1

UNIT-I
According to ASHRA (American Society of Heating & Refrigeration Engineers) Refrigeration is
the science of producing and maintaining temperatures below that of surrounding atmosphere,
while air conditioning is simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air motion and purity of
air. Work is to done on the system so that heat is to be extracted from a body at a lower
temperature to the body at high temperature. Hence II law of thermodynamics, especially
Classius statement forms the basis of refrigeration science.
1.1 Applications and necessity of Refrigeration:
1.Ice making:
2.Food preservation: Food is spoiled by the action of enzymes and micro organisms, whose
activity is very much high at normal temperatures. This activity can be stopped at low
temperatures by the principle of refrigeration
3.Commercial applications: Air conditioning of houses and offices, Air conditioning of
restaurants, Air conditioning of departmental stores, Air conditioning of hospitals - surgical
department, diagnostic centres, nursing department, emergency department, resting rooms
4.Industrial air conditioning: To provide comfort conditions to the workers, to provide
necessary low temperature conditions required for the manufacture of certain products in
industries such as textile, printing and refineries, to provide clean room for the precision
work, laboratories and quality control rooms, fir drying of products
5.Transportation air conditioning: Large quantities of fresh and frozen perishable products are
transported in trucks and trailers, equipped with refrigerated systems to maintain the
required temperature in the cargo space for preservation of these food substances during
transportation
6.Air conditioning of television centers:
7.Air conditioning of computer centers:
8.Air conditioning of automatic telephone exchange:
9.Special applications:
a) Increased hardness- To retain the hardness of martensite structure by cold treatment at
temperature of 20oC.
b) Dimensional stability of tools and gauges- The percentage of retain austenite can be
reduced by cold quenching to 173 K in order to maintain dimensional stability
c) Elimination of grinding cracks- The grinding cracks develop on the surface of metals due
to thermal stresses caused by localized heating action of the grinding wheel. These cracks
are further increased due to transformation of retained austenite into martensite with
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severs surface stresses. This can be avoided by removing austenite from the structure
with the help of cold treatment.
d) Increase of cutter tool life-The life of the tool can also be increased with lowering the
percentage of retained austenite by cold treatment, which is responsible for rapid wear.
e) To impart magnetic properties- To impart mechanical properties, austenite is to be
lowered by cold treatment at a temperature of 173 K.
f) Casting technology- Frozen mercury patterns are used to provide close tolerances and
accurate surface finish.
g) Fittings- Cold treatments are used for fitting male and female parts in different
assemblies.
10. Special industrial applications
a) Separation and Liquefaction of gases- Refrigeration is used to for the liquefaction of air
and for separation of its constituents. It is also necessary for the separation of gases in
petro-chemical plants where, 123K temperature is required. Refrigeration is also used for
purification of the natural gas. Liquefaction of gases reduces the cost of handling and
shipment.
b) Oil refineries-The application of refrigeration in this industry is to chill the oil at various
stages to remove wax from the oil.
c) Rubber industries- For production of artificial rubber or synthetic rubber, butadiene is
required which is to be stored at 47.5oC
d) Printing industries-Control of humidity of air in all printing industries is necessary. This
is because high humidity gives poor drying of ink and spots may be printed and the effect
of low humidity will be of curling and buckling of paper.
e) Pharmaceutical industries- Refrigeration is required to maintain the required temperature
and humidity in this industry. Granular products, pills and tables require dry and low
temperature air for their preservation.
11. Civil engineering applications
a) Heavy constructions- The cooling of huge concrete dams and other massive concrete
structures is necessary due to generation of large quantity of heat during setting of
concrete and if it is not removed would expand and disintegrate the concrete. With the
help of refrigeration this unwanted generated heat can be removed during construction,
which improves the quality of concrete and its strength.
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b) Heavy foundations and tunnels-Percolation of water during digging of deep foundation or

tunneling of shafts in mines through previous material can be prevented by freezing large
area of soil surrounding the foundation or shaft.
c) Refrigerated plumbing- Refrigeration is used to for repairing the leaking in pipes when
water is flowing through them. Refrigerant is circulated through a tool which freezes the
water in the pipe at the point of application and is made useful for immediate repair.
12. Medical applications:
a) For preservation of blood, tissues, virus and semen.
b) For the prevention of shocks- Controlled cooling can help the bodys natural reactions
against shock by reducing metabolism reactions
c) As an anesthetic during operation Localized refrigeration is used as an anesthetic for
amputation, because anesthetizing both the nerves and entire protoplasma prevents
excessive blood-clot formation.
d) The blood pressure and oxygen demand can be reduced to control hemorrhage of the
patient during operation with the help of refrigeration
e) Cerebral circulation can be stopped during heart operation with the help of refrigeration.
f) Excessive activity of thyroid gland can be controlled with the help of refrigeration.
13. Cryogenics
a)To impart strength
b) To improve conductivity
c)For superconductivity materials
d) Expansion fittings
e)Semen preservation
f) Space research
g) Underground power cables
h) Miscellaneous
i. Radio active disposals
ii. Infrared detectors
iii. Manufacturing of bearings
1.2. Rating of refrigerating machine: The rating of a refrigeration machine is obtained by
refrigerating effect or amount of heat extracted in a given time from a body. The rating of the
refrigeration machine is given by unit of refrigeration known as standard commercial tone of
refrigeration which is defined as the refrigerating effect produced by melting of one ton of ice
from and at 0oC in 24 hours.
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Hence one ton of refrigeration = 1000 80 k cal/kg / 2460 = 50 kcal/min in MKS units
= 2000 144 B.Th U /lb/ 2460 = 200 B.Th.U/min units
= 1000 335 k J/kg / 2460 = 232.6 k J//min in SI units
However, in usual practice one tone of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to 210 kJ/ min.
1.3 Unit of Refrigeration, COP: Coefficient of performance (COP) or energy performance ratio
(EPR) of the refrigerating machine is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed from the body to
amount of work required to be done on the system. If Q 1 is amount of heat absorbed from the
body and Q2 is amount of heat rejected to the hot body in doing so, work W R is required to be
done on the system. Fig.1.1 shows the configurations of the engine, refrigerator and heat pump

Fig.1.1 Configuration of heat engine, refrigerator and heat pump

According to 1st law of thermodynamics, WR = Q2 Q1,
Q1 Q1
COP of the refrigerating machine COPR= =
WR Q2 Q1
COP of the heat pump is defined as the ratio of amount of heat rejected to the hot body to the

Q2 Q2 Q1
work done on the system. COPH= = =1+ = 1+ COPR
WR Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1

Q2 Q1
COP of the heat engine = COPE=
Q2
1.4 Carnot Theorem as applied to Reservoir Carnot cycle: No refrigerator or heat pump
working between two temperatures can have higher COP than the reversible refrigerator or heat
pump working between the same two temperatures. OR Carnot refrigerator among all
refrigerators between two fixed temperatures has the highest COP.
This can be proved by reduction absurdum.
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Fig.1.2 shows the configurations of reversible refrigerator and irreversible refrigerator. I=

Irreversible refrigerator, R= Reversible refrigerator.
Assume irreversible refrigerator has higher COP than that of reversible refrigerator.
Temperature of source = T2, Temperature of sink = T1, and T1 T2
Heat abstracted from sink at T1 = Q1 = 100 kJ say is the same for reversible and irreversible
refrigerator.
Work done on reversible refrigerator = WR assume it as 60 kJ
COP of the reversible refrigerator = COP R = 100/60 = 1.66
Work done on irreversible refrigerator = WI assume it as 40 kJ
COP of the irreversible refrigerator = COP I = 100/40 =2.5

Fig.1.2 Configurations of reversible refrigerator and irreversible refrigerator

Since irreversible refrigerator is assumed to have higher COP, work done on it denoted by W I will
be less than the work done on the reversible refrigerator denoted by W R
Heat rejected by reversible refrigerator = Q 2R = 160 kJ.
Heat rejected by irreversible refrigerator = Q 2I = 140 kJ.
Let the reversible refrigerator be reversed and couple it to irreversible refrigerator. Since R is
reversible refrigerator its quantities of heat and work remain unchanged except for direction. This
leads to conclusion that reversible refrigerator besides driving the irreversible refrigerator gives
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net work, Wnet = WR WI = 60-40 =20 k J . Also heat rejected Q 2I (100+40= 140 kJ) by assumed
higher COP refrigerator will be less than heat rejected Q 2R (100 +60 = 160 kJ) by the reversible
refrigerator. And Q2R Q2I = WR WI = Wnet = 160-140 = 20 kJ. Thus for system comprising heat
reservoir at T2 and refrigerator R, I, the quantity of heat Q 2R- Q2I that is 160-140= 20 kJ is drawn
from the reservoir at T2 and produces net work WR-WI that is 60-40 = 20 k J. The energy balance
of the reservoir at T1 remains the same. This leads to violation of Kelvin Planck statement of the
Second law of thermodynamics. Thus the assumption of higher COP of irreversible refrigerator
than that of reversible refrigerator is not true.

1.5 Air Refrigerator working on Reversed Carnot cycle

Figures 1.3 (a) and 1.3(b) represent pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams of
reversed Carnot cycle .
Process Name of Thermodynamic process Remarks
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Isothermal compression Heat rejection
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Isothermal expansion Heat abstraction

Heat abstracted from a cold body = area under the curve 1-4 = ( s1 s3 )T1

Heat rejected from the body = area under the curve 2-3= s1 s3 T2 (s1-s3)T2
Work done per cycle = area 1-2-3-4 = T2 T1 S1 S 3
Coefficient of performance = COP= Heat abstracted from the body / work done per cycle
(T1 )
=
(T2 T1 )

Fig.1.3.Reversed Carnot cycle

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Hence COP of the refrigerator with Carnot cycle can be increased by increasing minimum
temperature (T2) or decreasing minimum (T1). Hence COP of the air conditioner is higher than
that of the refrigerator. However, the production of Carnot Refrigerator working on Carnot cycle
has not been possible practically because the adiabatic portion of the stroke would need a high
speed while during isothermal portion of a stroke a very low speed will be necessary. This
variation of speed however, is not practicable.
1.6. Air Refrigeration system working on Reversed Brayton Cycle or Bell-Coleman Cycle
Fig.1.4 shows the configuration diagram, while Fig. 1.5(a) and Fig. 1.5(b) show the p-V and T-s
diagrams for Reversed Bell Coleman cycle.

Fig.1.4 Configuration of Bell-Coleman Cycle

Fig.1.5. Bell-Coleman Cycle

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Proces Name of Thermodynamic process Equipment Remarks

s
1-2 Isentropic compression Compressor Temperature & pressure of air
increased
2-3 Isobaric process Air cooler Heat rejection
3-4 Isentropic expansion Expander Temperature & pressure of air
decreased
4-1 Isobaric process Refrigerator Heat absorption

NRE NRE
COP of the system = =
Workdone Heatreject ed Heatabsorbed

C p (T1 T4 )
=
C p (T2 T3 ) C p (T1 T4 )

(T1 T4 )
=
(T2 T3 ) (T1 T4 )

T1
1)T4 (
T4
=
T T
T3 ( 2 1) T4 ( 1 1)
T3 T4
1 1

T2 p T3

= p 3

For isentropic process, = =
T1 p
2
T4 p
1 4

T2 T3 T2 T1
Therefore = or = , Substituting these values in COP equation
T1 T4 T3 T4

1 1 1 1
T4 1 1
Therefore COP = = T3 = p3 ( ) = p2 ( ) =

1
T3 T4 ) ( 1) ( ) 1 ( ) 1 rp
(

)
1
T4 p4 p1
Where, r = Compression or expansion ratio
If the process is carried out in polytropic process, then (Heat rejection Heat abstraction) is not
equal to work done on the system as there is transfer of heat from the system to the surroundings
or surroundings to the system
n
Work done on the system = p 2 v2 p1v1 - n p3 v3 p 4 v 4
n 1 n 1
Rewriting p 2 v 2 RT2 , p3 v3 RT3 and so on
 9

n n
Work done on the system =
n 1
RT2 RT1 -
n 1
RT3 RT4
NRE C p (T1 T4 )
COP = =
Workdone Workdone
But C p C v R = C v ( 1)

(T1 T4 )
Therefore COP = n ( 1)
(T2 T3 ) (T1 T4 )
n 1
1.6.1. Merits of Air Refrigeration system: Since air is inflammable, therefore there is no risk of
fire as in the machine using ammonia as refrigerant. It is cheaper as air is easily available as
compared to the other refrigerants. As compared to the other refrigeration system the weight of
air refrigeration system per ton of refrigeration is quite low because of this reason this system is
employed in air-crafts
1.6.2. Demerits of Air Refrigeration system: The COP of the system is very low in comparison
to the other systems. The weight of air required to be circulated is more compared with the
refrigerants used in other systems. This is due to the fact that the heat is carried by air in the form
of sensible heat.
1.7. Aircraft Refrigerating Systems
The invention of high speed passenger air crafts, jet air crafts and missiles has introduced the
need for compact, single refrigeration systems capable of high capacity with minimum reduction
of pay load. When power requirements needed to transport the additional weight of the
refrigerating systems are taken into account air cycle systems usually prove to be most efficient.
Aircraft refrigerating systems are classified into 1. Simple cooling system, 2. Boot-strap air
cooling system, 3. Reduced ambient cooling system and 4.Evaporative cooling system.
1.7.1 Simple cooling system: Fig.1.6 and Fig.1.7 show the configuration diagram and
temperature-entropy diagram for simple cooling system.

NRE ma C p (T6 t 5 ) (T6 t 5 )

COP of the cycle = = =
Workdone ma C p (T3 T2 ) (T3 T2 )
If the refrigeration capacity of the plant is Q tons,
210Q
then air required for the refrigeration purpose = kg/min
C p (T6 T5 )
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Fig.1.6. Configuration diagram for simple cooling air craft refrigeration system

Fig.1.7.Pressure-enthalpy diagram for simple cooling aircraft refrigeration system

Proces Name of Thermodynamic Equipment Remarks
s process
Isentropic compression
1-2 Diffuser Pressure of air increased marginally
(Ramming)
Main
2-3 Isentropic compression Temperature and pressure of air increased
compressor
Heat rejection process
Heat
3-4 Isobaric process Hot fluid- air from main compressor
exchanger
Cold fluid- rammed air
Cooling Heat absorption
4-5 Isentropic expansion
turbine Temperature and pressure of air decreased.
Temperature of air increased as it absorbs
5-6 Isobaric process --
heat from cockpit

ma C p (T3 T2 )
Power required for the refrigeration system = kW (Ideal compression)
60
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210Q 210Q
COP of the refrigeration system = =
ma C p (T3 T2 ) P 60

1.7.2 Boot-strap air cooling system: Fig.1.8.and Fig.1.9.show the configuration diagram and
temperature-entropy diagram.
Proces Name of Thermodynamic Equipment Remarks
s process
Isentropic compression
1-2 Diffuser Pressure of air increased marginally
(Ramming)
Main
2-3 Isentropic compression Temperature and pressure of air increased
compressor
Heat rejection process
Heat
3-4 Isobaric process Hot fluid- air from main compressor
exchanger-1
Cold fluid- rammed air
4-5 Isentropic compression compressor Temperature and pressure of air increased
Heat rejection process
Heat
5-6 Isobaric process Hot fluid- air from compressor
exchanger-2
Cold fluid- rammed air
Heat absorption
6-7 Isentropic expansion Cooling turbine
Temperature and pressure of air decreased.
Temperature of air increased as it absorbs
7-8 Isobaric process --
heat from cockpit

If the refrigeration capacity of the plant is Q tons,

210Q
then air required for the refrigeration purpose = kg/min
C p (T8 T7 )

ma C p (T3 T2 )
Power required for the refrigeration system = kW
60

210Q 210Q
COP of the refrigeration system = =
m a C p (T3 T2 ) P 60
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Fig.1.8 Configuration diagram for Boot-strap cooling air craft refrigeration system

Fig.1.9 Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Boot strap cooling air craft refrigeration system

1.7.3 Reduced ambient air-cooling system: Fig.1.10 and Fig.1.11 show the configuration
diagram and temperature-entropy diagram.
Proces Name of Thermodynamic Equipment Remarks
s process
Isentropic compression
1-2 Diffuser Pressure of air increased marginally
(Ramming)
Main
2-3 Isentropic compression Temperature and pressure of air increased
compressor
Heat rejection process
3-4 Isobaric process Heat exchanger Hot fluid- air from main compressor
Cold fluid- rammed air after turbine
Cooling Heat absorption
4-5 Isentropic expansion
turbine Temperature and pressure of air decreased.
Temperature of air increased as it absorbs
5-6 Isobaric process --
heat from cockpit
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Fig.1.10 Configuration diagram for Reduced ambient cooling air craft refrigeration system

Fig.1.11 Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Reduced ambient cooling air craft refrigeration system

NRE
COP of the cycle =
Workdone

ma C p (T6 t 5 ) (T6 t 5 )
= =
ma C p (T3 T2 ) (T3 T2 )

If the refrigeration capacity of the plant is Q tons,

210Q
then air required for the refrigeration purpose = kg/min
C p (T6 T5 )

ma C p (T3 T2 )
Power required for the refrigeration system = kW
60
 14

210Q 210Q
COP of the refrigeration system = =
m a C p (T3 T2 ) P 60

1.7.4 Regenerative air- cooling system: Fig.1.12 and Fig.1.13 show the configuration diagram
and temperature-entropy diagram.
Proces Name of Thermodynamic Equipment Remarks
s process
Isentropic compression
1-2 Diffuser Pressure of air increased marginally
(Ramming)
Main
2-3 Isentropic compression Temperature and pressure of air increased
compressor
Heat rejection process
Heat
3-4 Isobaric process Hot fluid- air from main compressor
exchanger-1
Cold fluid- rammed air
Heat rejection process
Heat Hot fluid- air from heat exchgner-1r
4-5 Isobaric process
exchanger-2 Cold fluid- Part of cold air from cooling
turbine
Cooling Heat absorption
5-6 Isentropic expansion
turbine Temperature and pressure of air decreased.
Temperature of air increased as it absorbs
6-7 Isobaric process --
heat from cockpit

NRE
COP of the cycle =
Workdone

ma C p (T7 T6 ) (T7 T6 )
= =
m a C p (T3 T2 ) (T3 T2 )

If the refrigeration capacity of the plant is Q tons,

210Q
then air required for the refrigeration purpose = kg/min
C p (T7 T6 )

ma C p (T3 T2 )
Power required for the refrigeration system = kW
60

210Q 210Q
COP of the refrigeration system = =
m a C p (T3 T2 ) P 60
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Energy balance of regenerative heat exchanger, taking m 1 = Total mass of air bled from main
compressor and m2 = mass of cold air bled from the cooling turbine for regenerative heat

m1 (T4 T5 )
exchanger m 2 C P (T8 T6 ) = m1C P (T4 T5 ) , then m2 =
(T8 T6 )

Fig.1.12 Configuration diagram for Regenerative air cooling air craft refrigeration system

Fig.1.13 Pressure-enthalpy diagram for Regenerative cooling air craft refrigeration system

1.8 Classifications of Refrigerants

A refrigerant is defined as any substance that absorbs heat through expansion or vaporization and
loses it through condensation in a refrigeration system. Usually refrigerants include only those
working medium which pass through the cycle of evaporation, recovery, compression,
condensation and liquification. These substances absorb heat at one place at lower temperature
and reject the same at some other place having higher temperature and pressure. The rejection of
heat takes place at the cost of some mechanical work.
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Refrigerants are classified as 1.Primary refrigerants, 2. Secondary refrigerants according to

methods of working medium. Primary refrigerants are those working mediums, which directly
take part in the refrigeration system and cool the substance by the absorption of latent heat. e.g
Ammonia, Freon group etc . Secondary refrigerants are those circulating systems, which are first
cooled with the help of primary refrigerants and are then employed for cooling purposes. E.g.
Solid carbon dioxide, ice, brine solutions
Refrigerants are also classified depending on their composition such as halocarbons (containing
halogens like chlorine, bromine and fluorine) hydrocarbons, inorganic compounds (water, air,
ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc.,) and Azeotropes (mixture of substances which can not be
separated by means of distillation).
1.9. Designation of Refrigerants
Refrigerants of halogens and hydro carbons are designated with R and followed by certain
numericals like R (a-1) (b+1)c for saturated refrigerants, where the condition of saturation is
2a+2 = b+c+d.
For un-saturated compounds, where 2a = b+c+d, the refrigerant is designated as R 1 (a-1) (b+1)c,
where a= number of carbon atoms, b= number of hydrogen atoms, c= number of fluorine atoms
and d= number of chlorine atoms. The refrigerant of inorganic compounds is designated by
adding 700 to their molecular weight.
Group Refrigerant Chemical Designation
composition
Halogens Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 R10
Trichloro mono fluoro methane CCl3F R11
(Saturated compounds)
Dichloro difluoro methane CCl2F2 R12
Mono bromo- trifluoro methane CbrF3 R13
Dichloro monofluoro methane CHCl2F R21
Mono chloro difluoro methane CHClF2 R22
Trifluoro trichloro ethane C2F3Cl3 R113
Hydro carbons Methane CH4 R50
Ethane C2H6 R170
(Saturated)
Propane C3H8 R290
Butane C4H10 R600
Un-saturated compounds Propylene C3H6 C1270
Inorganic compounds Ammonia NH3 R717
Water H 2O R718
Air R729
Carbon dioxide CO2 R744
Azeptropes 73.8% of R-12 and 26.2% of R500
R-152

1.10. Properties of Refrigerants

An ideal refrigerant should posses the following properties
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Property Parameter Remarks

Thermodynamic property Boiling point Moderate
Freezing point Low
Pressures in condenser and in evaporator Positive pressures but not high
Saturation temperature High
Latent heat of vaporization High
Chemical property Toxicity Non-toxicity
Flammability Non-flammable
Explosiveness Non-explosive
Corrosiveness Non-corrosiveness
Chemical stability High chemical stability
Odor Odorless
Irritating Non-irritating
Physical property Specific volume of vapor Low
Specific heat Low
Thermal conductivity High
Electrical insulation High
Viscosity Low
Other property Availability Ease
Cost Low
Leakage detection Ease
Handling Ease
Power consumption per ton of Low
refrigeration
Weight of the system per ton of Low
refrigeration

1.11. Refrigerants and ODP:

The harmful ultraviolet rays, which cause skin cancer, from the Sun are absorbed by the ozone
layer present in the upper atmosphere. Chloro Fluro Carbons (CFC) have been linked to the
depletion of ozone layer. They have varying degrees of ozone depletion potential (ODP). It is
postulated that CFCs because they are so stable, have long life in the lower atmosphere. But in
spite of CFCs being heavier than N2 and O2, they slowly migrate into the upper atmosphere by
molecular diffusion caused by partial pressure difference. It was hypothesized that chlorine atoms
from the molecule would be split off by the action of Sun light and the free chlorine will react
with ozone in the stratosphere according to the following reaction
CCl2F2 CClF2 +Cl
O3 + Cl ClO +O2
Thus ozone will be depleted to oxygen. The problem of CFC is that of chain reaction. A single
atom of chlorine released from CFC reacts taking out 100,000 ozone molecule. That is why even
small concentration of CFC also becomes important. In addition they act as Green house gases.
Hence they have global warming potential (GWP) as well. According to International agreement
(Montreal Protocol) the use of fully halogenated CFCs ( no hydrogen at all in the molecule) that
 18

are considered to have high ODP, viz., the commonly used refrigerants R11, R12, R113, R114,
R502 have to be phased out by the year 2000 A.D. R22, which is an HCFC, is not covered under
the original Montreal Protocol as its ODP is only 5% of that of R12. But because of its GWP, it
will be phased out by the year 2030.
1.12. Eco-friendly Refrigerants
Hydro carbons (HCs) and hydro fluoro carbons (HCFCs) provide an alternative to fully
halogenated CFC refrigerants. They have no chlorine atoms at all and have zero ODP. Even
HCFC, which do contain chlorine atom/s but in association with H-atom have much reduced
ODP. The association of one or more H atoms allows them to dissociate faster in the lower
atmosphere of the earth. Chorine thus released gets absorbed by rain water. So fewer Cl atoms
reach the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. However, HCFCs have a level of GWP. Hence
they have to be phased out ultimately. Till then they can be used as Transitional refrigerants. The
two most common refrigerants which have very high ODP are R11 and R12. The other two are
R113 and 502. So R11, R12, R113 and R502 are being replaced by substitutes. For an alternate
substance to be used as drop-in substitute the first and the foremost condition would be to have its
Normal Boiling Point (NBP) as close to the NBP of the refrigerant already in use. Even then it is
not possible to use it as drop-in substitute for various other conditions. It may , therefore, be
necessary to modify the design to alter the sizes and capacity of the four major components , viz.,
the compressor, the condenser, expansion valve and the evaporator and also the motor and
refrigerant line.
1.12.1 Substitutes of R-11:
a) HCFC R123- 98% less ODP and GWP than R-11. Its NBP is 4.3 o C higher than R-1l. It is,
therefore, a lower pressure replacement for R-11, thus having larger specific volume of
suction vapor. Hence its use results in 10-15% reduction in capacity, if used in existing R-11
centrifugal compressors. R-123 is found to be toxic and cause non-malignant cancer. R-123 is
found to be toxic and cause non-malignant cancer.
b) HCFC R22- By using large capacity multiple units of R22 reciprocating compressors in
place of single centrifugal R-11compressors. Using one R22 screw centrifugal compressor
itself in place of single centrifugal R-11 compressors
1.12.2. Substitutes of R-12:
R-12- Commonly used refrigerant in small hermitically sealed system because of its high
stability, excellent thermodynamic properties, low index of compression making it suitable for
use at extreme pressure ratios etc., and good motor winding cooling characteristics
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a) HFC R152a or Difluoroethane-Have zero ODP as there are no chlorine atoms. They have
74% less GWP as compared to R-12. It requires larger displacement compressor 1.43 times
the size of R-12 compressor. Pressure drop required in R-152a capillary is the same as in the
case of R-12. However, it requires longer capillary (7.5 m) from the point of view of energy
consumption
b) HFC R134a or Tetrafluoroethane- R134a has relatively high GWP. It is not soluble in
mineral water. Its NBP is 3.6o C higher than R-12. It is, therefore, a lower pressure
replacement for R-12, thus having larger specific volume of suction vapor. For use in existing
R-12 reciprocating compressors, it would require either an average increase in compressor
speed of 5-8%, or an equivalent increase in cylinder volume. It requires larger displacement
compressor 1.35 times the size of R-12 compressor. It has larger pressure drop compared with
R-12. Therefore it requires 8 m long capillary.
R152 a Or R134 a -Both R134a and R152a high boiling substances have similar
characteristics except the R152a has slight vacuum in the evaporator at -25 oC. Discharge
temperature of R152 a is higher because of its higher value of . Its GWP is one order of
magnitude less than that of R134a. It has lower energy consumption .Hence Environmental
Protection Agency of Europe prefers R152a over R134a

c) HC R600a or Iso-butane- Have zero ODP as there are no chlorine atoms. Lower
pressure, larger suction vapor volume, Higher boiling refrigerant in comparison with R-12.
Hence it requires much larger sized compressor. Pressure drop across the capillary is the
lowest. Hence R600a requires a slightly shorter capillary than 3 m of R-12. It has lowest
discharge temperature as it has lowest value of and therefore winding temperature in spite
of having high pressure ratio. However it has vacuum in the evaporator. It requires 1.75
times the size of R-12 compressor
d) HC R290 or Propane- Have zero ODP as there are no chlorine atoms. Lower boiling and
high pressure refrigerant. Hence it requires smaller (0.56 times) displacement compressors in
comparison with R-12 compressor. Used as refrigerant in petroleum industries and in some
places of Europe, in domestic refrigerators. Higher pressure, lower suction vapor volume,
lower boiling refrigerant comparison with R-12. It has same discharge temperature as R-12.
e) HCFC R22- When the pressure ratio does not exceed 10, it is possible to use R-22 in place of
R-12. But when condensing temperature is high, evaporating temperature is low it is not
possible to use R-22, because the motor winding and compressor would over heat. There
would be chances of frequent gas leaks with the presence of vibrations with R-22.
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f) 50% R290 + R600a by mass- Same pressure as R-12. Its volume refrigerating capacity is
also same as R-12. Hence this mixture is favored as drop in substitute.
g) R22 or Difluoromonochloro-methane- Lower boiling and high pressure refrigerant. Hence
it requires smaller (0.49 times) displacement compressors in comparison with R-12
compressor. Highest discharge temperature due to very high value of

Unit-1

PART-A
1. State the important applications of refrigeration?
2. Define standard rating of refrigeration and how it is obtained
3. Define C.O.P; State its expressions for reversed Carnot cycle for i) refrigerating machine,
ii) heat pump and iii) heat engine.
4. State Carnot theorem on reversible refrigerator
5. Prove that Carnot refrigerator has highest COP than irreversible refrigerator
6. What are the factors on which COP of Carnot cycle depends on?
7. Why it is difficult to achieve Carnot COP
8. Draw schematic sketch for air refrigeration system working on reversed Brayton cycle or
Bell-Coleman cycle along with p-V and T-s diagrams.
9. How refrigerants are classified?
10. How Freon and ammonia are designated as refrigerants?
11. Why Freon-11 is selected as refrigerant in domestic refrigerators?
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12. What are the desirable properties of the refrigerants?

13. What are the different methods of air refrigeration systems used for air craft?
14. Draw temperature-entropy diagram for simple cooling aircraft refrigeration system
15. Draw temperature-entropy diagram for Boot-Strap aircraft refrigeration system
16. Draw temperature-entropy diagram for Regenerative aircraft refrigeration system
17. Draw temperature-entropy diagram for Reduced ambient aircraft refrigeration system
18. What are eco-friendly refrigerants?
19. Problem on Carnot refrigeration system
PART-B

20. Problem on Bell-Coleman refrigeration system

21. Write short notes on any one of aircraft refrigeration system