
park and open space maintenance, marketing,
sides on it and leave it blind.
capital improvements, and various development
Jane Jacobs
projects. The services provided by BIDs are a
Given the limited resources that governments supplement to the services already provided by
have these days, private sector social ventures the municipality. In Johannesburg, the Central
are also providing a more secure environment. Business District private partnership has been
In Nairobi, Kenya, Adopt a Light Limited installing cameras and hiring private security
is a company incorporated to steer advertising in an eort to make the downtown a safer and
revenues into community development. The thus more attractive place for people to come
company was inspired by the need to achieve and businesses to invest in.
safer cities through the provision of adequate
street lighting. Under the motto Advertising 3.2.3 Design:
with a purpose, this company has erected over Considering infrastructure
185 streetlights along the major highways, and Road design again should focus on the modes
in slums in Nairobi. This rehabilitation has been that will most clearly benet women and men:
undertaken by inviting businesses to adopt and walking, bicycles and mass transit. As women
rehabilitate a streetlight. In return, the business are the least likely to benet from roads, con-
can place advertisements on the streetlight. A gestion charging, increasing parking fees for
27
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
28
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
29
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
boarding at stations. Terminals and stations are capacity of the bicycle is therefore around 5
critical to the experience of the consumer, both times greater than on foot, apart from the physi-
women and men, including integrating other cal energy and time saved.
services into them. Public toilets are an often There are over 460 million bicycles in China,
overlooked but are a much needed transporta- and the urban bicycle ownership rate is about
tion infrastructure facility. Other services that 0.5 per person. In India, there are about 30
can be found at transit stops include grocery million bicycles, with about 25 times as many
and convenience stores, as well as child care bicycles as motor vehicles per capita and urban
facilities, such Kid Stops, child daycare centers bicycle ownership growing rapidly. In medium-
located at commuter rail stations in Maryland sized Indian cities, about 80% of trips are made
where parents can easily drop o and pick up by foot or bicycle. Increasingly more women
their children on their way to work. are taking to bicycles as they prove to be the
Tokyos underground subway is integrated with means to earning an income as they provide
many small, fashionable and convenient shops, access to the market, as seen in the case of
which stock many essentials, as well as a range Vietnam and Uganda, where small bicycle taxis
of options on the platforms. Remaining space in (a padded seat on the back of a regular bicycle)
the ticket gate area is converted to commercial are being used to transport women to and from
space. Recognizing the need of time-conscious the market. The use of the bicycle by women
clients, especially women, to combine their in Tamil Nadu (India) has increased, due to a
trips with other tasks and responsibilities, these literacy drive, better mobility, earning potential,
shops cater to busy commuters with coee and ability to access goods and services including
bread shops, gift shops, convenience stores, and education and health care for themselves and
aromatherapy salons. their children. In one district, 50,000 women
learned to cycle in one year. The large number
3.2.4 Design: Considering vehicles of women cycling meant that men no longer
Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs) opposed the idea of women cyclingprobably
because womens economic productivity had
Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs),
also increased.
which range from wheelbarrows and handcarts,
to bicycles, three wheelers, animal-drawn Further, bicycles should be designed for both
carts, to mopeds and motorcycles, tend to be genders and diering contexts. Women tend
overlooked as an ecient means of transport. to have shorter torsos and narrower shoulder
But there is some evidence that IMTs provide widths which aect the frame design. Bicycles
economic benets for women. A World Bank can also be designed for the typical activities
report describes a situation in Ghana. Women that men and women do. In Japan for exam-
transport oranges on their heads to villages 15 ple, the bicycles used mostly by mothers and
kilometers outside the capital city of Accra. housewives are called mamachari or mama
In Accra, the supply of oranges is low and the bicycles. These bicycles are lightweight, have
prices are high. A distance like this can easily be baskets in the front and sometimes the back
covered by bicycle. If these women had bicycles, to transport groceries, or child seats attached
they could increase their income considerably. to them and have a stable bicycle stand. In a
Furthermore, they would then have more time dierent context, women seem to prefer mens
and energy to cultivate their land and then bikes over womens bikes as they perceive them
increase their production. The bicycle would to be stier. The bicycle market has developed
increase both their sphere of activity and their to a great extent in designing dierent kinds of
transport capacity. A bicycle can transport up to bicycles for all uses, but most of these special-
approximately 50 kg of goods at a speed of 8 to ized bicycles are too expensive for low-income
10 kilometers per hour (km/h) with less eort, people.
while with walking, it is possible to transport If the car industry has taught us anything,
around 25 kg at a speed of 3 to 4 km/h (half it is that marketing is powerful in inducing
the load at less than half speed). The transport demand. Cars have positioned themselves as the
30
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
31
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
32
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
33
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
and services. Good transport governance will The UK gender audit checklist was designed
be especially important where public transport to be utilized as a management tool or a com-
systems are in a state of crisis as a result of munity tool. As a management tool, the gender
accelerate urbanization, economic and nancial audit checklist
crisis (which may have led to the disappearance n assesses how well the organization meets
of national corporations and haphazard develop- womens needs,
ment of small, unstructured private operators) n identies priorities for improvement,
or the lack of a regulatory authority in charge of n measures progress towards gender-based
organizing and coordinating transport modes targets.
(Insted, 2005) may impact urban womens lives As a community tool, the gender audit checklist
and in particular low-income women and single
n assesses how well a local transport provider
mother households.
or local authority meets womens transport
needs,
3.5 Monitoring: Gender audits n identies priorities for campaigning, lobbying
The UK Department of Environment, Trans- and negotiations,
port and the Regions (DETR) commissioned n measures the progress of operators and local
gender audit checklist or similar checklist is authorities towards gender-based targets.
useful as a gender in transport monitoring tool. (Hamilton, K. et al., 1999)
34
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
35
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
36
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
Transport, Information for Decision-Mak- 33. Litman, Todd. 2006. Evaluating Transporta-
ing", Berlin, Germany, 1012 January 2001. tion Equity: Guidance for Incorporating Dis-
24. Hook, Walter. 2006. Urban transport and the tributional Impacts
Millennium Development Goals Global Ur- 34. Padeco Co. Ltd., 2000. Study on Urban
ban Development Magazine, March 2006, Transport Development, Washington DC,
Vol 2 Issue 1 accessible at http://www.global- World Bank
urban.org/GUDMag06Vol2Iss1/Hook.htm 35. Pendakur, V. Setty. 2005. Non-Motorized
25. Hyodo Testuro, Fujiwara Akimasa, Soe- Transport in African Cities, Lessons From
hodho Sutanto and Montalbo Cresencio M. Experience in Kenya and Tanzania. Sub-
Jr. Urban Travel Characteristics of 13 Cit- Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program
ies Based on Household Interview Survey (SSATP) Working Paper No. 80
Data in the The Journal of the Eastern Asia 36. Peters, Deike. 2001. Gender and Transport
Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 6, in Less Developed Countries: A Background
pp. 23-38, 2005 accessible from http://www. Paper in preparation for CSD-9 expert
easts.info/on-line/journal_06/23.pdf workshop Gender Perspectives for Earth
26. Ireland NDP. Gender equality unit, Gender summit 2002: Energy, Transport, Informa-
Equality and Transport: Fact Sheet for the tion for Decision-Making, Berlin, Ger-
Economic and Social Infrastructure Opera- many, 1012 January 2001.
tional Programme of the National Develop- 37. Peters, Deike. 1999. Gender Issues in Trans-
ment Plan 2000 to 2006, August 2001. portation: A Short Introduction. Presentation
27. Institut des Sciences et des Techniques de notes for the UNEP Deals on Wheels
Seminar, San Salvador, July 2830, 1999.
lEquipment et de lEnvironmment pour
38. Rankin, Elizabeth. 1999. Gender and Trans-
le Dveloppement (Insted). 2005. Build-
port: A Strategy for Africa.
ing Blocks of Urban Transport Development
39. Rosenbloom, Sandra. 1997. Trends in Wom-
Strategy in the Developing Country, La
ens Travel Patterns. Chapter 2 in of Pro-
Dfence
ceedings from the Second National Confer-
28. Je, Gloria J. and McElroy, Regina. 1997.
ence in October 1996. US Department of
Womens Travel: Consequences and Oppor-
Transportation, Federal Highway Admin-
tunities. Chapter 5 of Proceedings from the
istration, Oce of Highway Information
Second National Conference in October Management, HPM-40.
1996. US Department of Transportation, 40. Sub Saharan Africa Transport Policy Pro-
Federal Highway Administration, Oce gram. 2004. Poverty and Urban Mobility in
of Highway Information Management, Douala: Final Report. SSATP Report No.
HPM-40. 09/04/Dla.
29. Laquian, Aprodicio. Who are the Poor and 41. SDU. The Economic Signicance of Cycling
How Are They Being Served in Asian Cities? A study to illustrate the costs and benets
Pp. 1422 in Public Transport in Asia of cycling http://www.vnguitgeverij.nl, Den
30. Litman, Todd. 2003. Mobility Management Hague
module (http://www.vtpi.org/gtz_mod- 42. Sohail, M. (ed). 2000. Urban public trans-
ule.pdf) of the Sustainable Transport port and sustainable livelihoods for the poor: a
Sourcebook, published by the Sustainable case study: Karachi, Pakistan
Urban Transport Project in Asia (http:// 43. Tiwari, Geetam. Planning for bicycles and
www.sutp.org) and GTZ (http://www.gtz. other non motorised modes: The critical ele-
de), 2003 ment in city transport system. Transportation
31. Litman, Todd. 2005. Measuring Transporta- Research and Injury Prevention programme
tion: Trac, Mobility and Accessibility VTPI (TRIPP)Indian Institute of Technology,
32. Litman, Todd and Tom Rickert. 2005. Eval- Delhi 110016, India
uating Public Transit Accessibility: Inclusive 44. Tiwari, Geetam. 2003. Social dimension
Design Performance Indicators For Public of transport planning Discussion paper for
Transportation In Developing Countries. DFID. Delhi, India.
37
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
38
Module 7a: Gender and Urban Transport: Fashionable and Affordable
n Karachi Urban Resource Centre (http://www. n Mobility in the Developing World and Sus-
urckarachi.org) is an advocacy group of urban tainable Transportation Live (http://www.
planning related professionals, representatives movingtheeconomy.ca), by Moving the
of NGOs and grass-root community organi- Economy and the Canadian International
sations and teachers at professional colleges. Development Agency, is a website that pro-
The situational descriptions of Karachis vides information on how developing country
transport and trac management, mass tran- cities are applying sustainable transportation
sit system are detailed. principles to help reduce trac congestion,
n The Sustran Discuss List (http://www.geoci- facility costs, pollution and other transport
ties.com/sustrannet) is an email discussion problems.
list devoted to people-centred, equitable and n Murdoch University Institute for Sustain-
sustainable transport with a focus on develop- ability and Technology Policy (http://www.
ing countries, sustainability.murdoch.edu.au) has a unique
n Global Development Research Center Sus- collection of papers and case studies on urban
tainable Transportation (http://www.gdrc. transport.
org/uem/sustran/sustran.html) has a great n Transport Links- Transport for Development
entrance point for web-based material on sus- Website (http://www.transport-links.org), UK
tainable transportation, but no gender angle. Department for International Development,
n Institute for Transportation and Develop- provides extensive information resources and
ment Policy (http://www.itdp.org) promotes links to research on developing region trans-
socially equitable and environmentally sus- portation.
tainable transportation policies and projects n U.S. Department of Transportation Federal
worldwide. The ITDP publishes a quarterly Highway; Administration Women's Travel
on-line newsletter, Sustainable Transport, issues: proceedings from the Second National
available free at their website and was one of Conference, October 1996 http://www.fhwa.
the rst organizations to recognize gender is- dot.gov/ohim/womens/wtipage.htm has links
sues in transportation (1999, available from to the papers not to be found elsewhere. And
ITDP website>publications section). presented at this conference.
n International Forum for Rural Transport and n The Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Development (IFRTD) (http://www.ifrtd. (http://www.vtpi.org) is an independent
org) is a global network of organizations and research organization dedicated to develop-
individuals working to improve accessibility ing innovative and practical solutions to
and mobility in rural communities, functions transportation problems. A variety of recent
as the webmaster/secretariat of GATNET the resources are available free from the website
gender and transport network, and has pub- to help improve transportation planning and
lished a newsletter dedicated to gender and policy analysis.
transport in the past. n World Bank, Background Resource Materials
n The Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for on Transport and Poverty, World Bank (http://
Transportation Studies http://www.easts.info/ www.worldbank.org/transport/pov&tra_re-
on-line/journal_06.htm has 314 papers under sources.htm), updated occasionally.
various topics such as transportation survey, n World Bank Transport and Social Responsi-
transportation demand analysis, urban road bility thematic group (http://www.worldbank.
system, data collection, land use and spatial org/responsibletransport) includes informa-
analysis, project evaluation to name a few. tion on various equity issues.
n The Journal of World Transport Policy and n UN-Habitat, Best Practices Database in Im-
Practice (http://www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wtj_ proving the Living Environment, Women
index.htm) is an independent electronic jour- Empowerment Practices http://www.best-
nal of transport, the environment, economics practices.org/bpbriefs/women.html
and ecology and the development of a better n World Bank. Cities on the Move: An Urban
transport system. All articles can be down- Transport Strategy Review, 2001. http://
loaded for free. www.worldbank.org/transport
39
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
40
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Dag-Hammarskjld-Weg 1-5
P. O. Box 5180
65726 ESCHBORN / GERMANY
Phone +49-6196-79-1357
Telefax +49-6196-79-7194
Internet http://www.gtz.de