Each unit contains two mark questions and answers, review questions. Solved Anna University question papers are added atthe til end ofthis book to enable the students to score high marks. With these features, we sincerely hope that this book would serve asa valuable text forthe students. Any errors, omissions and suggestions for the improvement of this, book are most weleome. ~ Authors SYLLABUS APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING UNIT! OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ‘Open channel flow — Types and regimes of flow - Velocity dation in open channe!~ Wide open channel Speciic ener ~ Critical flow and is computation ~ channel transition UNIT UNIFORM FLOW Uniform flow ~ Velocity measurement ~ Manning's and Chezy's {formula ~ Determination of roughness coefficients ~ Determination ‘of nomal depth and velocity ~ Most ecqnomical sections ~ Non- cerodible channels, UNIT Il VARIED FLOW Dynamic equations of gradually varied flow ~ Assumptons — Characteristics of flow profles — Draw down and back water curves = Profle determination ~ Graphical integration, direct step and andar stp mtd ~ Fo through anions - Hydra jure — ‘Types ~ Energy dissipation — Surges. = UNITiv PUMPS Centrifugal pump - minimum speed to start the pump multistage Pumps — Jet and submersible pumps - Positve displacement pumps - reciprocating pump ~ negative slip - flow separation Coniitions - air vessels indicator diagram and is variation - savings In work done - rotary pumps UNITY. TURBINES: Turbines - draft tube and cavitatons — Application of momentum. principle — Impact of jets on plane and curved plates ® tubin Classification - redial fow turbines ~ axial flow turbines — impulse ‘ang ReactionUNIT Ma, 12, 13. 14 uu 16, uy. L 173. 174 17s, OPEN CHANNEL FLOW Principles of open channel ‘Types and regimes of flow 13 ‘Types of channels 18 Velocity distribution in open channels 18 ‘Wide open eannel 12 Specific energy Lat Citcal ow 1a Subertcal Flow or Steaming Flow or Tranquil Flow 1.18, Supereitial low or shooting flaw of torrential ow 1.18 Critica depth (7) 19 120 Lt. 1a Cite velocity (x) Minimum specific energy in terms of critica depth ‘Conltion for maximum discharge Solved problems Altemate depth Specific force (f) Solved problems112, Solved Anna University problems an 2% Solved Anna universiy problems 260 113, Teo mark questions and answers 167 28 Two.marks questions & answers * 2.83 14. Review questions 174 28. Reeviewrqpanetions 291 UNIT UNIFORM FLOW UNIT Linu VARIED FLOW 2.1, Introdueton a —— 22. Velocity measurements 22 3, Varied flow definition uM 22.1, Pitot Tubes 23 32. Equation of gradually varied flow 32 2.22. Current Meter 27 32.1, Assumptions 32 223. Floats 20 33. Classification of ow profiles 36 224, Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) aun 33.1. Clasifiation of channel slopes 36 23. Uniform Now caeulations 216 332, Classification of surface profile a7 ‘Manning's Formula Be 333. Examples of various types of water sre profile 3:9 Hydeaulie Mean Radu () o 34. Backwater and drawdown curves 33 Bed Slope (8) an 34.1. Back watereune 313 (Chezy's Foriula oe 342. Expression forthe length of backwater curve 3.14 Emprieal Equations for Cheyz'sConstant_ 2.22, 343. Drawdown cue 37 Most economical cross-sections ofchannel 2.24 35. Profile analysis 37 “Most Boonomieal Rectangular Section 225 35.1. Graphical integration method 38 Most economical trapezoidal section 226 352, Direct method 319 “Most Economical Circular Section 230 3.5. Standard step method 320 25. Non-Erodible channels 236 3.6. Flow through tanstions 320 25.1. Maximum Permissible Velocities 237 36.1, Transition: Definition 3.20 252, Pree Board ior 3.62. Application of tansition 220) 26. Solved problems on uniform low 238 3.63. Transition in width i364. 37. 30, 372, 3.73. 38, 381 39, 30. Jul, 3.12 4.0, aut 4.12, “Transition in depth Hydraulic jump Expression for depth of hyalic jump Energy dlsspation or loss due to hyulralie jump Length of hyrale jump Surges ‘Types Solved problems ‘Solved Anna univers problems Two marks questions & answers Review questions Tntvodvetion t pumps CCassfteaton of pumps Centrifugal pumps Introduction t paps Classification of pumps Centrifugal pumps Classification of contfigal pumps Main components of a centage! pump ‘Types of casing Working of centrifuga pump Velocity tingle ‘Work done bythe impeller of centrifuga! pump 4 42 a2 43 43 4s 45 46 4.10 412 44 4.5 43, 43. ana, 4.4, Aus. 4.16, 47. 4s, 419, 420. 421 422, 4221 4222. 423, 4231 424 42s. 4286, 427 428, 429, 430, Head of pump Efficiencies ofa pump Impetior blade profites| ‘Specific speed fora pump Minimum speed ofa centrifugal pump to deliver liquid Design aspects ofa centifyga pump Performance curves Priming ofa centifagal pump Solved problems on centiugal pumps Cavitations in contig pump ‘Multistage pumps Pumps in series ‘Purp in parallel Jet pumps ‘Working principle of jet pump Suibmersible pumps Introduction to positive displacement pumps ‘Clasifcation of reciprocating pumps Main components ofa reejprocating pump Working ofa singe acting reciprocating pump Working of a double acting reciprocating pump Discharge, work done and power required to tive reciprocating pump Slip ofa reciprocating pump 47 47 49 421 433 427 429 432 435 436 483 487 487 488 489 4.90 492 495 4.96 497 497 498 4.100 4.102432, 433. 435, 436. 431, 438, 430. 440, 440.1 4.403. 4404 4405. 441. 442, 4421. 4422. 4423, 4424, Indiator diagram 4.103 Effect of acceleration on velocity and pressure head in both suction and delivery pipes 4.108 fect of acceleration on indicator diagram fn ‘both suction and delivery pipes sto Enteot of variation of velocity on frtion jn pipes 4.113 Efecto fieton in suction and ivety pipes on Indicator digg 4.115 Effect ofboth eceleation and fection on {indicator diagram in both suction and delivery pipes sa17 Flow seperation conditions 412 Solved problems on reciprocating pumps 4133 Air vessels 445 Maximum sped ofthe rotating crank with air vessols Work done against tition without air vessels Work done against fiction with ar vessels ‘Work saved aguinst fietion by fiting ar vessels low of water into and from the ae vesse ited to the delivery pipe Solved problems on air vessels Rotary pumps External gear pump Internal gear pump Lobe pump Vane pump 48. 448, 44s, 446, ‘Solved Anna university problems Tivo mark questions and answers Review questions Problems for practice 416 aur 4191 4.198 UNIT V. su 52. 524 522. 53, 83, 58 59. 5.10 sal. 5.12, 513. Sls, 5s. 5.16. TURBINES Application of momentum principle 51 Impact of ie jet 53 Jet impingement upon a stationary plate 53 4 mpingement upon a moving plate s4 Components of enensy tansfer 39 Hydeauti turbines 39 Classification of hydraulic turbines 5.10 ‘Tangential low turbine, radial and axial turbines 5.11 Impulse turbine s2 Reaction turbine 513 Degree of rection ery Difference between impulse and reaction wibines $14 Pelton wheel or Pelton urine 53 Blade profile with respect to work done and efieieney of a Pelton wis! 5.9 ead and efficiencies of Pelton wheel 524 Design aspects of Pelton whee! 327 Solved problems on Pelton whee! 330 Francis bi sha5.18 5.9 520, 521. 522. 523, sau. 538. 526. 523. 528, 529. 530. 5301 S3h, $32, 533. 53M Construction of velocity vestor dsgrams Work done and efficiencies of Pranes bine Design aspects of Francs turbine Solved problems on Francis turbine Propeller turbine Kaplan turbine Parameters involved in Kaplan trines Difference between Francis and Kaplan turbine Solved problems on Keplan turbine Performance of turbines Speiti speed (n) Solved problems on specie speed ‘Turbine characterises Governing of turbines or speed regulations ‘Throtle governing or centrifugal governing Solved Anna university problems ‘D0 mark questions and answers Review questions Problems for practice Solved Anna University Questions and Answers S61 5.65 5.68 sm 5.103 5.1084 5.107 5.108 5.109 S116 5.120 5133 5.130 5.135 5.135 sus suas 5.168 5.166 or Open Channel Flow ‘Open channel flow ~ Types and regimes of flow = Velocity distribution in open channel ~ Wide ‘open channel ~ Specific energy ~ Critical flow and its computation ~ channel transition.4) 41, OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 1.1.PRINCIPLES OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW "Blow of tiquid witha free surface (ie. surface exposed to atmosphere) through any passage is known as open channel flow The liquid flowing through any closed passage without touching the top can also treated as open channels flow. Examples: 1. Flow in natural waterfalls, river and streams or man-made channels such as irrigation channels and flumes 2. Flow in artfi 3. Closed conduit or pipe carries liquid partially (sewers that cay domestic or industrial waste water). Generally, liquid flowing in open channel is water.12 ‘Applied Hydraulic Engineering low of fluid in an open channel is not due to any pressure as in ease of pipe flow. But it is due to the slope of the bed of the channel while constructing a channel, a uniform slope in its bed is provided to maintain the flow. The other words, the flow is due to gravity in open channels. ‘Open channels which are completely open to atmosphere, such a8 streams and rivers are uncovered (ype, The closed ‘conduits of pipes which are flowing partially Full fike tunnels, sanitary sewers, underground drum etc are covered ‘ype of ‘open channels. Open channels may be either natural channels like rivers ‘and streams having irregular cross-sections of flow, or artificial channels which have fairly well-maintained shapes and cross sections, ‘A channel having definite and same cross-section and had slope throughout its length is known as prismatic channel. A prismatic channel may be either exponential or non- exponential. An exponential channel is one in which tbe area of cross-section of flow is directly proportional to any power of depth of flow in channel. Example: Rectangular, triangular and parabolic channels. Trapezoidal and circular channels are non- ‘exponent, ‘Op Channel Flow 13 LA Z2-TYPES AND REGIMES OF FLOW Flow can be classified into following types: (9 Based on the variation of flow with respect to time (@) Steady flow Flow properties, suchas the depth or discharge ata section do not change with time 7 (©) Unsteady flow Flow properties at a section changes with time, The flow is termed! as unsteady flow. (i) Based on the variation of low with respect to distance (a) Uniform flow Flow properties remain constant with respect to distance is called uniform flow. Figure 1.1(a) shows isometric view of a rectangular channel. Two seetions are taken at a distance, Z. (b) Non-uniform flow Flow properties vary with respect to distance is called non- ‘uniform flow. Figure 1.1 (b) is an example for non-uniform flow. Flow properties, such as depth, cross section or velocity varies between section I-1 and section 2-2, Uniform flow: ee AAD Kary18 (©) Cross seetion at 1-1 Figure 1.1 Flow characteristies Non-uiform flow: yi #y2 AeA Wer where 31 Depth of water at section 1-1 Depth of water at section 2-2 Ay Wetted area at section I-1 4a = Wetted area at section 2-2 F; = Velocity of flow at section 1-1 a= Velocity of flow at section 22 (©) Longitudinal section16 opie Hyate Engineeng _)_ Now flow ean be cased nto two types 1. Gradually varied flow 2. Rapidly varied low 1. Gradually varied ow UP the depth of flow changes gradually over long ength ofthe channel, the flow is sid vo gradually varied Now (GVF). Eg. Back wate in damn (Upstteam side of dam) as shown in Figure 1.2(a). (a) Back water x g, ) Hydraulic jump ASS ca Figure 1.2 Non-uniform flow J 2 Rapidly varied flow Ifthe depth of flow changes rapidly over a small length of | ‘the channel, the flow is said to be rapidly varied flow. (Opin Channel Flow ar Eg, Hydraulic jump (Downstream side of dam), as shown in Figure 1.2(b). (iti) Baseld on Reynolds number (@) Laminar flow: If Reynolds number of flow is less than 500, itis called as Laminar flow. The value of Reynolds number is between 500 ‘and 2000, then the flow is transitional (b) Turbulent flow: For values of Reynolds number greater than 2000, the flow is turbulent. () Based on Froude number (a) Suberitical flow If the Froude number (F) is less than 1, it is ealled as subcritical flow or tranguil flow or streaming flow in open _ channels. Froude number, F = <1 gD where V-= Average velocity of ow in m/s ‘Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81mi? = Hyer depth in m _Gromsectonareact fol ee Topwidh18 ‘Applied Hysraule Enaineering (b) Critical flow If Froude number (F) is equal to 1, itis called as critical ‘flow in open channels, F (©) Supereritical flow If the Froude number (F) is more than 1, itis called as supererirical flow in open channels, Foi 4.3. TYPES OF CHANNELS /A. Primate chanel {osometie dimensions of the chanel, such a8 css scxtign and ttm slope are const sought the Ingth of the chal i called asa prismatic chin, Bg mos ofthe artificial channels\ Channels with circular, rectangular, pmsl end angular cous son ate called pisatc channels, 2. Nomprismatic chanel [Gorometic dimensions of the chil, such as oss seston and Boom slope are not contin fr length of the Gtaonel cll asa nonprsmais canal] Ep. All zl hanes sch aster, stan tenon pisnate cham Ope oheniet Flow Z 19) 4.4. VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNELS. The following points observed based on the ficld experiments. Velocities at different locations are taken in a cross section of a channel and lines are drawn at equal velocities as shown in the following figure 1.3. (@) The velocity is zero at the solid boundaries and gradually increases with distance from the boundary shown in Figure 1.3. (b) The maximum velocity of the cross section occurs at a distance of 0.2y from the free surfuce shown in Figure 114, where y= depth of flow (©) Average velocity Vey oceurs ata level of 0.6 from the free surface, (@ Otherwise, the following formula is used for average velocity ealelation, Von t¥on 2 4, = Velocity of water at 0.2 fom fee surece Vos = Velocity of water at 0.8y from free surface Vi, = (©) Surface velocity ¥, is related to the average velocity Vay as V,=KY, where, K-= Coefficient between 0.8 and 0.95(@ Velocity distribution in trapezoidal channel Figure 1.3 Velocity profiles of difference eross sections K depends upon the cross section of a channel and letermined by field calibrations. Average velocity can be alculated from K and surface velocity. Surface velocity can be tured with the help of floats and other surface velocity surement deviees. (b)_ Velocity disttbution in eiteular channel482 ‘Applied HsRable Engineering ‘The Figure 1.3 shows some typical velocity distributions across some channel eross sections. Relative velocity coefficients (K) are mentioned in the Figure 1.3. Actual velocityat that point ‘Maximumvelocity K Relative velocity coefficient at a point where maximum ‘velocity occurs is 1. | Vea elociy, V Figure 14 Typical velocity profile at section y 4.5, WIDE OPEN CHANNEL Channels with large aspect ratio (b/y) is called wide open channel. Otherwise, width of channel is too large by comparing its depth is called wide open channel. Moody chart is used to ealeulate the roughness coefficient in wide open channel problems. Moody chart plotted with Open CHARICE TS RS OTA Reynolds number in x-axis and Weibach resistant coefficient “Ff in y-axis. Generally, velocity of wide open channel flow can be calculated from the formula, Velocity of flow, ¥ = fay where g= Acceleration due to gravity y= Depth of flow 'S= Slope of the channel bed. In wide open channels, the local shear stress, velocity and velocity gradient vary from point to point ina cross section and along a length. Flow properties vary due to the complex three dimensional flow pattems between roughness coefficients and possible flow separations. ‘Total width (6) of wide open channel is divided in to N number of equal strips. Width of strip, Assumption: (Based on Journal of Hydraulic Engineering) (@) Velocity distribution varies logarithmically over depth of flow, ‘y (©) 8 S% bed slope of the channel = bed slope at i part (© Q= 3Oj Total discharge = Summation of discharge of al stripsi SRA alae yeeaulo Engineering (@® Discharge of wide open channel ean, be caleulated from the equation 3 Tg 10.9801 {nz where Manning's constant, = 003024 S=Bed slope y= Depth of flow P= Wetted perimeter at part. K, = Local roughness coefficient at ig, part of the wetted perimeter 2 25as / 1.6. SPECIFIC ENERGY ‘The total energy of flowing water, as shown in Figure 1.5, paztysk, 2g ‘where Z= Datum heed y= Depth of flow T= Velocity of flow Consider the channel bed as datum Line, Z= 0, then the energy ‘equation is called as specific energy: yp Eny+ ne, +8, 1 gn thy ~~) Specific energy, tential energy + kinetic energy of flow Figure 1.5 Longitudinal seetion Discharge, = Area,(4)x Velocity,("’) Discharge per unit width, Q 2 Width" & ‘throughout the length) nnPls (width dis constant Substituting 7 = in equation (1), y sayills) GLEE RS Aenlee Hera emminesrna, E=E,+E, Equation (2) gives the relationship between specific nergy, Band depth of water, y. (@ First specific eneray curve drawn between, £ along x axis and depth (») along y axis as shown in Figure 1.600). Relationship between E and y is a straight line and makes ‘an angle of 45° from x axis. (&) The second graph drawn between E along the x axis g F . and 2— along y axis . op 0%8 axis as shown in Figure 1.6, : ! j bes ra LK : mame Speci energy (E)—= (©) Curve between E and y+ 2a" Figure 1.6 Specific energy curve \C> (2) The relationship between specific energy and depth118 2 “Aopied Hvc Enger (©) Finally the graph drawn between specific energy (E) in x axis and yeh, 2@ in y axis, as shown in Figure 1.60). By adding these curve 1 and curve 2, we can get specific enetay curve, 4.7. CRITICAL FLOW Depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is minimum is called as critical flow. Otherwise, flow conresponding to citicl depth is ealled as ertca low. Fore critical depth, Froude number, F = Hydrautie mean depth, D= Depth of flow corresponding to point B shown in Figure 1.6 (e)is known as crifical depth (y0). 1.74. Suberitical Flow or Streaming Flow or ‘Tranquil Flow ~~ When the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the citical depth yq the flow is called as subcritical flow. It is otherwise, called as streaming flow or tranquil flow. For subcritical low, Froude number, ¥ <1 ‘Ops ohannar GS Ta eS AD Depth of flo comesponding to points between B and A shown in Figure 1.6 1.7.2. Supercritical Flow or Shooting Flow or Torrential Flow ‘When the depth of flow ina chanel less than the eal flow, y., the flow is called as supercritical flow or torrential ftow For supererical flow, Froude number, F > 1 Depth of flow corresponding to points between B and C shown in Figure 1.6 (). 1.7.3. Critical Depth (y.) ~~ (Depth of flow of water at which the specific energy, E is ‘minimis called as ertical deprh (2). From graph, ABC is a specific energy curve, Depth (5.) corresponding to minimum specific energy (point B) is ealled critical depth. \ ‘The mathematical expression for ertical depth is obtained by differentiating specific eneruy equation (2) with respect to y and equated it to zero. ae dy ‘ does) » 2g" 0 yv B20 REE ee Applied Hydraulic Engineering. v£(-3) ° ely ¢ i oe ey ee eee eee 1.7.4, Critical Velocity (Ve) Velocity of flow at the critical depth is called critical velocity, Ve. Cubing on both sides, 2 = e anne O_AV_beyx¥ _ Dischargetnitwidih, g= =P = A*% w QpeACHa OL EOWA: AEE Ae Om aN, Substituting Vin critical depth expression, V becomes Vandy. becomes yo. WV) = 202 v7 1.7.5, Minimum Specific Energy in terms of Ci Depth Specific energy equation is equation (1), ‘When specific energy is minimum, depth of flow is critical ‘nd the above equation becomes122.8 coenmRREArpnee Heraune Enaineering 4.7.6. Condition For Maximum Discharge Specific energy equation, E= y+ 297 Discharge, Q= Area, Ax Velocity, 2.0 y o by 2g om By 2g O =(E-yy?2¢ 0-MEDV Ie 6 -y Pe ‘The term (b2.2¢)is constant and 0 is ciectly proportional (ey*-y') For maximum discharge, + Differentiating (£ y? — y*)with respect to y and equating it dey’ -y ae 2Ey-3y" =0 QE-3y) 26-3 to zer0, 0) (OBien chana@t Flow et 123 oa By comparing equations (5) and (6), the condition for ‘maximum discharge (Qnminam) i8 when specific energy E is nine Hn oh ff ol ins eh of critical flow. 1.8. ALTERNATE DEPTH f From the Figure 1.7, for a given value of specific energy, B, there are two depths, corresponding to points D and F are called the alternate depths. These depths are shown as yy and y2 in Figure 1.7 A <0 Si ees ow | Super ical fow piinevrennt omfg a ‘Specie eneray (E)—~ Figure 1.7 Alternate depth from specific energy curve 4Hen TRE SE © Replica Hysruteigmeeng _/\8. SPECIFIC FORCE (Fs) Specific force is the sum of the pressure force (F) and ‘momentum force due to flow (iM) per unit weight of the liquid ata section (F+a) 7 Specific force, F, where ‘y= Weight density of liquid 1.40. SOLVED PROBLEMS The specific energy for a 3m wide channel is 8Nm/N. what is the maximum possible discharge in the channel, Given data: = width of channel = 3m Eo specific energy = BN © Solution: _fonsition or maximum dischare, 3 Eq 2d. in “50 a asx, 5H coed dant» 228 Critical velocity, = fey. (Open Channa rome ee) 1, = ORK = 7.2315 Maxim dosharge, Q 0, =(6x533)x723 115.61 m/s | The specifi energy for Sm wide rectangular channel is fm. The discharge of water through the channel is cumecs. Determine the alternate depts of low. “7 Given data: Apecific energy, E= y+2— = 4m aga With of channel, b= Sm 19cumecs=19m°ls(v Leumee=1m° Is) a8 0736 . nyt yaaa 4 Specific energy, 40, Vi +0736 ’4.28. is “Appliod Haute Engineering ; VP nAy? +0.736=0 By solving cubic equation using trial and error method, y= O.A6m, 3.953 ‘Ans & ‘A 2m wide rectangular channel has a specific energy of / “75m when carrying a discharge of 6.50nt's. Cateulae the alternate depths and corresponding Froude number. > Given dara: Width ofebannel, b= 2 Discharge, O = 6.50m"/s Specific energy, B= 175m @ Solution: (a) Specific energy equation, ¢ @= ven RF n Bayrleys A Diao 6s + TF 2x98IXP xy’ s L15= Ope channet Flow fous 1.15y? =y? +0538 YL 759? +0.538=0 By trial and error method, y = 0.728m and y =1.5100 Ans ca v TB Area__bxy Topwidih 5 (b) Froude number, F poe babes bt po 325__ 1038 = Fory=0.725m, F= 1.68 Ansa Fory=1.5im, = 0.56 Ans flow of 6m’ is passing at a depth of 1.5m through a ‘angular channel of 2.5m width. The kinetic energy rection factor energy a is found to be 1.20. What is the fic energy of the flow? What is the value of the depth ‘nate to the existing depth, if a = 1.0 ts assumed for the2a Alea HveraUNC ERED Depth of water, y1 = 1.50 Width of channel, b= 2.50 Kinetic energy correction factor, «= 1.20 (b) Kinetic energy correction factor, a2 = 1.0 © Solution: @K 60m/s A, 235x150 W Specific energy, B=», +04 3. E=150+1.20%| = 1.657 (b)Caleulation of alternate depth, if A Specificeneray, B= y, +09 55 ju De 200 \Ofen Chanel Ew oft Se eID 1.6573 = y3+0.029 ¥}-L.657yj +0.029=0 By trial and error method, ‘Alternate depth, y3=0.137m ins PR Catewate the critical depts and the corresponding specific energy for a discharge of 6.0m’ in the following channels (@) Rectangular channel, b= 2.5m (©) Triangular channel, m=0.5 (©) Trapezoidal channel, bottom width, b= 2.0m m=150 (@ Cireuler channel, D = 2m Given data: Discharge, Q= 6n/s © Solution: (Rectangular channel 7 Critical depth,t90) 8 Applica yale Engineering -(FE) osm Ans al Specific energy corresponding to critical depth, ys 3 =3.0897 2 =1256m Ans (b)Triangular channel, P Somes sf} 2x6! 981x050" = 1.966m Ans 0 _, B= Specitic energy corresponding t0 ye 259. 1.251.966 a Mn (c) Friangular channel, “At the critical flow, o O _bsm Jy. BS @) Ge2my,) Fe 6 _Q+tsy.) xt agi” @+2ml5y,) ‘open channel Few 2+15y,)92 3.67 z : Q+3y,) By trial and error method, Y= 0.792 7 Wetted area, Ae= (brmyeWve 134 Ans = = (QH1.5»0,792) 0,792 = 2.528n? Critical velocity, ¥ ne Specific energy, B=». +55 237 29.81 BE, =0.792+. (@ Circular channel, Cita flow condition, ee 4 zh Pr = 00, ~sin20) Top width, T= D sind, ec [Fee -sn209] € Dano192" By trial and error method, a Wetted area, Ae= eo oe 8,= 105." ‘ye= Depth of flow —R cos. 093m sin28) 180 7) a (1 -cos®,) y= 1 (1 —cos105.") ‘Ans A foo sin(2x 105.9" ) Critical velocity, 7, _pSrecific energy, E, 1. 58m 94m? (OVA trapecoidal channel with a bed width of 3.0m and side "slope of 1.SH:IV carries a certain discharge. (a) Based on observations, if the critical depth of flow is estimated as ‘1.50m, caleulate the discharge in the channel. (0) If the discharge is observed to be flowing at a depth of 2.5m in a reach, estimate the Froude number of the flow in that reach, Given data: () Bottom width of channel, b= 3.0m Side slope of channel, m= 1.5, CCitieal depth of water, ye 1.50 (b) Depth of water =2.50m Solution: Figure 18 (@)Atritiea depth, LP Wetted area, de= (bt mye = GH.Sx1.5)x1.5 =7.875n" Critical width, Te = b+2my v 4 23+ 1.51.5) =7.5m136 “opis Hyeraul Engineering Critical flow condition, / GA g f Q=25.2Im'/s (b)When the depth of flow, y = 2.50m for the same discharge Wetted area, A= (benny + GH.S%2.5)x2.5 = 16.875m"" Topwidlh, T= B+2my 4 23+ (21.5925) Q_ 22% ‘A 16875 1497s 0.5m Ans Froude number, F = t ee) [* Cateulate the bottom width of a channel required to carry a discharge of 20m'ss as a eritical flow at a depth of 1.5m, if the channel section is «) rectangular and b) ‘trapezoidal with side slope 1.SH:AV: Given de Critical depth of water, ye= 1.50m Discharge, Q= 20m Solution: ~ (@) Rectangular section, Fora critical section, y, (2 } # (b) Trapezoidal channel Side slope, m= 1.50 Ateritical depth, (b+1,541.5)*1.5 @r225)1.5bo 6 PRR ARDted Hye Eninaéng Critica top width, 7, b+2mye= br 4.S Critical flow condition, G4 got (64225) «1.50? +430 (642.28) +450 By trial and error method, b= 2.03m Aso 12.08 =: in the following channels. ’ (@ Rectangular channel (®) Triangular channel (0) Trapecoidal channel, b= 2.25m and m= 1.0 (@ Cireular channel, D = 1.0m Given data: Specific energy for critical depth, B= 2.00m @ Solution: (@ Rectangular channel, Specific energy corresponding to critical depth, (®) Triangular channel, Een 1257.2 ya 123 ye 160m (©) Trapezoidal chanet, Critical area, A, = (b+myc)ve = (225+ Ky) * Yo = (2.25492) Ye ‘Top width, 7.= 5+2my. =2.25+ 2y. oe 4 025ta)y 790.2529.) (easy. +y8 eG S4ay,) By trial and error method, Ye™ 1500 2.00: 2.00=. an ‘Ans Ans Ans138 Applied Hydric Engineering (@ Circular channel, Diameter of channel, om a PG, sina > (0, -sin20) (20, ~sin20) 0112808, - 2,00 0.5(1-cos0,)+- se By tial and er method, 0, = 173.5° ye 0.5(1~cost,) =0.5(1 — cosl73.5°) = 0.957 ARS SS A rectangular channel 3m wide is narrowed to 2m width vous TT erie ee Si Ans ‘this section is 1m, calculate the flow and depth in the 3m * (Open Chanel Flow oo section, neglecting losses in the transition. Sketch the energy line and water surface. . \ Given data: ‘Width of the channel section 1-1, by = 3m Width ofthe channel section 2-2, by = 2m Depth of water at section 2-2, y2 @ Solution: ‘At section 2-2 (critical section), raat main» -(2) : Discharge, Q= gb: = 3.1322 = 6.264m"/sAns ‘Equating the specific energies at sections 1-1 and 2-2,o (b) Plan Figure 1.9 From minimum specific energy in terms of critical depth expression, arama . 6.2647 De9kIx ay a” 0222 Fit ra x yi+0202=15y yi-Lsy}+0222=0 By trial and error method, Depth of water at setion 1-1, vis 140m2 v 482 Applied Hyar@tie Engineering F\ Uniform flow occurs at a depth of 12m in a long ¢ rectangular channel 2.5m wide and laid a slope of 0.001. if Manning's n=0.015, calculate a) maximum height of hump ‘on the floor to produce critical depth b) the width of contraction which will produce critical depth without Increasing the upstream depth of flow. Given data: Depth of the channel section 1-1, 1 _/ Width of the channel seetion 1-1, by = 2.5m $= Sp Slope of bed = 0.001 _ Manning's constant, n= 0.015 © Solution: (2) Discharge, O= 4, x7, A brea, Ay bye2.50*1.2 “/ Pesimete, Pr b+2y1= 2.5+2%1.20= 4.90 From Manning’s formula, yr bod 1 (3) ooo = (2) .0.001%=1.52m/5 yi sala) Discharge, Q= 4, xV, =3%1.52= 4.56n?/s mR becoke Seb ‘Open Channel Flow. Discharge/unit width, g_ 436 Figure 110 At ertical section 2-2, ery Depth of water at critical section 2-2, x(t my =057Im hump, ooo . Vw 2¢ IR. AZSESS ah AZ= Height of hump 22 __ 456-5 104m/s Yaa hy, DxosT Ateritical section, sz a1o8 ase 120. aosri+ 2 az | Height of hump, AZ = 0.227m Ans 1527 _3(_ 4.567 120+ 3(_436 2 2x98 (ssi ff ( Figure 1.11 Plan (b) Let by = Width at the section 2-2 Calculating b, for the condition critical depth at section 2- 2, without hump and maintain same depth of flow at section 1 1 A dm wie rectangular channel earries water to a depth uf 2m. In order to measure the discharge, the channel width ‘is reduced to 2.5m and a hump of discharge, if water surface in the contracted section drops by 0.15m. Assume no losses.applied HySraute Engineering ‘open’onennet Fiow a ‘At section 1-1, Atsection 2.2, Width of the channel section 1-1, 51 = 4m Width of the channel section 22, b= 250m Depth of water, yy = 2m Hight of hump, AZ=0.30m Water drop =0.15m Depth of water at section 2-2, a= 2—(0.1540.30)=1,55m 015m, o @ i © Solution: I | ! Applying continuity equation, aia Y OAxK el ‘o io (@) Longitudinal section SOLE (by Plan Figure 1121.48 RTE aA DN 242-1554 2 Bx 2x98 3.875? x2x9.81 o a4 24+ 7.964% 104? =1.85 +3.39x107Q* 07639210? -796«104)=2-L8s x2,59x107 = 0.15 Q? =S783 Q= 760m Ans ‘open channel of rectangular cross section, 3m wide. At a ‘certain section, the width is reduced to 1.8 and the bed is raised by 0.65m. Will the upstream depth be affected? Ifso, to what extent? agp) Given datas Atsection 1-1, Depth of water, ys = 2m Velocity, Vi = Imis ‘Width ofthe channel section, 6, = 3m Atsection 2-2, Depth of hump, AZ = 0.65m ‘Width of channel, b: = 1.80m ‘Opin channel Flow 2 ® Solution: Toe tm + (@ Plan. (©) Longtatna setion Figure 113.80, = ‘Applied Hyroul gm@etig, Specific energy at seetion 1-1, Discharge, = DischargeAmit width, Jey, hence the flow is subcritical Eu, 23, 2 fy =15K0.7415=1.112m At section 2-2, Discharge/unit width, Openichanner own eS TS CTR Specific energy with respect to channel bed at section 22, By =(Eqy)y + AZ =1.56340.65 =2213m ince £:>E}, the upstream depth willbe affected. The low will be possible only when the upstream water level is yi-2.213)2 +0.204=0 By trial and error method, een = 217m, ‘The water level on the upstream side will be raised by Jem Prveung) = @T=2)= OTH Ans ve182 ‘Applied Haran Engineering 4.41, SOLVED ANNA UNIVERSITY PROBLEMS RE Calculate the critical depth corresponding toa discharge of Gniis in () rectangular section of width 3.0m (i) trapezoidal channel of bottom wide 3.0m and side slopes 11: wv. Given data: ‘b= Width of channel =3m Q= Discharge = 6m'/s (Corresponding to critical depth) Solution: (Rectangular channel Ye Je __b=3m,| Figure 1.14 ischarge per unit width. ‘Open Chanel Flow 159 Critical depth, y= 0.74m Ans Gi) Trapezoidal channel Side slope of channel 1:17 m= 1 For critical flow, F Hydraulic depth, D ‘Top width, 7, =(6+2my.) 1, =(42y,) ‘Squaring on both sides of Figure 1.15 Area, 4, =(b+my,)y,154 bf Applied Hydratlic Engineering Pe—=+ gD AgD a al, Gry, Sxixssn 3.6703-+2y.) Bry) 9 (+229 6 G¥2x) By trial and error method, Critical dept, y= 0.6850 Aun ‘A rectangular channel 1.Sm wide and depth 2.250, discharges 10m'A. Calculate the specific energy and the depth alternate to the given depth. y= Depth of low =2.25m Q= Discharge = 10m"is © Solution: yn @ Specificenersy, By 4a 3+ A=bx3, (6m chanel Few 5 a 10° > Ba2254--— Thaaspeaoa B= 269m An (ii) Altemate depts, ys, Specific energy, For a given specific energy 6, there are two possible depths of flow which are known as alternate depths (1.2) _667 Yx2 981 227 _y' +227 OW 2.69793 =y}+2.27 y}-2.697y} 422720 By solving the above equation, Alternate depth, y2= 1.26 Ans 2 as area For a constant speifc energy of 3.0m, what maximum Slow may occur in a rectangular of channel 4.5m bed width? 2.697 = 9, + 2.697 = y+pag TR ‘oped Hyeraule Enginesring y= Depth of flow ‘5= width of channel = 4.5m D Solution: ‘Maximum discharge condi y Specific energy, B= y+ 3 Y 3224 29.81 2x9.81=7? V=442m/s Maximum rate of flow, QwacA*V = (bry) * V = (4512) «482 ne =39.78mS Ans For a constant energy 24NmIN, calculate the maximum discharge that may occur in a rectangular channel 4m wide. Similar to above problem 3 [Ans:- Maximum discharge, Omn= 25.344] Ofien channerFiow es EET ST For the purpose of discharge measurement, the width of @ rectangular channel is reduced gradually from 3m to 2m ‘and the floor is raised by 0.3m at a given section. When the approaching depth of flow is 2m, what rate of flow will be indicated by a drop of 0.15m in the water surface elevation at ‘the contracted section? Given de ‘Width of channel at section 1-1, by Width of channel at section 2-2, by =2m Drop = 0.15m Depth of flow at section 1-1, = 2m ‘AZ= water flow raised in section 1-1(aump) = 0.30m © Solution Applying continuity equation,é laz= 0am () Longitudinal section Figure 1.16 i =3x2= 6m? 2-(0.15+03)) Ay =byy, =24155= 3m? Substituting these values, Sm Ams = A trapecoidal channel has a bottom width 6m and side slope 2 horizontal to 1 vertical, Ifthe depth of flow is 12m Jor a discharge of Hnt's, compute the specific energy and crea depth, |.) Given daa ‘6= width of channel = 6m Q= Discharge = 10m"/s Side slope = 2H: m=2 = Depth of flow=1.2m © Solution (b= Width of channel ~ 6m Ateaoffow, 4 = (6+my)y=(642%1.21.2 =10008n? 2 Velocity of flow 2 locity of tow 2 Specific energy, = 1.25m Ans 0wesc a Appice HyeRaOneTEREmeRriI: yea J (orem Figure L17 (i) Critical flowy, calculation, For critical flow, F’= Squaring on both sides, yg ey. Aa (o+my.)y. p A= (6+2xy.)¥ aa C2 (6429, F 329.81 19(6+4y, (+2y.F 9 ‘Open Chanel Few ES ORL tet (6+2y,)'x2 , S20) % -t019 G4y) By trial and error method, 61m Ans x The rectangular channel carries a discharge of 30m'/, ‘the bottom width of the channel is 6m and flow velocity is 1.75mi. determine two alternate depths possible in the channel, Given data: Discharge, Q= 30m!s Width of channel, 6 = 6m Velocity of flow, = 1.75mis © Solution: Discharge, Q= 4x1" 30= bx yxV = 6x yx1.75 Y= n= 285m Alternate depth calculation: * Specific energy, Foye E=2854.‘162: si ayteyh 127 yi -3y'+127=0 By trial and error method, Y= 250.75 Ans For a constant specific energy of 18Nms, calculate the ‘maximum discharge that may occur in a rectangular channel Smwide. Similar to above problem 3 [Ans:- Maximum discharge, Qma™ 20.586m'/5] Open channel Few \\ Mi a reetangutar channel 3.5m wide, flow depth of 2m, ‘fad how ‘high can be raised without causing afflux? If the upstream depth of flow raised to 2.5m, what should be the ‘eight of the hump? Flow in the channel is 26.57m'/s Given datas Width of channel, 5= 350m Depth of channel, y = 2am Upstream depth of flow, y1 = 2.50m Discharge, Q= 26.67m°/s © Solution: / Py [6.2 = Height of ump iz 5 Lif al Figure 1.18 Longitudinal seetion 2m'ls Upstream velocity, = 2 = 282 Gs miy188 = ‘Applied HyaraullelBeneéring 1615 <1 Vo.81x2.50 Upstream flow is subcritical and lump will cause a drop in the water surface elevation, ye Baye "+39 3.05" 29.81 ‘The maximum height of the hump (AZ)mx will be obtained, when the flow over the raised floor will then be critical, B,=2.50+ 974m a 9g + Aan +2 +(02) 0 Ye (AZ) ne eh-Ca Open chanhelFiow spay aorte( Fett) =(a2)., (82 )aue= 0.259 Ans Uy and yo are alternate depths in a rectangular channel show that y= 2¥i95 ey, jim tence specific energy, paitinty Nth @ Solution: (@) From the sluice gate shown in Figure 1.19. a at Lf | / a ee ) : ut Figure 1.19 Stic gateBOE eAbpled tiycetoibEnemeetIng lepth of flow at section 1-1 32% depth of flow at seetion 2-2 Equating the specific energies at the 1wo sections, also assumed that the loss of energy between section 1 and 2 are negligible, Woy pt toey te ag "3 2g ® Velocity at section I-1, ¥, = Velocity at section 2-2, (Open Chanel FGH ody ge Oty, 2yiyi yin Bi Orta) re, ge (©) Specific energy, B= y+ 2 2g Oren) nity +H G+) ui} ate +¥F Ans "a1.68 Applied Hyeraule Enigmeorig 1.12, TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. Define open channel flow with examples, Flow of liquid with a free surface (i.c,, surface exposed to atmosphere) through any passage is known as open channel flow. The liquid flowing through any closed passage without touching the top can also treated. 4 open channels Examples: 1. Flow in natural waterfalls 2. Plow in artificial or man-made channels such as intigation channels and flumes 3. Closed conduit or pipe carries liquid partially (sewers that carry domestic or industrial waste water). Generally, liquid flowing in open channel is water, 2. Explain laminar and turbulent flow. (@) Laminar flow: If Reynolds number of flow is less than 500, it is called as Laminar flow. The value of Reynolds umber is between $00 and 2000, the flow is transitional (b) Turbulent flow: For values of Reynolds number greater than 2000, the flow is turbulent. (Ove CharnelFiow 169 wet <3. What are the various ypes of flow in open channels? ‘The flow in open channel is classified into the following types: (@) Steady and unsteady flow (®) Uniform and non-uniform flow (©) Laminar and turbulent flow @ Suberitical, al and supercritical flow 4. Define the term uniform flow. 1f the depth of flow, slope of the bed of channel ‘and cross section remain constant with respect 0 distance is called uniform flow. asl $. Define non-uniform flow. Flow properties, such as depth of flow, velocity of flow are not constant with respect to distance is called non-uniform flow. 2) wv ®) 40, (Zoo (Be« 6 Distinguish beoween steady and unsteady flow In Steady flow, various caractristis of flowing Aids such as veloc, pressure, density, temperature tc. at a point do not change with time. In other words, 4 steady flow may be defined as that in whieh therece "Aplied Hyeraune Engineering various characteristics are independent of time, ‘Mathematically it can be expressed as i> ( )-*(8)- In Unsteady flow, various characteristics of lowing Quid such as velocity,;pressure, density ete. at ‘point change with respect to time. (2)-emin(Z)<0 we Unsteadiness refers to the change of flow pattern ‘with the passage of time ata position inthe flow. 7 Explain the terms: (i) Gradually varied flow and (ii) Ropiity varied flow. [Anna Univ, Nov’07 & Nov'08} 1. Gradually varied flow Ifthe depth of flow changes gradually over a long length of the channel, the flow is said to gradually varied flow (GVF), 2. Rapidly varied flow Ifthe depth of flow changes -ipidly over a small length of the channel, the flow is said to be rapidly varied flow. (pen,cramer row wt ML Dain stints) ‘sain “ow eng ‘steady non-uniform flow. [Anna Unt. Nov'ogp I the lw popes, such as depth and velocity of the flow remain constant along the length of the chanel over longtime interval is called steady unio ow Flow in @ non-prismatic channel and flow with ‘varying Velocities in a prismatic channel are examples of varied flow. This nonsmiform flow subjected to some fluctuations with respect to time is called none ‘uniform unsteady flow, 9% Write down the formula for Froude number, Froude number, where ve Werage velocity of flow in m/s ‘8 Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81mis? D= Hydraulic depth in m Crosssectionareaof flow 4 Topwidth = LQ Pefine hydrautc mean dept D> Hydraulic depts in m = Crosssectionareaof flow 4 “Topwidlh Gy" F172, ‘Apoiied Hyoraulie Engineering “LL Define uniform flow and draw the hydraulic gradient line, total energy line. [Anna Univ. May"06] Figure 1.20 HGL is merged with free water surface, since there is no hydraulic pressure head in open channel, flow. 12, Define specific energy. - [Anna Univ. Nov°06 & Nov'08] "specific enerey of a flowing lgud is defined as energy per unit weight of a liquid with respect to the bottom of the channel. It is denoted by a symbol E. where y= Depth of flow V= Velocity of flow ‘Open Ghanet FIow 473 13, Define critical flow. Depth of flow of water at which the specific energy, £ is minimum is called as eritical depth (v3) For rectangular channel, critical depth, a 14, Define critical velocity. ‘Velocity of flow at the etitical depth is called ical velocity, V. Yendey. Critical depth 8 = Acceleration due to gravity in mis* where ys 15.Distinguish between critical, subertical and \ supercritical flows 9). Critical flows Depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is minimum is called as critical flow. Otherwise, flow corresponding to critical depth is called as critical flow, For critical depth, Proude number, F fe T ed where, D= Hydraulic mean dbih474 ‘Applied Hiveraane Enainearng Areaof flow. Top widih Suberitical flow: ‘When the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical depth y, the flow is called as subcritical flow. It is otherwise, called as streaming flow or tranquil flow. For suberitical flow, Froude number, <1 ‘Supercritical flow: ‘When the depth of flow in a channe! less than the ‘tical flow, the flow is called as supercritical flow or torrential flow. For supercritital flow, Froude number, F > 1 16, Define alternate depths. From curve ABC, the point B corresponds to the ‘minimum specific energy (Ems) and the depth of flow at B is called critical depth, For any other value ofthe specific energy, there are ‘Wo depths called the alternate depths. Among two depths, one is greater than the critical depth and other one is smaller than the critical depth, : ‘Open Cherinet Flow, 198 AD Sib ertial ton ‘Super eal fom Lear ‘Specie energy (&)— Figure 1.21 Alternate depth from specific energy curve From the Figure 1.21, for a given value of specific ‘energy, B, there are two depths, corresponding to points D and F are called the alternate depths, These depths are shown as y; and yp in Figure 1.21. 17. Differentiate prismatic and non-prismatic channels, 1. Prismatic channel Gcometrie dimensions of the channel, such as cross section and bottom slope are constant throughout the length of the channel is called as a prismatic channel. Most of the artificial channels of circular, rectangular, tapeoidal and tingular cross section ae called prismatic channels,8 ‘Anpied Hydrate ERGIMGEH 2. Non-prismatic channel Geometric dimensions of the channel, such as cross section and botfom slope ate not constant for length of the channel is called as a non-prismatic channel. Eg. All natural channels, such as river, stream are non- prismatic channels. 18, Sketch the velocity distribution of a trapezoidal ‘channel section. [Anna Univ. May’08 & May’09] Figure 1.22 Velocity distribution in trapezoidal channel 19. Explain two point velocity method to determine average velocity of flow. In two point velocity method, velocity measured at (0.2y and 0.8 from free water surface. ‘Average velocity of open channel can be calculated 20. Mention the relationship between surface velocity and average velocity of open channel flow. Surface velocity VY; is related to the average velocity Foy a8 pen Ghenne Flow arf V,=KY, = Coffiient between 0.8 and 0.95 K depends upon the eross section of a channel and determined by field calibrations, Average velocity can be calculated from K and surface velocity. Surfiee velocity can be measured with the help of floats and other surface velocity measurement devices 21. What is the relationship between minimum specific energy and erica depth? Dept of flow of water at which the specitic ener, Fis minimum is called as critical depth (i) where, »2= critical depth 22, What is the condition for maximum discharge of open channel flow when the specific energy is minimum? 3 z=} 7 where, y= Depth of flow 23. Explain specific force (FJ. [Anna Univ. Nov'08) Specific force is the sum of the pressure force (F) and momentum force due t0 flow (M) per unit weight of the liquid ata section.70 oped Hy Erenerng Spesfe fone, F, = EM) were 11 Weight densiy of liquid 24. What is specific energy and what is condition for obtaining only one depth for a given specific energy? [Anna Univ. May'07} vn Total energy of pen chamel flow, B= Z-+y +5 = Considering the channel bed as datum line, Z =0, then the energy equation is called as specific energy Specific energy, E = 22 From specific energy curve, corresponding 10 specific energy minimum (Eu), there is only one depth, of flow which i called critical depth. 25. Differentiate closed conduit flow and open channet Slow. (Anna Univ, May'07] [ S.No. | Cased conduiflow | Open channel flow 1 ‘Water does not have | Water flows with a free | with fee surface, | surface | Water does not | Water contacts. with | contact «with | atmospheric pressure, atmosphere pressure but it has only Open Channel Flow me hydraulic pressure, 3 Flow may be due to | Flow is obtained only by either by pump | gravity pressure or by gravity low. 26, What are the possible (pes of flow in open channel with respect to space and time? Based on space: (Uniform flow Gil) Non-uniform flow Based on time: (Steady flow i) Unsteady flow 27, Define critical depth and write down the equation for critical depth for rectangular channel Depth of flow of water st which the specific energy, £ is minimum is called as critical depth (y). rn(G} where q = discharge per m width0 Applied Hycraulc Enegineetig 1.13. REVIEW QUESTIONS, 1 6, ‘Sketch the velocity profile for the following cross sections: (@) Rectangular channe! (6) Trapezoidal channel (©) Natural channel! (@_Cireular channel How can flow in open channels be classified? Explain in detail velocity distribution of open channel eross sections. Define specific energy. Derive the elation between specific energy and depth of flow. Derive the expression forthe following: (@) Critical depth (©) Critical velocity (© Minitsum specific energy in terms of critical depth (@) Condition for maximum discharge. Define wide open channel and what are the important assumptions in hydraulic parameters?” If,yy and y» are altemate depths in a rectangular channel! show that and hence ) specific energy, E = [Anna Univ. Dee'07, May 08 & Nov’08) (Open Channel Flow 4at 8. In a flow a rectangular channel for a certain discharge the Froude numbers corresponding to the two alternate depths are F1 and F2. Show that AY oer Ri) “24 9. Show that the minimum specific energy in a rectangular channel is 1.5 times the critical depth, [Anna Univ. May’09)Uniform Flow Uniform flow — Velocity measurement — Manning's and Chezy's formula ~ Determination of roughness coefficionts ~ Determination of normaf depth and velocity - Most economical sections —Non-erodible channels.(21 2. UNIFORM FLOW 2.4, INTRODUCTION Wriform tow is a fiuid flow in which the velocity of any siven instant does not change both in magnitude and direetion ‘with respect to space. Various uniform flow patterns are shown in Figure 2.1. Mathematically,22 ‘Apploa yaaa Engineering. WPTITOTITTITITDD Flow betwoen parallel patos ‘Open channel fow Figure 2.1 Uniform flows ‘Where time is held constant and s represents any direction of displacement of the fluid elements, amples 4 Open channel flow with constant depth of Wale 4Flow through iiform diameter pipes (In Non-Uniform flow, the velocity of flow of uid changes fiom one point to snother point at any instant. \ Mathematically, 2.2, VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS Mostly, velocity of flow is measured by pitot lube, current meter, hot wire anemometer, floats and Laser Doppler velocimetry, ‘tor ow 23 2.24. Pitot Tubes For finding the discharge of a moving liquid, two quantities are requited 1. Mean velocity of flow. 2, Area of cross-section of flow. ‘A pitot tube is simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow. A French Slentist, by name Henry Pitot inserted « bent glass tube iil the river Seine in Paris and found that water raised into the tube to a certain height. He also found that this height of water is proportional to the square of Yelocity of flow at any point; The velocity atthe entrance point of tube is reduced to zero (known as stagnation poin, then the pressure at that point is {nereayed duc to the conversion of Kinetic energy into pressute eneigy, The velocity of flow ean be determined by measuring the increase in pressure energy at this point. {Pitot tube consists of a plass tube bent et right angles. The diameter is large enough t0 avoid capillary effects. The tube is kept vertically in the following stream of Hiquid with its open ‘end facing the direction of flow, as shown in figure 2.2, ‘The liquid enters the tubo)and the level of the liquid rises in the vertical leg of the tube, This is because, the end B ofthe tbe is fa stagnation point where the liquid has no velocity. At the stagnation point, kinetle energy’ is converted into the pressure nergy. Hence, tie liquid rises in the tube above the surrounding liguld surface to a certain eight which4 ‘Appi Hyerauls Engineering sresponds to the velocity of flow of the liquid. The pressure the stagnation point is known as stagnation pressure’ po’ Figure 2.2 Pitot mbe ‘The height of liquid in the tube above that of the urrounding liquid surface gives the kinetic head of moving iquid, where the lower end ofthe tube is kept. Consider points A and B both lying at the same level. The point B is just lying inside the tube and the point A is lying a ittle away from it in the stream of liquid, as shown in figure 2.2. . Let, hy = Height of centre point of lower end of the tube below free liquid surface. Height of liquid in the tube above free surface (mn). v= Velocity of liquid at the lower end of the tube (Velocity at A) mis. nit iow 28 Applying Bemoulli’s equation to points A and B, wag ty tog Assuming the datum line pssing though A and B n=2=0 Po. as w 2g w 2g Ye ¥5 ¥5= 0 (There is no velocity at stagnation point B) Pave we Ww th [2 iy; Poth v? =2gh Pgh ‘The velocity of flow thus obtained will he more than the ‘actual velocity of flow, because no loss of energy is considered, ‘The actual velocity of flow can be obtained by introducing @ coefficient *C” known as Pitot tube coefficient. Then, the actual velocity is given by, vec Reh26 Apple Hycrauli Enginoering ‘The value for the coefficient of pitot tube C may be generally 0.98. 1. Pitot statie tube Pitot static we is an instrument which records static pressure and stagnation pressure combined together. It consists of two simple pitot tubes. One is ‘static tube" and it is surrounded by total head tube. Two or more small holes are drilled radially through the outer wall into the annular space, Differential manometer is connected to the two tubes , as shown in figure 2.3 and the difference ‘x’ is noted. Sitionend tte Total head abe fon Figure 2.3 Pitot static tube ‘The velocity of flow can be determined as mentioned earlier. The actual velocity of flow is given by Uniform Flow ar x= Difference in manoimeter reading 51> Specific gravity of liquid flowing 2 Specific gravity of manometric liquid. Stato pressure tap Figure 24° Prandtl tube Another form of pitot static tube is shown in Figure 2.4 This is known as Prandil pitot mube. It consists of a blunt nose facing the direction of flow. It eliminates the disturbance ‘caused by nose and leg. It is designed such that the value of C [coefficient of pitot tube] is unity 2.2.2. Current Meter ‘A current meter is used to measure the velocity of flow in the channel. It consists of a wheel or revolving element on which the conical buckets of V-shaped vanes are fixed. So, the ‘curtent meters are classified, on the basis of revolving element,28 ‘Applied Hycrauls Engineering 1. Cup type current meter 2. Screw or propeller type current meter 1. Cup type current meter In this case, series of conical cups called revolving element are mounted on a spindle vertically at right angle to the direction of flow. 2. Serew or propeller type current meter In a serew or propeller type current meter, the revolving clement has of a shaft with its axis parallel to the direction of flow. It has a number of curved ‘vanes or propeller blades mounted around the periphery of the shaft. ‘The current meter unit is immersed or suspended vertically to the required depth in flowing stream of water by cables. It ‘means, the revolving element is placing to face towards the upstream direetion, Due to the dynamic thrust exerted on the wheel, itis rotated, So, the number of revolutions of the wheel por unit time is proportional to the velocity of the flowing water, Then the number of revolutions of the wheel per unit time is noted, It is further calibrated to obtain the velocity of flow of water, To count the number of revolutions of the wheel, an ‘electrical transmission system is adopted. In this, an electric current is passed to the wheel from a baitery above the water through wires and a commutator is fixed to the spindle of the revolving blades in order to make and cutoff the electric Unter Flow inch cirenit during cach revolution. Sometimes, an electric bell or a Incad phone is connected in series in the electric circuit to represent an audible signal. In some cases, ¢ revolution counter is also provided to count the number of revolutions, Counting of number of revolutions of wheel is noted by the observer using a stop watch, Then the speed of wheel is calculated from the number of revolutions. Before using calibration data to convert into velocity, the current should be calibrated experimentally, Traason eels trhdeing oe ore ston sna — } farses vee woah Figure 2.5 Current meter Calibration of current meter experimentally is done by towing the current meter at various speeds, It is earied auit still water contained in a long tank. Then the speed towing carriage is noted to obtain the rotational speet210 Applied Hydra Engiooing ‘whee Afer that, the calibration curve is drawn by plotting the rotational speed in revolution per minute versus the speed of the towing carriage in meres per second in such a way that it corresponds to the velocity of flow of water in the channel ‘This experimental calibration is done when the current meter is held stationary in the water lowing in the channel 2.2.3. Floats ‘A float is @ small object lighter than water and thus capable of floating on the water surface. It is usually made of ‘wood oF other suitable material. Floats are used to measure the velocity of flow of water in rivers and channels. It is the simplest method in measuring velocity of flow at any section using single float. The time taken by the float to traverse for the known distance is measured to compute velocity, Here, the rican velocity of flow is about 0.8 to 0.95 times the surface velocity. The approximate value of mean velocity of flow is deierm.ined from the known value ofthe surface velocity ‘A Dpolter method to determine the velocity of flow of water is doubsle float. It consists of a spherical surface float. Hollow ‘metal sphere is fitted with float, This metal sphere is heavier than water and suspended from the float by a known length The depth of the lower float is completely submerged. ‘Then the velosity is caleulated by taking the time taken by the float to traverse known distance. Now, the float measures a velocity’ equal to the mean between the velocity of the surface and the velocity ofthe layer traversed by the lower float. Untorm Flow an {a} Double oat {(b) Roa tose Figure 2.6 Float technique A rod float is sed to obtain high accuracy in velocity measurements. It consists of a vertical wooden rod kept vertically with its top end when floating. The lengt ofthe rod float should be in such way that it reaches the botiom of the stream without touching the sand, weed or mud. Sometimes, the rod floats are made telescopic to adjust nto depth of flow. ‘The rod floats travel with a velocity equal to the mean velocity offlow. 2.2.4. Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) Laser Doppler Anemometer enables the measurement of instantaneous velocity of a gas or a walled channel. It offers the nom optical methods while aff: uid lowing in a glass turbance advantages of a very precise quantitative242 ‘Applied Hydrate Engineering measurement of local flow velocity. This instrument is the ‘most recent advancement in the area of flow measurement especially measurement of high frequency turbulence fluctuations. ‘The theory of LDA is based on the principle of Doppler shift. It involves the Focusing of laser beams at the point where ‘the velocity is to be measured and then sensing with a photo detector the light scattered by thin particles carried along with ‘the fluid as it passes through the laser focal point. The velocity of particles which is assumed to be equal to the fluid velocity ‘causes Doppler shift of the frequency of the scattered light and produces a photo detector signal related to the velocity.“ Itis not necessary to insert artifical tracer particles always {to function this instrument because normally microscopic particles are present in liquids may be sufficient. However, it may become essential to insert artificial particles from outside in case of gases. It is obvious that the LDA measures the velocity of scattering particles. Under extreme conditions, particles may not perfectly follow the flow and therefore there may be errors in measurement of flow velocity. By providing smaller particles, almost accurate indication of fluid velocity, may be obtained as the slip velocity between particles and fluid Il be small. “There are two distinet approaches to explain the working of ‘an LDA. These are — Uniform Fon 219 @_ Reference beam mode, and (i) Interference fringe mode. @ Reference beam mode: In this mode, laser light is spit into two beams which are directed at the point of measurement in the field at an angle 0. The light scattered in the dircotion of reference beam is picked ‘up and photo-mixed in the Photo-Multiplier Tube (PMT) with the reference beam propagating in the same direction , as shown in figure 2.7. Laser Figure 2.7 Reference beam mode of LDA The photo multiplier tube yields a signal at the Doppler frequency. The reference beam need not traversé through the same volume, but it ean be added to the scattered beam ata Apples Hycrante Engineering! PMT. The reference beam strength is considerably smaller than that of the other beam so that scattered beam is relatively stronger and a good heterodyne signal from PMT is obtained. ‘This mode of operation can be used with advantages, when the suspension density is fairly high. Further, the alignment tolerance required for the heterodyne process is not so etitical. ‘Thus, this mode of operation is relatively easy to use. (ii) Interference fringe mode: Working principle of the interference fringe mode gives a better insight of the appearance of Doppler signal. Figure 2.8 shows the diagram of fringe mode anemometer. In this anemometer, the laser beam is split into two equal intensities, ‘such as paralle! beams with the help of two coated optical flat (called beam splitier). A lens focuses the beams at a point where the velocity of flow fluid is to be measured. The scattered beam of light moving through the fringe pattern is selectively collected by « combination of lens and the hole aperture, It is then detected by a PMT, The light intensity ‘verses time is displayed on a display deviee. In both the eases, the laser source employed is usually hhelium-neon (He-Ne) gas laser although argon ion lasers provide a more intense beam output. Lritonm Flow 248 [sve beam ean {seer Figure 28 Interference fringe mode of LDA Advantages: 1. Ttmeasures only the velocity. 2. Volume of sensing partis very smal. 3. There is no addition of physical object to avoid disturbances. 4. Ithas very high accuracy. 5, Ithasa high frequency response 6. It is used to measure both the flow of liquids and gases. Disadvantages: 1. It involves the use of transparent chaméls216 opie’ Hyeaue Engineering 2. There is no using of tracer particles to divert the light ‘beam, 3. Costs high and it has a high degree of complexity Applications: 1. Its used forthe flow between blades ofa turbine. 2, tis used fin combustion and flame phenomena in gas turbines. 4. Ibis used in Jet propulsion systems, 4, Ttis used for measuring the blood flows. 5, In remote sensing of wind velocities. 2.3.UNIFORM FLOW CALCULATIONS ‘Various formulae have been developed for calculating the mean velocity in an open channel operating under uniform conditions. The most commonly used uniformeflow formula ‘was presented by Robert Manning in 1889. This formula has almost universal acceptance and is to be used for all open channel design. 3.1. Manning's Formula Empirical Formula based on analysis of various discharge data, The formula is the most widely used. y cabeeien. 7 = oRs where “cM iscalled Manning's Roughness Coefficient. ‘Uno Flow ar + V=mean velocity of flow in m/s +m = a roughness coefficient or Manning's ‘n’ or + Rugosity coefficient (Table 2.1) © R= hydraulic radius ofthe channel exoss-setion in m WettodArea__ A WettedPerimeter P * $= Channel bed slope ’) ‘Table 2.1 indicates the representative values of Manning's “ni” (Roughness coefficient) for various types of regular channel surfaces and straight alignment, Table 2.1 Values of Manning's constant “n” Type of channel surface | Manning's “n” ‘Smooth cement 0.010-0.014 inished concrete 0.011-0.013 Unfinished concrete 0.013-0.016 Brick masonry 0.012-0.020 Cast iron 0.013-0.017 Rubble masonry 0.020-0.030 Gravel 0.022.0.035, Earth with vegetation 0.025-0,040 3.2. Hydraulic Mean Radius (R) ‘ ‘The hydraulic mean radius is a characteristic dept is defined as the cross-sectional area of flow dividate ‘Apploa Hydraute Enginwering ‘wetted perimeter of the channel. It is denoted by the symbol (e) Tapezoidat Figure 2.9 ‘The wetted perimeter (P) and hydraulic radius (R) for various cross sections are given below. (a) For rectangular open channel (refer Figure 2.9 (a), - A__by fm wetteb ovan. P6425 (b) For ciroular open channel running 290) we ©) For trapezoidal open channel (refer Figure 2.9 (6), A___y(b+my) Psayde a) 2.3.3. Bed Slope (8) The slope to be used in the Manning Equation is the slope ‘of the total energy or total head fine. Under uniform flow conditions, the slope of the total energy Tine is equal to the slope bf the channel bottom. The channel bottom slope or bed slope is denoted by the symbol S. Factors affecting Manning's roughness coefficient: ‘The following factors affecting Manning's roughness coefficients are: 1. Surface roughness Vegetation growth CChanne! irregularities Siting and scouring Stage (water surface elevation) and discharge Transport of suspended and bed material,220) RRR Anna Hyrante Engineering 2.3.4. Chezy's Formula ‘Antoine Chezy, French Engineer (1770) developed formula for uniform flow in open channel based on the following two factors: @ Force resisting the flow per unit of wetted area is proportional to the square of the velocity (i) Force causing the flow must be equal to the force of resistance. As per factor (), (Resisting force per unit wetted area is proportional to Pe Resisting force per unit wetted aca, Foe A where kis a constant Wetted area = Wetted perimeter (P) x Length (L) Resisting force, _ F=kAV? =kPLV Gi) As per factor 2, Let, W’= Weight of water between sections 1-1 and 2-2, W=AL i) ght density of water in Nlor* A= Wetted area L= Length between sections 1-1 and 2-2 224 Tee, tt ary datum) Figure 210 + Resolving HV into two components, as shown in figure 2.10, horizontal component of I =Wsind where 0 is angle of channel bed with the reference to horizontal, Substituting the value of 1” fiom equation (ii, ‘yALsin0=yALS, Because slope of channel, water surface and energy line are parallel fo each other, Hence, S=5, = §,=5 sin 0 Comparing equations (and it, ALS =kPLV?na oe ria Eno Cuyezy's Ciawhn! 74 4 : = (t¥4)s ee (a) | vy V=CiRs ‘The above is known as Chezy's equation it low resistance factor | Lo coffe amen save ry i ; ; is the hydraulic radius P 1 $= Slope of the channel bed Chezy’s resistance factor (C) is believed to be dependent upon the channel slope, hydraulic radius (R) and Manning's roughness coefficient (1). ‘The Chezy's and Manning's formulae are based on extensive experimental investigations and those are universal accepted. 2.3.5. Empirical Equations for Cheyz's Constant ‘The constant C in Chezy’s formula depends upon the Renolds number, elative roughness of the surface and slope of channel eross-section. Some of the relations for Chezy's ‘constant are given below. Pato B60 _ Ya) Bazin’s formula: hers constant, 157.6 K 181+ AR where, is the Bazin's constant whose value depends upon the roughness of channel surface. Table 2.2 shows the value of constant for diferent surface conditions Table 2.2 Values of Baztn'constant 7 Channel surface ype Value of k T. | Smooth cement plaster or planed | 0.109 wood. 2 | Concrete, good brick worker | 0.210 unplanned wood surface 3. | Smooth brick, stone or wood work. | 0.290 4. | Dinty brick, stone or wood work. os 5. | Ban of very good surface. Lst 6. | Barth of ordinary surfice 235 7,_ | Barth of very rough surface, 317 | (6) Kutter’s formula: ~~ cheay’s constant, C=224 ‘Applod Hycaute Engineering where, N is Kutter’s constant whose value depends upon the surface roughness of the channel as given in table 2.2 Table 22 ‘Sh a Type of channel surface Value of N T. | Smooth cement plasier or planed wood | 0.010 2. | Cement plaster with one third sand oon 3. | Pipes of iron, steel cement or terricotton | 0.011 4. | Unplaned timber, new brick 0.012 5. | Barth of very good surface 0.018 6. | Earth of good surface 0.020 7. | Natural earth 0.025 8, | Canal and river of rough surface 0.030 (6) Cheey" constant from Manning's formula: 1 Re SJ cree consuct, oa momnge cake |, 24-MOST ECONOMICAL GROSS-SECTIONS OF CHANNEL, ‘The most economical cross-section of a channel is one which gives the maximum discharge with a constant cross section. From the continuity equation, it is elear that discharge is maximum when velocity is maximum, the cross-sectional area of channel remaining constant. The velocity is maximum, when the wetted perimeter P is minimum as the resistance to “Unitorm Fiowr 2.26 flow decreases. Condition for maximum discharge for most common shapes is described below. 1 Most Economical Rectangular Section Consider a rectangular cross section of breadth & and depth y ,as shown in figure 2.11 Figure 2.11 Area of flow, A= xy ‘Wetted perimeter, P=b+2, As already stated, the discharge is maximum when the ‘wetted perimeter P is minimum. The depth of @ channel which ‘equated to zero.Hydraulic radius, Substituting, a Hence, the most economical eross section of a rectangular channel giving maximum discharge would be when (@ Depth of eross section is half the width or (b) Hydraulic radius is half the depth. 2.4.2. Most economical trapezoidal section From the Figure 2.12, Weha weid a-{blban hy A 2 A=b+m)y —= () ay Unitore Fow : ae Figure 2.12 Wetted perimeter, P=b+2y fm? +1 my sana ‘The value of wetted perimeter depends upon the value of 'm and y. Minimization of wetted perimeter for maximum discharge is obtained by the following conditions. ap. ; 1 Fao and Gi) Tmo (i) Differentiating P with respect to y by keeping A and m 4s constant and equating it to zero, a _oA m+ 2m? +1=0 Im 1—m meee (2) Substituting equations (1) in equation 2), € rbsm) 2 in? ci —m ©Dem + mo Ine 7 Se Ta «. Half the top width = Length of the sloping side of cross os ‘The second derivative of P with respect to ‘y* a trad a {is positive, hence, the condition obtained is for pot. b+m)y OP Say dm ‘Substituting 2y ./m? +1=6+2my for maximum discharge pelbtmdy O+mm)y_y b4b+2my Bo+my)® 2 i.e., hydraulic radius is half the flow depth for maximum discharge. Ths condion is applied when the side slope is fixed. ‘minimum P. Hydraulic radius, i) Differentiating P with respect to m by keeping 4 and y as stant and equating it to zero. eas + Shen Hence, the best slope is at 60° to the horizontal substituting the value of “7 ‘equation (1) and then the result in wetted perimeter equation > We get P= 36 7230 © SR HyerauteErghnoerng torn Ftow 233 ‘Two conditions are used for most economical circular in20 fas o(t-soe20)-[o- =o section: a - Condition for maximum velocity of cireular sect si ple Condi ty of circular section 0-0¢0s20-0 +5209 As per Chezy's formula, ¥ =CVRS- Velocity is directly proportional to hyraulic radius *R'. Beos2p= S028 The velocity of flow through a circular channel will be ‘maximum when hydraulic radius “R’ is maximam and keeping tani 28, Cand Sas constants, Solving this equation by trial and error method, Differentiating (k = 41) with respect to 0 and equating the ieee . f = 12845" derivate to zero. ne a A)_ (a 4) (#4) 4 of water, =roreos0 =r FOLGE ee eee arieer a ® | =r(1~cost28.45°) = 1.62r=0.81d Hydraulic radius, & aa a +, 20[-? (1-c0s20))-r? le fae sin2128°45 2x 2247 2° o(-cos20)-2°(0—294 Applies Hycrautc Engineering 7 Re 06lir= 03d where, d= Diameter of the circular channel, For maximum velocity of cireular section: a Depth of flow is 0.81 times the diameter of the circular channel. », Hydraulic radius is equal to 0.3times the diameter of | channel, cc. Angle subtended by water surface from the centre, 28= 25730", 2. Condition for maximum discharge of circular section We know that discharge = AC Yt (a, ? a, nac 4 A \is ditferentiated. P ‘To obtain maximum discharge condition, ‘With respect to 0 and equate the derivative to zero. FES P rs n(s)-0 2 ran (a ef Mullin both sides of the above equation by P* and dividing by A’, & (8-0 or 3o(4)-() sg peace gece at a equation 321040? (-con28)=r* (0-222 ay 30 (1-c0s20)=6-: ne 30-3005 20=8 ~ ine 29-300829.-5822 9 Solving this equation by tal and eror method, we get a= 158 yar (1 ~cos6) =P (1 ~cost$4) = 1.9" = 095d ‘Thus, for maximum discharge through a circular channel, the depth of flow equals 0.95 times the channel diameter. Substituting the value of @ in hydraulic mean depth equation, we get Depth of flow, z m=0smr~oasd238 “Aeplied Hyeravle Engineering ‘Thus maximum discharge is obtained when the hydraulic ‘mean depth is 0.29 times the channel diameter. For maximum discharge of eireular section: 4, Depth of flow is 0.95 times the diameter of the cicular channel. b, Hydraulic radius is equal to 0.286 times the diameter of channel, c. Angle subtended by water surface from the centre, 28= 308°, “Thus, maximum discharge is obtained when the hydraulic radius is 0.29 times the channel diameter. 2.5.NON-ERODIBLE CHANNELS Channels which are constructed from materials, such as cconerete, masonry and metal ean withstand erosion under all including most extreme conditions are called as non-erodile sections. ‘All non-erodible channels are to be designed on the basis, cof uniform open channel flow. ‘The following factors considered while designing the non crodible channels are: (@ Manning's constant ‘n’ value ofthe material (©) Channel slope (© Free board Writer Flow = 237 ‘Stricker formula is used to determine Manning’s constant ‘n’ in non-erodible channels seal Y where, d= Particle size diameter in m, 2.6.1. Maximum Permissible Velocities Suggested maximum permissible channel velocities (Adapted from US Army Corps of Engineers) are given in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Maximum permissible channel velocities Channel surface materials Vann (by Fine sand nr Coarse and 12 Fine gavel 13 Sandy sie a) Silvelay 10 Cay is Seaimentary rook 30 Soft sandstone ZA sani | Soft siate T= | Taneous or hard metamorphic rock 30 2.8.2. Free Board ‘The free board to the top of the channel lining shall be at least 75mm and the free board to the top of the channel238 ‘Appl Hycraute Engineering ‘embankment shall be at Least 300mm or 0.2 times depth of flow (0) whichever is larger , as shown in figure 2.14. re 00mm, Figure 214 2.6,SOLVED PROBLEMS ON UNIFORM FLOW Problem 4 - Determine the rate of flow through a 2m wide concrete lined rectangular channel having a slope of 1 in 12,000 when the depth of flow is 1.20m. Take Manning's n= 0.012. Width of channel, = 2m Slope, S= 1 in 12000= 1/12000 Manning's constant, = 0.012 Solution: Areaofflow, A= dyy=2n1.2= 24? Wetted perimeter, P= b+2y=242%1.2) "4.4m Union Flow 2 239 Hydraulic mean radius, ___ Wettedarea Weited perimeter rom Manning’s formula, velocity, =24x0.51 = 123m Ans ws Problem 2 A rectangular channel of 2m deep and 8m wide is running full of water. The slope of the bed of the channel is 1 ‘in 950. Take Chexy's constant as $0. Calculate the discharge through the channel, Given data: Depth of flow, y = 2m Width of channel, 6 = Sm Slope,.S= 1 in 950= 1/950 Cheay’s constant, C= 50 ® Solution: ‘Area ofthe channel, d= xy=2 8 16m240 Aol Hjcrae Bgineeting Wetted perimeter, P=6+2y=8+2x2= 12m Hydraulic radius, R=4=18-1.333m P12 2n| Figure 2.15 «. Discharge trough the channel, A Qe Ani =ACNTS =16%50 1.333555 Q=2991m's Ansa y Problem 3 A triangular gutter, whose sides include an angle of 120° conveys water at a uniform depth of 0.8m. If the discharge is 2.3m’, caleulate the slope of the bed. Use the chezy's formula assuming that C= 55.) = Given data: *% Depth, = 0.801 Discharge, Q= 2.3m" Urilorm Flower Chezy’s constant, C= 55 © Solution: Figure 2.16 Length of sloping si ‘Top width, AB™ 2x1.10=2.20m 1 2 Area of flow, x ABCD =!naan0sn ost Weep, PAD D=136-136=272m Hydraulic radius, 318m Using Chezy’s formula,242 ‘Applied Hydra Enainoering 2.35 0.88x55x f0318xS 10107 1 140.80 Bed slope, Hence, required bed slope is 1 in 140.80 Ans Problem 4 DF san eneth chev be ek cn tte slp in Y 1 carries water with a depth of 1.0m. The bed slope is 1 in 700. Celulate the discharge, the value of Cn the Cheq's formula be 52. Given data: Width, b= 3m Side slope = 2 to 1 (.e. one vertical and two horizontal) Depth, y= 1.0m Bed slope, $= 1 in 700= 75 Unitorm Foe ee 243, Chezy’s constant, © Solution: Side slope Horizontal : Vertical=2 to 1=2:1 m=? Area of flow, A=ytm) =1G+2x1)= Sm? ‘Wetted perimeter, P=b+2y Jor +1 34212 H1=7.47m Hydrauli radius, Discharge, Q=AxV= ACYRS Q=8.16miisec Ans foblem 5 Pan Apt? me 7 Calculate the discharge of water in such a channel javing semicircular bottom of 1.4m diameter and the two ides as vertical when the depth of flow is 1.4m. Take Cheey’s mustant as $8 and slope of the bed as 1 in 800. Ki WW .ances HORAN rau nanaeng Given data Refer Figure 2.18. For geometry, 1 . =1 in 800= Slope of bed, S= 1 in 800= 5 Chezy's constant, C= 58 1am roe 07m jo7m Figure 2.18 © Solution: ‘Area of flow, A= Area of ABCD + Area of CDE = (4x07) 4{ex07') = 115m? ‘Wetted perimeter, P= Length (C+ CED + BD) 0.7 (x 0.7) + 0.7 = 3.6m Hydraulic radius, R 1486m P36 Discharge, Q=AxV =AC VRS Problem 819 Caleulate the Chezy's constant for a trapezoidal section channel of bottom width 2m and side slope 1:1, if it carries Sms ata bed slope of Lin 950 and depth of 1.3m. Figure 2.19 Given data: Width, b= 2m Depth, y= 1.30m Side slope = 1:1 Discharge, O= Sm''s Slope of bed, S=1 in 950= 1/950 © Solution: Atea of flow, A = y (b+ my) =13@+1x13) =4.29nF246 é Se rpioa Haute Engineering Wetted perimeter, P=b-+2yfm" +1 =24 2013x1741 = 5.67Im 4242 —0755m Hydraulic radius, R=4. P3677 Weknow that Q= Ax? =ACVRS =4.29%C% 0.75555 c= 4134 Ans = Problem 7 - Zz Orin te ate flow through a 025m vide rectangr flume having a slope of 5 in 10000 when the depth of flow is ash ~@.4m. Take Basin’s constant, Given dat Width, = 0.25 Depth, y= 0.4m Slope of bed, Basins constant, k= 1.54 @ Solution: Areaofflow, — 4=bxy=0.25 x04 = 0.1m? Wetted perimeter, P= 0.4 + 0.25 + 0.4= 1.05m Unto Flow ar ; A_ Od Hydraulie radius, R = =T == 0.0982 CChezys constant by using Bazin’s formula ca 1576 Discharge, Q=Ax = ACVES =0.123.176x 0.0952: T0000 = 0.016m''s An oo Problem 8 An irrigation channel of tapecoida section has bed idih of 2.5m and bed slope of 1 in 1200, Ifthe depth of flow is 1.2m and the side slopes af the channel are two horizontal and one vertical, determine the coverage flow velocity and the discharge caried by the channel, Use Kutter's formula ith N= a027, Given data: Width, b= 2.5m Slope of bed, S= 1 in 1200~ 1/1200248, Depth of flow,, Side slope = 2:1 (Two horizontal: One vertical) Kutter’s constant, N= 0.027 © Solution: Side slope = m horizontal : 1 vertical = 2: m=2 Areaofflow, A=y(b+my) =12@542%12) Wetted perimeter, P=b+2y,{m* +1 2542x1242 + 7.866 Hydraulic radius, 866 Kutters formula for Chezy’s coefficient Cis 734. 0.00155 rf 23, 0015 i200 * 0.027 Unter Flow Flow velocity, T 34.96% 0.747%. 1200 872mis An oo Discharge, Q= xv 5.88 x 0.872=5.13m'isAns oblem 9 SE A conerete liner circular channel of diameter 2.6m has a bed slope of 1 in 600, Caleulate the discharge through the ‘pipe, if the depth of water in the pipe is 2m. Use Manning's formula with n as 0.012, Given data: Diameter of pipe, d= 2.6m 1 Slope of bed, S=1 in 600 = sa 300, Depth of water, y=2 ‘Manning's constant, © Solution: From the de ivation of most economical cross section of a cireular channel, depth of flow (\-c0s0) 30% (I-cos6) 1012280 a Applied Hycrautic Engineering 153=(1-cos6) 538 0 -c08""(-0.538)= 13620° 28 = 2x136.20° 272.40° get (Pips E29 ‘Area of flow, Wetted perimeter, P=2r0 x = 2x 13 x 136.2% = 6.18m 2x 13x 1362% oF ton Flow She 201 Manning's formula =286n's Discharge, Q=Ax 7= 4.78%2.86 O=136m% Ans Problem 10 Determine the most economical cross-section of a rectangular channel to convey 6m‘/s of water with an average velocity of 2.5m. The value of C in Chesy’s equation is 60. Given data: Discharge, Q = 6m/s Velocity, '=2.5mls Chezy constant, C= 60 © Solution: : We know that, for most economical cross section of rectangular channel,Baie: pee a b=2y and R: Areaof flow, A=bx y= 2yxy=23? Dischage, Q=Ax¥=27 6= 2x x25 y= 10988 Ans = Breadth, b= 2y=2 1.0954=2.19m Ans ‘Hydraulic radius, 8 sam 2 From Chezy’s formula, vecvRS 2.5=60% f05477%S 5=3.1698x107 =—+ ISAT ‘Thus, the channel is to be 2.19 wide, 1.094 deep and bed slope 1/318.47. Ans a Bron i: ARE A trapezoidal channel having side slopes of 1:15 and bed slope of I in 700 carries a discharge of 8s. Find the width ‘at base and depth of flow for most economical cross section. Take C= 62. Unter RoW ate nemo Given data: Side slope Bed slope, Discharge, © Solution: =1:1Sie,m=15 $= 1 in 700= 1/700 Q= 8nils chiamscte We know that for most economical trapezoidal cross section, From first Sean fle?) and condition bad) FH bm 3 b+ 3y=3.605y {605y — 3y = 0.605, Aresofflow, A=y(b-+my) Discharge, Rok 2 8=2.105y? x62x, vn 0.06128»? [2 1400 oP xy! 0.0067 #98 « 0.40267 " y= 1.3936m Ans ‘284 . “Aoplied Hycraule Engineering Base width, b = 0.605y = 0.605 x 1.3936=0.844m Ans = Problem 12 é a QD design an earthen trapezoidal channel for water having «a velocity of 0.85ms side slope of the channel is 1:1 and the ‘quantity of water flowing is 4n's. Assume C in Che's ‘formuta a5 65. Given date: Velocity, = 0.85mi Side slope = 1:1 +. m= 1 Discharge, = 4m'/s ‘Chezys constant, C= 65 @ Solution: For design, the most economical trapezoidal section is used. A necessary condition for optimum discharge through a ‘trapezoidal channel is Im? #1 yyPai b+ 2my 2 ba dulxy eee b+2y=2.8284y \8284y = Area of flow, 4 2 Unio Fw - An=y+m) 4.706 = 9 (0.8284y-+ (1 xy)] 4.706 = 1.8284)" Depth, Y= 160m Ans Base width, 60.8284) = 0.8984 « 1.60 = 1325 Ans m=1, ye depth of water {b= bottom width of channel ‘alton Fou sees 268 eri) -{tet2) 6 nya? Viny=bey W2xy)- 0414y=0.56 Hydraulic radius, Area, From Chezy’s equation, Q=Axv Q=ACVRS 10=(6-+1%1.2075)x 60% 10=2.207b x 603.7710" b = 2.57bvb 237 Width of channel, 6=(3.89)3=2.47m Ans Depth of flow, 2075 = 1.207°2.47 =2.985m Ans st264 Applied Hycraalie Engineering Problem3 = ‘ The rate of flow of water through a circular channel of diameter 0.6m is 0.15cumecs. Determine the slope of the bed of the channel for maximum velocity. Assume Chezy's ‘constant C as 60. [May'09} te of flow = 0.1Seumees = 0.15m°/s D=Diameter of channel = 0.6m C= Chery's constant = 60 © Solution: From condition for maximum velocity, «d= depth of low=0.81D R= Hydraulic radius = 03D = 0.320. 20= Angle subtended by water surface atthe centre S730 = 12845" = 128%4s'« 2 =2.247 radi i80 -_ From Chezy's equation, VRS Velocity, V where, S= Slope of channel, Unite Frode 2 am (aan seer) = 0.237? ya2 ts 5 0.33=60/0.18%S 0.33 = a =V0.18«S) Velocity, 33m/s Squaring on both the sides, 55x10” =0.03248 Problema” A rectangular channel 3.5m wide is laid on a slope of 0.0005. Calculate the normal depth of flow for a discharge of Sw. The Manning's coefcientis 0.02. ¢ © [Nov'08]Bee Given data: Channel slope, $= 0.000% Discharge, Q= Sm’/s ‘Manning's coefficient, » = 0.02 ‘Width of channel, ® Solution: =3.5m From Manning's formula, vatads where R= Hydraulic radius AL bey P +29) 65423) Discharge, @ ae 35y = AK eee oe “A” bey 359 oul 0.02 Ble val 35y +2y, } 1 2000, } ni = 208 ‘Taking power 3/2 on both the sides, 3 Rf 3sy 1276? = yi 357 | Gee} 144G.5429)= 9? 3.59 5.05 42.88) =3.5y? 5.04+2,88y =3.5y? 5.04 =3.5y? ~2.88y, By trial and error method Normal depth of water, y=1.48m = Ans Problem 5 A lined rectangular channel with Manning's ‘n’ = 0.015 1s Sm wide and has a flow depth of 2m with a bed slope of in 1600, Retaining the rectangular shape of channel section and sume total area oftning, to what extent can discharge be increased without changing the slope? 1Nov'es} Given data: Width of channel, = Sm Depth of low, y= 2m 1 1600 Se Manning's coefficient: = 015 Channel slope, 8:26058 <2 Alea Hvala Engineedna! © Solution: P= Wetted perimeter= +2) = 54(2%2) =9m -Weedaet =by 52° 10m 410 yore 410 reroatensin= 41 From Manning’s formula, yetais! 1 af} js] —— | =1.79m/s amt (aa) Pm Discharge, Q= AxV =10x1.79= 179m For maximum discharge for a given area, slope of channel and Manning's constant are same. b= new width of channel 91 = new depth of flow For maximum discharge condition, Bay" ‘Uniform Flows 7 PRE A y!=¥S=2.04m B =2y 22.24 = 448m An andy = 2.24m ‘New dimensions of the channel are P = Wetted perimeter = b'42)' = 4.48 + (252.24) » 8.96m R= Hydraulic radius = 4 =! 21.116m P 896 Maxim dciepe= 2s) wofeageti( =17.93m'ls Increase in discharge = 17.93 -17.9 What diameter of a semicircular channel will have the same discharge as a rectangular channel of width 2.5m and depth 1.5m? Assume the bed slope and Manning's ‘n’ are the same for both the channels. [May"08} Given data: g ‘Width of rectangular channel, 6 = 2,50marom 2a Apple dae gina Depth of rectangular chanel, y= 150m ', (Bed slope for bal channels are equal) © Solutio r= Area of rectangular uannel = by = 2.51.5 = 3.Tin? = Perimeter of retaglar channel bi2y= 2.54Q2x1.5)-5.5m 318 2, Hydrntie radi te a : xD y= Area of semicireu channel = = D Perimeter of senicicular channel = =P ei - tjetcnan _D. t= Hydraulic rdivy= 4-8-2 Reo Hyduli rai == 7 2 Discharge of rectangular channel = Discharge of semicircular channel Si anti ‘Uniform Flow 3 pons} =221/0)8g) a.sxh oss? <2 (2) 8 2.90 = Problom 7) es A canal is formed with side slopes 2:1 and a bottom wit f Sm. Th bed lope is in 4500 Using Meigs formula and assuming Manning's ‘n’ as 0.025, calculate the dept of water fora discharge of ims fora uniform flow Given data: [May*08] 1 Figure 2.23272 © 5 Apinlied Haydraiaie Engineering 1 500 Manning's coefficient, n= 0.025 Discharge, Q= 3n'ls Side slope = 247: 1 Bottom width, © Solution: Channel slope, A=(bemx yy + 2y)y=3y+2y" Perimeter, P=b+2ylo" +1 =342yV2? +153 44.47y A_3y+2y" sean Re fom Maing fm araala’s! 3=(y+2y? 1 1 bose) +447) 5(4500)1 = year +447) 503=() +29") (44.47y)! x5.03-(y+29*) By trial and error method, y= 1.165m Anse Problem 8 ORE % A circular sewer 0.6m inside diameter has a slope of 1 in 400. Find the depth when the discharge is 0.283m's. Take Cheyy’s constant C= 50. [Nov'07] Given data: Diameter, D= 0.6m 1 Channel slope, S= 55 Discharge, Q=0.283m°/s Chezy’s constant, C= Perimeter, P= 2/8 + Re Hydraulic radius A_r(,_sin20 Pate)274s Apa Hyeraute Enginesting nati tame = 22 030m where, or ischange, Q= AxV = ACJRS (0-282) iz (0-228) oass- 030 #228). soxons Blo 2) 028: s25.6-(0-2222) By tril and error method, 9= 160.25" Depthofflow, y= R~Reos® = 0.3 ~(0.3e0s 160.25") = 0.582m Ans = ‘Problem 9)" & A trapezoidal channel bottom width 3m, side slope 1.SH: IV carries discharge of 10m'/s at a depth of 1.5m under uniform flow condition. The longitudinal slope of the channel is 0.001. Calculate the Manning’s roughness coefficient of the channel. [May'07] Given data: 5m ry Figure 2.24 Discharge, Q=10n'/s Bea slope ofthe channel, $= 0.001 == y= Depth of water= 1.50 = Bottom width = 3m ‘n= Manning’s roughness coefficient Side slope of channel = 1.5: 1 = 1.SH:1V m= 15 © Solution: Wettedares, A= (¢+mxy)y = (4 (15x1.5)1.5<7.879m? Wetted perimeter, P = b+ 2yv/m? +1 P=3+2x15VL5? +1=8.408m276 Aoplied Hyereuse Engineeing A_ 1875 Hydraulic radius = 4 = 775 «9 937 _ P 8.406 From Manning’s formula, Q=AV = AL RS? leper afe =78752x(0937)i( i n 9 » a 1 0238 10 u Manning’s constant, 1 = 0.0238 Ans Problem10 Te. A circular pipe diameter 600mm carries discharge 0.2m'/ will flow half full. Determine the slope of the pipe to be laid in the ground. Assume Manning's n = 0.013 for concrete pipe. Also determine the depth of flow, if the pipe is laid in slope of 0.01. [May'07] Given data: Diameter of channel, D = 600mm = 0.6m Radius, 13m 2 n= Manning's roughness coefficient = 0.013, Q harge = 0.2nPIs, Uniform Flow x \ ee Figure 2.25 © Solution Ja) Wetted area, eo 0.20=0.14% aa O49'S 020=3.04% 7 S? =0.065 amrBBE -Apolioa Hyeraule Englnderingy ‘Squaring on both sides, = 4328x107 =) $24,328 - 1 () Slope of bed, S=001=—55 4 Aven dar(0 y Perimeter, P= 2 4lr Re Hydraulic radius = 4= {6 a) en ras (ale- 22 Gs) ‘Unto Flow santxa? -(0- By trial and error method, a= 104.31" Depth of flow, y= R— Ros 3-(0.3cos 104.31") \374m Ans Problem 11 pS Te Seep erie ae A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 6m and side slopes 2H to 1V is laid in a bottom slope of 0.0016. If it carries a uniform flow of water at the rate of 10m, compute the normal depth and the mean velocity of flow. Take Manning's ‘n’ as 0.025. [Nov'06] Given data: ly wv 2A om Figure 2.26 Bottom width, b= 6m a7 Side slope of channel = 2H: 1VBeow rene: Bed slope of the channel, $= 0.001 Discharge, Q = 10m'/s “Manning's roughness coefficient, n = 0.025 © Solution: Wetted area, A=(b+mxy)y =(+Qxs)xy=6+29)y Wetted perimeter, P= 6+ 2pm? +1 264227 +1 =6+ (292.23) =644.47y R= Hydraulic radius, A_(6+2y)y P6+4a1y From Manning's formula, oaavaataist 1 (622) (1) 10= 6+ 29x55 (S22) (as) sonran 20h fovaaryp tH: sik te % zen 6.25x {64 447y}3 = (642y)9}3 625% {644.479}; ~ (6+2y))}f <0 By trial and error method, Normal depth, Ans Wetted area, A= (64+20.962)x 0.962 =7.62m? Mean velocity, Aus a Pepenta amet ~ A concrete lined trapezoidal channel (n= 0. O15) is to Dee eras saat tr Bip Vi alec ance 006 Pld ie eto wi of te chee eta carry 10m’ss of discharge at a normal depth of 2.5m. Given data: ([May’06] 1 Bed slope of the channel, S=0,0004=— slope wannel 5 ‘7 Manning's roughness coefficient = 0,015 b= Bottom width Side slope of channel = 1H: 1V m= Discharge, = 10m, Normal depth, y= 2.5mZeger yerRaNe EnghioarAg! © Solution: Wetted area, A=(b+mxy)y (6+ (25))x2.5 =(256+625) Wetted perimeter, P=b-+ 2m +1 pensbaasndieT}ab+707 R= Hyéraulic radius, ‘A _ (0564625) Po (+707 From Manning’s formula, iL Ris? sevens)? ( i y G707) Q=4V=4 10=(25+625)x 1 dois (2.56+625)3 (+707): 333% 75x(6+7.07)i =(2.56+6.23)8 75x(6+7.07)s -(2.56 +625): =0 Dy til and error method, Bottom width, 6=0.S13m Ans > }) open channels? ‘Unie row SMES ER 288 2.8. TWO MARKS QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 1. Define uniform flow. Give examples. Uniform jtow is a fluid flow in which the velocity of any given instant does not change both in magnitude and jirection with respect to space. Mathematically, e* : = Open channel flow with constant depth of water + Flow through uniform diameter pipes. 2. What are the instruments used for measuring velocity in ‘[May’06, May'07, May'08 & May'09} Velocity of flow is measured by various instruments such as Pitot tube, current meter, hot wire anemometer, floats and Laser Doppler velocimetry 3. Differentiate pitot tube and pitot static ube, St. Pitot tube No. Pitot static tube 1. | Pitot tube gives kinetic Pitot static tube is an head of moving liquid. | instrument which records static pressure and stagnation pressure combined together.208: ‘Apoloa yralie Engineoring sea 2. | Tthas simple glass bent | It contains two tubes tube, attached with manometric | arrangement. How can current meter be classified? ‘Current meters are classified, on the basis of revolving, clement, as 1. Cup type current meter 2. Serew or propeller type current meter What is cup pe current meter? In this type, series of conical cups called revolving. element are mounted on a spindle vertically at right angle to the direction of flow. i. What is screw or propeller type current meter? In a screw or propeller type current’ meter, the revolving element has of a shaft with its axis parallel tothe direction of flow. it has a number of curved vanes ot propeller blades mounted around the periphery of the shaft 7. What i the working principle of float as a velocity measuring device? It is operated on the principle that the time taken by the float to traverse for the known distance is measured to ‘compute velocity. Here, the mean velocity of flow is about 08 to 0.95 times the surface velocity. The approximate value of mean velocity of flow is determined from the ‘Uniti Few 2 COREA BSA 9 known value of the surface velocity. Floats are used to measure the velocity of flow of water in rivers and channels, Explain the principle of working of Laser Doppler Anemometer. Laser Doppler Ancmometer is based on the principle ‘of Doppler shift. It involves the focusing of laser beams at the point where the velocity is to be measured and then sensing with a photo detector the light scattered by thin Particles carried along with the fluid as it passes through the laser focal point. The velocity of particles which is assumed to be equal 10 the fluid velocity causes a Doppler shift of the frequency of the scattered fight and produces a ‘Photo detector signal related o the velocity. What are the pros and cons of Laser Doppler Anemometer? Advantages: 1. Hmeasures only the velocity ‘Volume of sensing partis very small ‘There is no addition of physical object to avoid disturbances, 4. Tehas very high accuracy. $. thas a high frequency response. 6, It is used to measure both the flow of liquids and gases.280 ‘Apollon Hycrautc Engineering: Disadvantages: 1. Itinvolves the use of transparent channels. 2. ‘There is no using of tracer particles to divert the light eam, 3. Cost is high and it has a high degree of complexity. 10, Give some applications of Laser Doppler Anemometer. 1 Tis used for the flow between blades ofa turbine 2. It is used fin combustion and flame phenomena in gas turbines. 3. Ibis used in Jet propulsion systems, 4, Ttis used for measuring the blood flows. 5. In remote sensing of wind velocities. IL Write down the Manning's formula for determining velocity of flow in an open channel. vn Lpingin where ‘nis called Mannings Roughness Coefficient. = mean velocity of low in m/s n= aroughnes coeficient or Manning's‘ R= hydraulic radius ofthe channel in m ‘S=Channel bed slope Unita Flow G2aiceenan 2 List the factors affecting Manning's roughness coefficient. [Now's] ‘The following factors affecting Manning's roughness coefficients are: 1, Surface roughness 2. Vegetation growth 3. Channel irregularities 4. Sitting and scouring 5. Stage (water surface elevation) and discharue 6. Transport of suspended and bed material 13. Write down the Chezy’s formula for determining velocity of flow in an open channel, vec\Rs whe fies 1-4 iter Shee be hel ed 14, What are the empirical equations used for Chezy’s constant calculations? Some of the relations for Chezy's constant are given below:2.880% “ + + Applied Hydraiilic Engineering (@) Bazin’s formula: Chen's ena, CoS ae where, kis the Bazin’s constant (@) Kutter's formuta: ‘Chezy’s constant, C=———~"——__* vs ‘where, Nis Kutter’s constant (©) Manning's formula: Chezy’s constant, C= > 8" 15, Define hydraulic mean radius. 16. What are the factors considered for the derivation of Chezy’s equation? (®) Forve resisting the flow per unit of wetted area is ‘proportional to the square of the velo Gi) Force causing the flow must be equal to the force of resistance, Union From ne ee) 17, What is meant by most economical seetion? INov'08 & May'07) OR What isthe significance of most economical section? [Nov"06] ‘The most economical cross-section of a channel is one Which gives the maximum discharge with a constant cross section, 418 What is the condition for most economical rectangular channel seetion? Hence, the most economical cross section of a rectangular channel giving maximum discharge would be when (@) Depth of cross section is half of the width (y = /2) or (b) Hydraulic radius is half the depth (R = 2). 19. On what condition most economical trapezoidal channel section is derived? [May’06, May'07 & May’09] V{L_The most economical section ofa trapezoidal channel (@) Sloping side of cross section is equal to half the top width (b) Angle of channel sides make with horizontal is 60o. g (©) Hydraulic radius is equal to half the depth of Watermini 20. What are the condition for obtaining most economical circular channel section for maximum velocity and discharge? @. Condition for maximum velocity of circular section @. Depth of flow is 0.81 times the diameter of the cireular channel. i). Hydraulic radius is equal fo O.3times the diameter of channel. ‘Angle subtended by water surface from the centre, 20= 25730". ‘6. Condition for maximum discharge of circular section (i). Depth of flow is 0.95 times the diameter of the cirvular channel (i, Hydraulic radius is equal 0 0.286 times the diameter of channel. il) Angle subtended by water surfice from the centre, 20 = 308°, 21.Show that maximisation of discharge required minimisation of the wetted perimeter of the channel for a siven rea offlow. [May’10} For a given channel slope, roughness coeficent and area of flow, the maximum discharge of channel is biained when the wetted perimeter i minimum, tein, Darwen, 2 ODT TR IS IS NET, If second derivative of P is positive, the condition of minimum P is obtained. 22, Define non-erodible channels, ‘Channels which are constructed from materials, such as concrete, masority and metal can withstand erosion under all including most extreme conditions are called as non-erodible sections, 23. What are the factors considered while designing non- erodible channels? The following factors considered while designing the nnon-erodible channels are: (@ Manning's constant ‘n’ value of the material (b) Channel slope (©) Free board 24. How Stickler equation can be used to calculate roughness coefficient? Stricker formula is used to determine Manning's ‘constant ‘n’ in non-erodible channels 1.0380" where, d = Particle size diameter in m, 2.9, REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. With the aid of neat sketches, explain uniform and none uniform flow. Give examples for each of the2g 10. 1 ~Abplca Hyatake Engineering? Explain in detail any one of the velocity measuring devices. ‘What are the different types of Pitot tubes and explain them in dotail with diagrams? Derive an expression of velocity of flow for Pitot tube from basic Bernoulli's equation. ‘What is meant by current meter? Explain various types of current meter using sketches. Explain with the neat sketch how the floats are used to measure velocity of flow. What is Laser Doppler Anemometer? Explain the two different approaches of working of Laser Doppler ‘Anemometer. Also give advantages, disadvantages and applications of Using annotated diagrams, explain the expression of hhydraulie mean radius for rectangular, trapezoidal and citeular sections. Derive Chezy"s formula to determine the velocity of flow in open channels. [Anna Univ. - May'09 & Nov'07] Derive the condition for hydraulic mean radius of most economical rectangular section. ‘Show that for a trapezoidal channel of given area of flow, ‘the condition for maximum flow requires that hydraulic ‘ean depth is equal to one half the depth of flow. [anna Univ. - Nov'07) rt FLOWS SP RIE 203 12, Define most economical section in open channel and obtain the relation fora trapezoidal channel [Anna Univ, - May’06] 13. Prove that for the most economical trapezoidal section of channel: (sloping side of cross section is equal to half the top width; (i) angle of channel sides make with horizontal is 60°; (Gi) hydraulic radius is equal to half the depth of water. 14, Derive the expressions for the most economical depths of flow of water in terms of the diameter of the channel of circular eross section: (@ Formaximum velocit Gi) For maximum discharge. [Anna Univ. May'10) 15, Prove that for the maximum discharge in a circular channel, the depth of flow is equal 10 0.95 times the diameter of the channel. [Anna Univ. - Nov'06] 2.40.PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1. A rectangular channel of 1 m deep and 3 m wide is running full of water. The slope of the bed of the channel is 1 in 750, Take Chezy's constant as 58. Calculate the discharge through the channel‘os cmene Oanna ea aTCeAA 2. A triangular sewer whose sides include an angle of 110° conveys water at a uniform depth of 0.5m, Ifthe discharge is 1.8 m/s, caleulate the slope of the bed, Use the Chezy’s formula assuming that C= 52. 3. An earth channel with a base 2.5 m wide and side slope 1.5 to carries water with a depth of 1.2 m. The bed slope is 1 in 820. Caleulate the discharge, if the value of C in the ‘Chezy's formula be 50. 4, Caleulate the discharge of water in such a channel having semicircular bottom of 2 m diameter and the two sides as vertical when the depth of flow is 2.4 m. Take Chezy's constant as 55 and slope of the bed as 1 in 850. 5. Find the rate of flow through a 0.32 m wide rectangular flume having a slope of 2 in 4000 when the depth of flow is, (0.5 m. Take Basin’s constant, K= 1.6. 6 An irrigation channel of trapezoidal section has bed width of ¢ m and bed slope of 1 in 900. If the depth of flow is 0.8m and the side slopes of the channel are two horizontal and one vertical, determine the coverage flow velocity and the discharge carried by the channel, Use Kutter’s formula with N= 0.03. 7. A concrete line circular channel of diameter 2 m has a bed slope of 1 in 750, Calculate the discharge through the pipe, if the depth of water in the pipe is 1.2 m. Use Manning's formula with n as 0.015, CNET EERE RIEL AE SELL 8. Design an earthen trapezoidal channel for water having a velocity of 0.95m!s side slope of the channel is 1.5:1 and ‘the quantity of water flowing is 4.8 m/s, Assume C in Chezy's formula as 55. 9. A conerete lined circular channel of diameter 1.5 m has a bed slope of 1 in 710. Calculate the discharge for the conditions of maximum velocity and maximum discharge. Assume the value of C in Chezy’s equation as 59. 10, A lined rectangular channel with Manning's ‘n" = 0.015 is 3.2.m wide and has a flow depth of 0.9 m with a bed slope of 1 in 1250, Retaining the rectangular shape of channel section and same total area of lining, to what extent can discharge be increased without changing the slope? 111. What diameter of a semicircular channel will have the same discharge as a rectangular channel of width 1.8 m and depth 1.1 m? Assume the bed slope and Manning’s ‘n’ are the same for both the channels. 12. A eireular pipe diameter 450 mm carries discharge 0.2 ms will flow half full. Determine the slope of the pipe to be laid in the ground. Assume Manning's n = 0.013 for ‘concrete pipe. Also determine the depth of flows ifthe ripe is laid ina slope of 1 in 1350. 13, A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 4.5 m and side slopes 2H to 1V is laid in a bottom slope of 0.001. If it caries a uniform flow of water at the rate of # Wis,(296uiiE Tee A ARee RyeraURe Enainaenna’ compute the normal depth and the mean velocity of flow. ‘Take Manning's ‘n’ as 0.015. 14, Design a non-erodible channel to convey 14.5 1's flow, the slope is 0.0002 and the mean particle diameter of the soil is 4mm. The side slope is 1.5:1 Varied Flow Dynamic equations of gradually varied flow - ‘Assumptions ~ Characteristics of flow profiles — Draw down and back water curves ~ Profile determination — Graphical integration, direct, step and standard step method ~ Flow through transitions - Hydraulic jump ~ Types ~ Energy dissipation - Surges. lot(3) 3. VARIED FLOW 3.1. VARIED FLOW: Definition Flow properties, such as depth of flow, area of cross section and velocity of flow vary with respect to distance is called Non-uniform flow. Iti, otherwise, called as varied flow. The varied flow is broadly classified into two types: (1) Rapialy varied flow (RVE) (2) Gradually varied flow (GVF) Ifthe depth of flow changes quickly over a small length of the channel, the flow is said 1 be gradually varied low (GVF). ‘Example: Back water in adam, (9232 Aponte Englnveting 4.2, EQUATION OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW Figure 3.1 shows the longitudinal section of rectangular channel with uniform flow Assumptions “Haat ty Figure 3.1 Longitudinal section of a channel ‘The following assumptions are made for analysing the ‘gradually varied flow 1). ‘The flow is steady 2) The pressure distribution over the channel section is hydrostatic, ie, streamlines (y) are practically straight andl parallel 3) The head loss is same as for uniform flow 4) The charine slope is small, so that the depth measured vertically isthe same as depth measured normal to the channel bottom Veet Flow. A Ser abe 5) A channel is prismatie 6) Kinetic enerey correction factor is very close to unity 7) Roughness coefficient is constant along the channel length 8) The formulae, such as Chezy's formula, Manning's formula which are applicable, to the uniform flow are also applicable for the gradually varied flow for determining slope of energy line, From Bemoulli’s equation, the total energy of flow per unit length of water above the horizontal datum is 2 H ty e 2g where ‘H= total head. Z= datum head = depth of flow = velocity or kinetic head 2a Differentiating the above equation with respect tox, aH Slope of energy line = pe of energy line =SNE | AAnpld arande gang Slope of channel bottom = = S, and S are negative, since slope of energy line and channel bottom are in decreasing direction, atte sets (F) ‘Multiplying and dividing by dy on right hand side third term, ot 4( PO poe SASS f:o-av] Eh} S3| s-s-3l(s} For chanel of constant width, can be replaced by ‘channel width b, For rectangular channel, Hydraulic mean radius (D) Above equation is used to classify different types of surfiee profiles, |BEART NTS ool vara ning 3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW PROFILES 3.3.4, Classification of Channel Slopes. Based on slope of channel bed (S), normal depth of water () and critieal depth (y,), the channels are classified into five categories. If the flow in the channel is uniform, the channel is said to have a normal slope denoted by Sy Mild slope: If the slope of the channel bottom (S) is less than the critical slope S. (S ye (subcritical low at normal depth) (i) Critical stopes If the slope of the channel bottom (S) is equal to the critical slope Se (S = S,), the channel slope is called as critical slope. In such channels, the normal depth is equal to the critical depth, ie. ys = (critical flow at normal depth). (i) Steep slope: If the slope of the channel bottom (8) is more than the critical slope Se (SS), the channel slope is called as steep slope. In such channels the normal depth is aways less than the critical depth, ie. yy < ye (supercritical flow at normal depth. () Horizontal bed: ‘When the channel bottom is horizontal, 12, $= 0, is called horizontal bed. The normal depth tends to be infinite for such channels, Le. yy = 20 (Ys does not exist) (0) Adverse slope: When the channel bottom rises in the direction of flow (S<0), is called as adverse slope. It is otherwise called as negative slope (%y does not exist). 3.3.2. Classification of Surface Profile ‘The surface profiles are primarily classified according to the channel slope. Based on channel slope, channels can be classife five types as stated earlier. 1. Mild slope (M) 2. Ciitial slope (C) Steep slope (S) Horizontal slope (H) Adverse slope (A) ‘The space above the channel bottom is divided into three Region 1: Space above the normal depth ine (NDE) and. critical depth line (CDL) Region 2: Space lies between normal depth line (SDL) and etitieal dept line (CDL)261) RTRs TO PaRoeraule Engineer Region 3: Space lies below the normal depth line (NDL) and critical depth line (CDL) but above the channel bottom. . Examples of Various Types of Water Surface Profiles Froin various types of channel slope and region, gradually 1. M-type surface profiles varied flow (GVF) profile types are grouped into 12 types, as wm: shown in Table 3.1 and Figure 3.2 (a) to Figure 3.2 (k). ‘Table 3.1 Types of Gradually varied flow profiles Channet | Region | Condition Type Mildsiops [1 [eyo MT] 2 |yerye Ma 3 serey | M3 | Creal slope [7 jar 3 3 Steep dope | T St a Samet nN 2 2 ep ee 3 83. | ‘ —— i Horizontal [2 HD =a slope 3 HB > Pe ‘Adverse [2 ro he ln low over a free overfa slope 3 Aa (MB: : where, Mie y= Actual depth of water M3_ (0 Flow downstream ofa stlea gate,B08 REE SR Appl Hyaraute Engen: 2. C-type surface profiles @ cl: 2 PARTE ES 25 PORTER SSA ITER IT, 43. S-type surface profile @si Hyetaulic jump ——~ rigmuichime ———~ gy Paige Z . a @) Flow behind an overflow weir ee (©) Flow at a sluice gate ae ag (hy) Flow downstream of a sluice gateSERB Ss SUE BS d en VO PoE SOCEM Se A ee 4. Hype surface profiles 5. Actype surface profiles a) Hi: (@ A2& AB: (i) Flow downstream of a sluice with adverse slope and or ee terminating in a feee overall Hs: Figure 3.2 Surface Profile Classifications va i 3.4. BACKWATER AND DRAWDOWN CURVES = UKs x Based on depth of water, flow direstion and slope of water ia aN surface, water surface profile is classified into two types. VY a4 \ a g aN 3.4.1. Back Water Curve Se ‘When the depth of flow (y) increases in the direction of Bron ee ce ap tow sta oft ati ($2) pte ro) and the water surface is known as Backwater curve. Examples are Mi, S1, M3 and $3 types. Figure 3.3 shows example of back Water curve. lopFigure 3.3 Backwater curve and afflux s acct (2) ‘S= slope of channel bottom S.= slope of energy line where, ‘yi = depth of water at the point where the water stars rising up ‘y2= maximum height of rising water from bed ‘The maximum inetease in water level due to obstuetion in the path of flow of water is called as aff: Afflue=)2—y1 ‘Consider the flow over a dam as shown in Figure 3.4. Due to obstruction (dam), the water level raises and it has maximum depth of water near to the dam, ee | Let the two sections 1-1 and 2-2 is at a distance between ‘them represents the length of backwater curve as shown in Figure 3.5,6 2h ee Apna hydrate Enginearing where, i= Depth of flow at section 1-1 ya Depth of flow at section 2-2 Vj = Velocity of flow at section 1-1 Velocity of flow at section 2-2 ed slope ‘Se Energy line slope = Length of back water curve Applying Bemoulli's equation at section 1-1 and section vy Bene w ei ty: than — aera Datum head at seetion 2-2, Z2 = 0, sinee datum line is passing through bed level at section 2-2 Seb Loss of head due to friction Substituting Z), Zs and ir in equation (1), yy We sry +t nore Bese 2 2g 2g SL-SL us-s, Length of backwater curv MEO Rie Rad. 6% ok Via. where B= Energy bead at section 2-2 E,= Energy head at section 1-1 ‘Se = Slope of energy line (Manning's or Chezy's Formula used to caleulate S) 3.4.3. Drawdown Curve ‘When the depth of flow decreases along the flow direction, © becomes negative and the surface profile is called a drawdown curve. Examples of surface profile of drawdown curve are $2 and M2 type as shown in Figure 3.6 - Mea (Drawdown curve) Figure 3.6 Flow over a free overfall 3.5. PROFILE ANALYSIS Length of surface profile determined with the help of any: one of the following methods, 1, Graphical Integration method 2. Direct step method a 3. Standard step method90:8 Ano Fanta Entneemng: 3.5.1 Graphical Integration method ‘The differential equation ofthe pradually varied flow may be inverted and integrated to give the length of the surface profile between depths y1 and y2. Henee, the equation for gradually varied flow, ‘Take integration on both sides, fez) [ech ‘Above equation is impossible for all types of channel sections, since the equation cannot be expressed explicitly as a function of y Jax Equation (1) may be integrated graphically by plotting ar ‘against y, and computing the area under the curve enclose Varied Flow 28 Baki tay by the y-axis and the ordinates of “corresponding to depths .¥; and ya, as shown in Figure 3.7. 4 Figure 3.7 Graphical integration method 3.5.2. Direct Method: The channel is ided into short reaches and the computations are cated out between two ends. TWO ends are ‘mentioned as sections (1)-(1) and (2}-(2). Bernoulli's equation, is used to calulate the length of backwater. It is othervise called as step by step method. It is applicable to prismatic channels only. (Refer expression for the length of backwater curve in Chapter 3.4.2). ohOTRO 3.5.3 Standard Step Method Standard step method is used for non-prismatic or natural channels. In natural channels, the cross section varies from section to section and also the eross section information is known only ata few locations along the channel, “Apne Hydrote Eneiaaating The cross sectional information at two adjacent sections and the discharge and datum at one section are required to determine the datum at the other section. ‘The solution of the above problem is obtained by a trial and error solution of the basie energy equation. 3.6.FLOW THROUGH TRANSITIONS 3.6.1 Transition: Definition ‘Transition means a change of channel cross section, such (@) Provision ofa hump or depression along depth and Gi) Contration or expansion of channel width, in any combination. ‘Transition problems can be analysed by using. the principles of specific energy and eritical depth 3.6.2 Application of transition ‘Transition in open channel flow is made to measure discharge of channel. Generally, discharge, Q = Area (4) = ‘Velocity (1), For discharge calculation, both cross section of flow and velocity are necessary. With the help of channel a Wario Bem waar transition, discharge of water obtained from measured flow ‘oss section dimensions and specific energy equations, 3.6.3 Transition In width ‘The portion of the channel in which the width changes gradually is known as transition in width, ‘The width of channel is varied by two methods. 1. Sudden contraction or enlargement 2. Gradual contraction or enlargement Figure 3.8 shows an example for channel transition with gradual contraetion of channel width. ‘entation fe “Threat, Enlarger, at Erle (@) Plan (b) Longitudinal section, Figure 3.8 Transition in width of flow2228 SLL. TAepliod toate Enginearing ‘The loss of energy in flow through gradual contractions is much smaller than in sudden contraction. Due to this reason, reduction or enlargement in width of channel is made gradual in actual practice. For example, consider a actual channel carrying water of channel width by reduced to width bp. For a constant specific energy (E) if the discharge per unit ‘width (g) is plotted against depth of flow y, we obtain discharge curve, as shown in Figure 3.9 Z 2ay Specific energy, E = y+ 29°E-) The above equation is used to plot discharge curve. pt Figtire 3.9 Discharge curve NEA OTE E ELLE LR EL OS LIT From the discharge curve as shown in Figure 3.9, itean be ‘observed that for subcritical flow, when the discharge per unit ‘width q increases, the depth of flow y decreases, Hence, in the transition as well as in the throat the water surface will be lowered as indicated in Figure 3.8(b).. Specific energy equation at section 1-1, ve & ‘ 2g Specific energy equation at section 2.2, we By ayy 4 HCI oe ‘Equating the specific energy equations atthe two seetions,Ee o ge * pay ta 2a(bi) 2alby,. Substituting b1, bs. yi and y2 in the above equation, discharge (Q) of open channel flow can be calculated. a 3.6.4 Transition in depth For rate of flow calculation, instead of reducing width of channel, depth of water is evaluated to certain height is called ‘as hump or transition in depth. ancttaitor me aes ies oN v4 « Chia wiles (a) Subcritical ow ‘supereiial ton aN y \ TT ‘ure (by Supercritical low Figure 3.10 Transition in depth By providing hump on the channel, the water level will be Jowered over the hump for suberitical flow and water level will bo increased for supercritical flow. Wate Fi eR SB Specific energy equation at section 1-1, ye oe 2g Specific encrey equation at section 22, e By=y tions yen Equating he specific enray equations atthe t¥9 section, H-8 ow St sba yt tae 2g Og Substituting 6, 91, 92 and Az in the above causion discharge (Q) of open channel flow can be calculated)?yaks EL Apeoe ydraute Engine. 7. HYDRAULIC JUMP It is otherwise called as standing wave. Depth of water increases rapidly over a short length of the channel is called hydraulic jump. Generally, it occurs at downstream side of a surplus weir, as shown in Figure 3.11. Free water sutace Shooting ow a eat > s 1 Dis Lien | ‘ryeratule jum Figure 3.11 Hydraulic jump Shooting or supeerical ow (deph of water at section 1 1) is an unstable flow and does not continue on the downstream: side, Then this shooting will convert itself into a streaming or tranguil Dow and hence depth of water wil incense, 3.7.1. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump Depth of hydraulic jump i the difference in depth of water ‘between scetion 1-1 and section 2-2 as shown in Figure 3.12, Depth of hydraulic jump =y1 —y2 where 31 = Depth of flow at section 1-1 TPC SPEER et a 2 Depth of flow at seetion 2-2 ‘The following assumptions are made for hydraulic jump depth calculation: 1. The flow is uniform and pressure distribution due to hydrostatic force before and after the jump is triangular in shape 2. Loss in head due to friction on the surface of bed is small and negligible 3, Slope of the bed is small, so that the horizontal ‘component of the weight of the water is neglected, ® @ Figure 3.12 Portion between sections 1-1 and 2-2 Let tei (2)1) = Velocity of flow at section 1-1 = a ‘Velocity of flow at section 2~ a ‘Ay = Atea of cross section at section 1-1 4y= Area of cross section at section 2-2 Pi = Force due to water pressure at section 1-1 P= Force due to water pressure at section 2-2 ‘y= Weight density of water pi Pressure at bed surface at section 1-1 = yy Tere, f= Arenf pressure digram = 73, «D222 Figure 3.13 Pressure diagram at section 1-1 peri 2 Similarly, pte 2 [et force between section 1-1 and section 2-2, rP=" 63-93) Change in velocity in the dreetion of flow = (F,-”,) Rate of change of momentum in the direction of force mass of water per sec. x change of velocity in direction of force =nv =(pxqraY,-¥,) * = pall -¥2) According o momentum principe, P= mi Equating equations (1) and 2), £8 (3 —y8)= pall, -F2) @ Substituting %BB RE Appliog Hydrant Enginoering Eb.-nbsenbed 2-4) Lo. ombrenea £ wn tydaa Fon —@ Ry, LE @ nye pion axl da 2 ‘Two roots of equations are, hy (4 2L ang 27 V4 wy Second root is not possible, since it gives negative depth, os Depth of hydraulic jump =~ y, Depth of flow after hydraulic jump, iy, £ + Pe 4 We Vs where, f= Froude's number = ved ley For rectangular channel, Hydraulic mean radius (D) = Wetted Area _ 4 by _ Top width 7” b Atsection I-1, (F) je feYM ae a4 sale) v= 2i{ Jie) -1) ‘Above equation can also be expressed in tems of % (R): en of the jump as Subcritical Froude number on the downstream 3.7.2, Energy Dissipation or Loss due to Hydraulic Jump When hydraulic jump takes place, a loss of energy occurs due to eddy formation and turbulence. This loss of energy is coqual to the difference of specifie energies at sections 1-1 and 22. Loss of energy due to hydraulic jump, hy = Ey ~ Es As per hydraulic jump assumption no. 3, slope of channel bd is small so thatthe difference in datum head at section 1-1 ‘and section 2-2 is zero. 1 [oo =niisead) of 28 4s PP buenioysn wyN.Y: Gy) Uys a 3.7.3 Length of Hydraulic Jump. It is defined as the length between section 1-1 and seetion 2-2, where section 1-1 is taken place just before the hydraulic jump and seetion 2-2 is taken place immediately after the jump. From experiments, for a rectangular channel length of hhydraulic jump is equal to $ to 7 times the height of the hydraulic jump. T=s07 =n) NERO LCP, ESE: be 336, 3.8.SURGES When the flow properties, such as discharge or depth varies suddenly’ called surge. 7 Example: Sudden closure of gate. 3.8.1 Types Surges canbe classified into two types 1. Positive surge - A surge producing increase in depth 2. Negative surge ~ A surge producing decrease in depth ‘A surge can travel either in the upstream or downstream direction as shown in Figure 3.14. (a Positive surge moving downstream(@) Negative surge moving downstream Figure 3.14 Surge types where Section 1-1 before surge Section 2-2 after surge = Absolute velocity of surge J1= depth of flow before surge J2= depth of flow after surge Vi = Velocity of flow before surge Va Velocity of flow after surge! 12 (©) Negative surge moving downstream:3.98 3.9. SOLVED PROBLEMS Problem 1: 2 Antec Herat Enger? A trapezoidal channel with a base of Sm side slope of 1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical conveys water at 16mt/s with a depth of 1.2m, Is the flow situation sub or supercritical? Given data: Bottom width of trapezoidal channel, b= $ m Depth of water, y= 1.20 m Side slope of channel, m= 1.5 Discharge, Q= 16 m/s © Solution: 15H Figure 3.15 If F <1, flow is subcritical, and if F > 1, it is supeeriticl. ‘Top width, Wetted area, 5 + (1S*1.2)) x12 = 8.160? ‘ria Few ae eT a Velocity, GME 196 mis ‘4-816 A816 where, eS 195 m here, DafaoBlé no v_, 196 Froude number, F = = 0.64 ed” J981%0.95 F <1. the flow is suberitical Ans. Problem 2 z A river is 25m wide and has a rectangular shape. At a bridge location, the flow width is restricted to 20m by the pi of the bridge and the river bed is approximately horizontal, Describe the flow which obtains underneath the bridge with ‘minimum upstream depth when a flood of 400m'ss flows in the river. Also determine the upstream depth. Given data: ‘Width of the river at upstream side, by ‘Width of the river below the bridge, b2 "20 m Discharge of river, Q= 400 m/s Sm © Solution: As per discharge curve shown in Figure 3.9. upstr-am depth y, will be minimum when the depth of flow bel w the bridge is critical. ig Diet peru ia g, = 2 $22‘Abolied Hydrate Erahnering [2% Longitudinal section Figure 3.16 For horizontal river bed, assuming no energy loss, Valled Fiow 0 Sa Specific energy equation at upstream = Specific energy ‘equation below bridge portion me Velocty, Y= 2 bee! by, Velocity, ¥, = 2 = 40-5 6) mis Er py seat ese TESA posing 208i y+ 3Ba56 24135 516 y yi 5.163 +13.08=0 By trial and error method, y) = 4.52m Minimum upstream depth, 3, =4.82m Ans. <2 Problem 3 A venturiflume is 1.20m wide at entrance and 0.60 m at ‘the throat. Neglecting hydraulic losses in the flume, calculate ‘he flow, if the depth a the entrance and throat is 0.65m and 8.5m. A hump is mow installed atthe throat, af height 30em, 0 that a standing wave is formed beyond the throat. What isApplied Hyereule Exginriiy the increase in the upstream depth, when the same flow as before passes through the flume? Given data: Width at seetion 1-1, by =35m-Iv am. Depth at section 1-1, yj = 0.65m Width at section 2-2, by = 0.60m Depth at section 2-2, 32 = 0.50m Height of hump, A= =20 em 20m © Solution: Discharge, Q= AAP; = Ay’, (continuity equation) O= by = bars 0=120x0:65xV, =0.60% 0.50%", o78v, 0300, 2.6%, Neglecting losses, Specific energy at section 1-1 = Specific energy at section 2-2 i 2x 981 0,65 + 0.0517; 150+0.0517} 0.65 +0.051V7 = 0.50+0.051(2.67, )* @ i . oe oe ae ad | lene J | } ® ® (a) Plan @ @® (b) Longitudinal section Figure 3.17 Discharge, Q= by) =1.2%0.65%0.71 O=058nis Hump height =20em=0.2m= Az348 Alea etcraate Enaineering Critical depth at section 2-2, New specific energy corresponding to critical flow at y the throat when hump is installed = y, +5572 e Atcritical ow, E, Specific energy at section 2-2, 120+ 0.662 3 = az42 By 3 F,=0862m ‘The upstream water surface will rise till the upstream specific energy equal to 0.862m Vast Fo RE 24s EE, oa Fr 0,862m "tae yt O59 no 800 Fsatei ay y+ 202 0360 y 37 0.8629? +0.0107=0 By tral and error method, y= 0.86m Increase in depth of water inthe upstream side = New yj ~ Old y= 0.86-0.65= 021m Ans. = Lm Depth at section 3-3, 95 = 3mSRF sctalche _ Abplied Hydraulie Engineering “ BAT © Solution: From continuity equation, On AN = Ay, = AK 0 =(5x6x¥,)=(1x6x1)=(x6x7,) 30V, =6Y, Vi=2.02 mis ¥, =1.6%, Discharge, O= AV, =5%6x2.02=60.65nls ¥=167, Applying momentum equation between sections 2-2 and 3-3 ad neglecting losses, 3) Force = Rate of change of momentum DF- 2 (Witterencein Velocity between? sections) R-F-2 ee, -¥,) fe v=9810KN/m'] Figure 3.18 Equating specific energy equations between sections 1-1 and 2-2, and neglecting losses nen ot fone ces te oy 2 2 wT pee ee 2g) ag Figure 3.19 Pressure diagram_— . Pressure at the base = Force, P= Area of pressure diagram= (.67¥,-51,) sso). -{sxame2") 9810.60.65 981 F= 21176829 =201.77kN Force on the conerete block = 211.77KN which acts in a direction opposite to F. Ans. Problem § Find the slope of the free water surface of a rectangular stream 10m wide and 2m deep. The slope of the stream bed is 1 in 5000, Total discharge is 20m, assume C = 65 and that the depth is increasing in the direction of flow. Given data: Width of channel, 6 = 10m Depth of water, y = 2m Slope of bed, S= 1 =0,0002 5000 Discharge, Q = 20m'/s ‘Chezy’s constant, C 65 ene es 300 © Solution: ‘S.= Slope of energy line can be calculated with the help of Chezy’s formula V =byxV =bx yxCJRS, Wetted perimeter = b+2y = 10+ (22) = 14m Wetted area. = bay = 102 = 20m? Hydraulic mean radius, =a (sara) Slope of free water sures360 -Aonlivabycril Eogineoing ‘Problem 6 A river 100m wide and 3m deep has stable bed and vertical banks with a surface slope of 1 in 3000. Estimate the length of backwater curve produced by an afflux of 2m. Assume Manning's n= 0.038. Given data: Width of iver, b= 100m Depth of water at section 1-1, ho =0.333%10" 3000 River surface Slope of bed, Afflux=y.—y1=2m 8 Solution: Wetted perimeter at section 1-1, P=b+2y1~ 100+ (2%3)= 106m Wetted area at section 1-1, A= bx = 10083 = 300m? Hydraulic mean radius, Wetted Area _ 300 Wettedperimeter 106 ‘Manning's formula, =2.83m onatais! Vabioa Fw Kae 7 0=300x— x 0035 = 313.1 mls Specific energy at 3m depth, 056m 0.626 mis CSF fy -2) 29381 4 =5.02m Energy line slope at the mean section where the depth, 345 Wetted perimeter, P=bi2y= 100+ xd) = 108m Wetted area, A = bxy = 1004 = 400m? )- Hydraulic mean radius,ase From Manning's formula, o=av =ahp3s3 313.11=400x 43.7 0035 1 Se= 1311x104 = —— = 7625 Length of backwater curve, B-5, are SA 58, Length of backwater curve, SOR 3056 9713.8 Anse < Problem 7 The normal depth of flow of water, in a rectangular channel 2m wide, is 1.2m, The bed slope of the channel is 0.0006 and Manning’s roughness coefficient n = 0.015. Find ‘the critical depth, At a certain section of the same channel, the depth is 0.90m while at a second section the depth is 0.85m. Find the distance between two sections (Use one reach in the Voricd Flow. - 393 calculations). Also find whether the second section is located downstream or upstream with respect to the first section, Given data: (@) Width of channel, 6 = Depth of water, Slope of bed, S = 0.0006 ad 666.57 Manning's coefficient, n= 0,015 (©) At section 1-1, depth of water»: = 0.90m At section 2-2, depth of water, 32 = 0.85m © Solution: (o) Catia depth canton Wetted perimeter, Weitedarea, A= bay = 261.2 = 240? Hydraulic mean radius, pected Breas Wetted perimeter ‘Manning's formula, o- L 01s =2.631mris 2.268 en <0.55*(0,0006)? 12xsme Applied Hycesate Enginoorig. atic Foi 35 Critical depth at section 2-2, Mean depth of water, yd bien) (®) Distance between two sections calculation: = Fl09040. 85)=0.875m Specific enerey at 0.90 depth (Section 1-1) Wested perimeter, Po bi2y=2 + (20.875) =3.75m Wetted area, A= bry = 20.875 = 1.75mi? Hyclroulie mean radius, 17s 3.75 ‘Manning's formula, onalais 24631= (240875) 10.467" xsi Se= 143x107 Distance between the two sections, Erk, Using Manning's formula for ener soy Using Manning’ rerey line slope 0.972 1.009 42-5 759 calculation, G07 —143x10"Be “ PRs Applied Hydrautte Engineering. a fe ntti se (4) ge ne scons dona nt ist em eins upstream. Water surface slope, ‘Average depth of flow, » = 0.875m O_ 2631 SST = 1.503mis A 2x0875 1,503? = 0.263 daixoa7s°76 6104 1.434107 — 0.263 x a 1 == 11261079 =~. 887.95 gies Lk mtv, he acd sect downstream, Ans. Verisd Flow 5 recs asi ‘Problem @ f A dam is built across a stream of rectangular cross section which carries water at the rate of 6m’. as a result ‘the depth of flow just upstream of the dam is inereased to 2.8 mm. The stream is 3m wide has a bed slope of 1 in S000. Manning's constant ‘n’ = 0.015. How far upstream is the depth within 10cm of the normal depth? Given data Discharge, Q = 6m'/s Width of stream, 6 = 3m Depth of water, » = 2.80m inso00 = soy s Bed slope of stream, sont Manning's coefficient, n= 0,015 © Solution: Normal depth (»,) calculation: Wetted perimeter, P = b+2y,=342y5 Wetted area, A=5xy,=3.yp ‘Hydraulic mean radius, Wetted Area Wetted perimeter 3+2, Manning's formula,By tral and error method, Normal depth, y= 2.27 From discharge curve shown in Figure 3,9, upstream depth of water (j1) will be minimum when the depth of flow at section 2.2 is critical Critical depth at seetion 2-2, von(f) Since y = 2.800 > y,> ye, the water surface eurve is of MI ype and! the flow is suberitieal. The length of the water surface urve is to be determined between the depths y and yo-01 Section 1-1, 9) = 80m Varied Few ace Section 2-2, as per given data, depth at section 2-2 is equal 10 addition of 10cm with normal depth. 310100 = 2.274010 = 2.37m ys = 2.80237 0.43m Divide 0.43 m into 3 pans such as 0.15, 0.15 and 0.13 depth For length of backwater calculation, stat from the upsteam and proceeding upto dam, The relevant quantities have been tabulated in Table 3.2. For slope of energy line calculation, RS? Velocity,ns . E fe Bis] 2 < gy at: i ZS see * & 2 pigs a? 3 gs i ‘ VEhs ke i 8 2 g2S8 a e tf 3 ae fol g 3 fier fF es ' BG feeas 2 BOS i HOOLRD Gia | i Pi gijci see = o Zé ERG: 8 2 > 9 Sista gs ze < af Beses 2? ge Ss °Eh2t & = Mia ee 3 8 ail a z aS eo LVess8 | 9'8691 ero | c9990et se stl t oses9| scrsse| sro| coscout} ws] ert] sveecr| sroser| sro} wove] sce] so) Go ( aD (on oy | eter os tx i | ay © | @im | Cs-9) | orm’s | ors: a sso} sooo] xo] ewv0|-eve| sore] stuz] oszuse uso| zoo} wo] isso) v8] sare! soz] avcere uso} sco} sigo] —ezoo| oa |—seeu| —rsvz| cree “| @ oO o @ oO © @ o ; 1166449) =()¢| some aot | Biaag | vO0d | aired | rand] Gaey | Busy) md al ceteee, .a2 Aopled Hyaraate Engineeting © cans {2} Gi) Depth of ow, Since y in equation 2. Repeating the same procedure until hy =2. rhe868 Apple Hycraite Engineering Trial Ans. Ans, <2 Problem 42 ‘State the conditions for the formation of a hydraulic Jump in open channel flow. Establish a relationship between the depths of flow upstream and downstream of a hydraulic jump in terms of the upstream Froude number, A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular channel with a velocity of I2mvs and depth of flow of 1.20m. Determine the depth of flow after the jump and consequent loss in total head. Given da Depth of flow before jump, y1 Velocity of flow before jump, F ® Solution: From depth of hydraulic jump expression, Vasa Fiow ser =n) Ay 37-120) S20) = 281NamIN Ans, 5.37%1.20 ay Problem 13 A rectangular channel carrying a supereritical flow is to be provided with a hydraulic jump type of energy dissipater. Energy loss, required in the hydraulic jump is Sm and inlet Froude number is 8, determine the sequent depths, Given data: Froude numnber, = 8 Bnetuy loss due to hydraulic jump, hy = Se © Solution: From depth of hyciraulic jump expr“Ansiied Minako Enainaerng {is #)-1)-1082 30808 5 (lo2y -y,) dy, x10.82y, 5-082) 43.289) 946.97, 28 y= 023m 2 1082) Js =10.82%0.23=2.49m Sequent depths are y= 249m Ans. Problem 14,0 A hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel and the depths of flow before and after the jump are 0.45m and 1.8m respectively. Caleulate the ertical depth of flow. Given data: Sequent depths of hydraulic jump are, Varied Flow 31 = 045m 22 1.80m © Solution: From expression for energy dissipation or loss due to cutie jump, #2, +) 2 2ETXO4SLB a 45 0) =8.94 q> 2.99mi Critical depth, y, (2% (ey var) “(5a Citic! dept offow, 6m aes Problem 15 : In a rectengular channel with bed width Sm, n= 0.025 «and bed slope 0.02, the depth of uniform flow is 1.2m. A t ‘overfall dam which keeps 2.4m of water immediatel behind70 Applies Hy arate Enghiwerig it is built at the downstream end of the channel to create a ‘ydrautie jump. Compute the followin (The discharge over the spillway Gi) The jump height (li) The distance of the jump from the dum treating the entire distances as one reach. Given data: Width of rectangular channel, b= Sm Manning's coefficient, n= 0.025 Bed slope, S= 0.02 Depth of uniform flow, 31 = y= 120m Depth of water behind spillway = 2.40m ® Sotution: St ype Hydraulic jump Figure 3.22 phases ed Tater @) Wetted area, A = bxyy = 5«1.20= 6m? Wetted perimeter, P= b+2y) = 5+ (2*1.2)=7.4m Hydrate mean ai, Wetedperimete & 74 From Manning’s formula, 8ilm Discharge, o=alaist 50.811 50,027 6x1 0.025 Discharge of the spillway. = 2951's Ans. Gi) Discharge per unit width, 2} (32) g 981 ital dep of ow, Ye = 126m > yy Since yo< ye and the depth behind the spillway is 2.40, a hydraulic jump will form, Type of curve is $1. Critical depth, y, =ee Pa Anis Hauie Engineering Use depth of hydraulic jump expression for depth of water at section 2-2 calculation, nati {fiseR 1) Fon 0590, aT) Froude number at section 1-1, y, 492 Ten amis Depth of hydraulic jump “mn 90 ~ 1.20 = 0.70m Location of the jump from the dam ‘The jump will form at a section where the water dopth is 1.90m. The following Table 3.3 shows the calculation for the jump location. 90m depth of water at hydraulic Re Ans. Consider yy jump y= 240m, since the location of jump measured fiom spillway VALE OT RIE IBRD REMC Pt: Te ellis 2 x ef ee eae au S e a Iz ge elie a is as 8 ali ele} fe 848 & ae paced ela ew i = 4 cls fF Bat gag ~~ a a Ss f.e/s a ay = 8s Ss § az 2/8 ws ze el, ea OHS‘The jump is located at a distance of 18375m from the dam. Ans. Problem 16 shi Mies A rectangular flume 1.5m wide carries discharge at the rate of 2m'f, the bed slope of the flume is 0.0004, At a certain section, the depth of flow is Im Calculate the distance ofthe section downstream where the depth of flow is 0.75m, Solve by single slope method. Assume rugosity coefficient as 0.014, Is the Slope of the channel mild or steep? How is this type of surface profile classified? Vario owes 88 Given data: Discharge, Q= 2m'/s Width of channel, b= 1,50m Bed slope, $= 0.0004 = 0.4*107 At section 1-1, depth of flow, yi = Im ‘At section 2-2, depth of flow, ya = 0.75m Rugosity coefficient = Manning's coefficient, n=0014 © Solution: (@ Discharge per unit width, g_2 a 2-2 133ml Critical depth, y, =(%)' =(1322)? mat CCitical depth of ow, y= 0.565m Hydraulic mean depth, R, = Ae 0.50565) Pn RD 542% 0.565) =0322m Using Manning's formula, the critical slope 1 2 =0.5x0.565)x : » 0.014 0322) «53 = 494x109Since $< 5, the channel is mild, and the water surface is falling, itis a M2 type curve, (®) Energy fine slope at the mean section where the water depth, yl 875m _A__ (5x0873) P* (s+2%0875) For energy line slope (S.), Using Manning’s formula =0.404m onatats Bie 1 0.404? x5? oor By 15x 0.875) & =1,524x107 2 Similarly, ¥, = 1.18 2 vi ‘A, U3x075), ‘Specitie energy at section 1-1, pit 335 ania 291 Specific energy a section 2.2, n E,ay, + antge 1.78? B, =075 x +3981 As per direct step method, ae BcA ___091=1.091 0.4x107 =1.524«107 Distance between sections 1-1 and 2-2 = 161.03 Ans,aR 2 Antec Engioar 3.10. SOLVED ANNA UNIVERSITY PROBLEMS Problem 4. = Determine the slope ofthe ce wate surface ina rectangular channel of width 20m, having depth of flow Sm. The tscharge through the channel is S2eumecs. The be slope of he channel is 1 in 4000. Assume Chexy's constant Cas 60 [May‘09} Given data: ‘Width of channel, b= 20m Depth of flow, » = Sm Discharge, Q= S2eumecs = S2m/s 1 Slope of channel bed, $~ 1 in 4000= 2 2.5,e10- cateanes 0 = 500 Chezy’s constant, C= 60 > Solution: Wettedarea__ 4 Wetted perimeter” P 00 bey 20x5 og OS b+2y “20+(2x5) 30 729" Hydraulic radius, R= Slop of energy line ean be caleulated with the help of heay's formula (As per gradually varied flow assumptions) Discharge, = Ax = AC RS, 52.=20x5x603.33%5, Varied ow Bi. a7 S, =2.25x10% ‘lect, "he toay shen ete, de 1-F? For rectangular section, hydrate mean depth, Aw. HAIR : , Dring an expzriment conducted on a hydraulic jump, in a rectangular open channel 0.5m wide, the depth of water changes from 0.2m to 0.5m. Determine the discharge in the channel and the 108s of head due t0 the formation of fordraute jump. 1>fMay’09}aan Aeon yaeaune Erne! Width of channel, b= 0.5m Depth of water at section I-1, 9) = 0.2m Depth of water at section 2-2, y2 = 0.5m © Solution: 05-02 Sy,” 4x02K05 0.0675m Ans. = (@) Loss of head, h, = Figure 3,23 (b) Discharge calculation: nian o5=2 (jam -1) 09) Orga 35) ¥, =E 9 VORIROR Cp i2004:99 me Discharge, Q = Area »Velocity = buy, = 0510263) 299 ~ApBwsce Ans, O-Apz my. Problem 3 TR § ‘Ata certain section M ina rectangular channel of bed width 2m the depth of low 1.20. When the flow rates 6.0m, catimate the distance from M to anather scion N where the depth is LA0m. The bed slope is 0.002 and Manning's ‘n= 01S. Take ovo steps. 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SA6y? 32237079, Y= 0.086m 65) oo yy =1.178m i) Discharge/Unit width, a= Von From Froude number formula,2 SET © Anwtec Hytroute EnotetIng ofa = 109.81 0.086 =9.185m/ 5 Discharge per unit width, g = Vy = 9.185%0.086 = 0.79m'/s Ans. Problem 5 Ce a For the purpose of discharge measurement, the width of (rectangular channel is reduced gradually from 4.0m to 2.0m -and the flow is raised by 0.45m at a given section. When the > approaching depth of flow is 2m, what rate of flow witl be indicated by a drop of 0.3m in the water surface elevation at ‘the contracted section? [Apr’0s) Given data: ‘Width of channel at section 1-1, b Depth of water at section 1-1, y Width of channel at section 2-2, by = 2m Drop=0.3 m ‘AZ water raised in section 2-2 (hump) = 0.45m © Solution: Applying continuity equation, Wh = AV, A2-0.45m (©) Longitudinal section Figure 3.25 Equating the specific energies atthe to sections bn ye wegen 2g =y+388 Applied Hydraulic Enginveringy 2=2,=2, A, aby, =4x2= 8m? 4, =2-(045+03)=1.25m Ay =b,y, = 291.25 = 2.5m? Substituting these values, 2 1.25 2 21.284 +045 2x9.81x8" 29.8142.50 ot 122.625 24 65+ (aan) 0.35 = 0? «7.35910? piss O=6.90m'Is Am. Problems |) esi : A sluice gate discharges 2.5m's into a wide horizontal rectangular channel, The depth at the vena-contracta is 0.2m. The tail water depth is 2.0m. Assuming the channel to. have a Manning's n=0.015, determine the location of the hydraulic jump, [Apros} Given data: 1 depth of water at we of jump a = depth of water a section 1-1 sequent depth after the jump tai water dopth or depth of water at section 2-2 =2.0m Depth of water st Vena-contraca 1s constant = 0015 Q=Discharge =2.5n''s=2.5ns per metre width 20m © Solution: Figure 3.26 Froude Number at section 2-2, le =a! yalaraly) a0)pees 2 oBIx2 = 0.2822 From depth of hydraulic jump expression, nv = fiver -1) (iveroma - ‘Computation of flow profile by direct step method For slope of energy line calculation as shown in Table WariotReO ai i Table 3.5 — we el e@ 7 a es Se Vat + ; ees ease t z = ols a aa i 3 ala Patela| [= 98 255 & £2 (2 2 8 Bi Aa sg Se a9a2 © Anni tule Exige : 1 $4" Slope of bed = 0.005 = —_ oe 2000 Assume, A_bxy _by P be2y 6 ‘The term 2y is too small by comparing width (b) of wide ‘open channel, hence the term 2y is neglected, ‘The toe of the jump is at a distance of 21.82 from the vena-contracta of the water discharging from the sluice gate, Ans. 3.11, TWO MARKS QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 1. Define varied flow. Explain its classification, Flow properties, such as depth of flow, area of eross section and velocity of flow vary with respect to distance is called Non-uniform flow. is, otherwise, called as varied flow. The varied flow is broadly classified into two types: (1) Ropidly varied flow (R.V-F) 2) Gradually v, sed flow (G.V.F) 2. Define gradually varied flow and rapidly varied flow in open channel, (Nov’ 07, May" 08 & Nov" 08) If the depth of flow changes quickly over a small length of the channel, the flow is said to be gradually varied flow (GVF), Example: Back water in a dam eri Fat the channel « 3.95) Depth of water increases rapidly over a short length of is called rapidly varied flow. Example: hydraulic jump 3. State the assumptions made in the derivation of dynamic S, equation for gradually varied flow. ov" 08) ‘The following assumptions are made for analysing the gradually varied flow: “iy 2 x OD) 3) 6) D 8) ‘The flow is steady ‘The pressure distribution over the channel section is hydrostatic, ie, streamlines (y) are practically straight and parallel ‘The head loss is same as for uniform flow ‘The channel slope is small, so that the depth measured vertically is the same as depth measured normal to the channel bottom A channel is prismatic Kinetic energy correction factor is very close to unity Roughness coefficient is constant along the channel length ‘The formulae, such as Chezy’s formula, Manning's formula which are applicable, to the uniform flow are ‘also applicable for the gradually varied flow for determining slope of energy line. tuaos oe. Abbie Hydrate Enna 4. Distinguish between draw down and back water curves. (Nov 07, Nov' 08 & May'I0) Wen te dp for des ge or Siecion © tncmes nepal he sic pale cede eo ae en dh ) s e n eto, spo wat ete (22) snr sp ale a rit seine S Write the expression 10 determine the length of the backwater curve. (Nov' 09) 5-5 Length of backwater curve, where = Energy head at section 2-2 E,= Energy head at section 1-1 ‘S.= Slope of energy line 6, What is backwater curve in gradually varied flow profile and give practical example for getting this ype of profile. (Nov' 06) ‘When the depth of flow (y) increases in the direction ot ow, soe of wats ure (2°) postive (apart de ‘varige Flow e 995 slope) and the water surface is known as Backwater curve. Due to obstruction (dam), the water level raises and it has maximum depth of water near to the dam as shown in figure is an example for back water curve. _-+ +e slope Figure 3.27 Backwater curve 7. What is normat slope of an open channel? If the flow in the channel is uniform, the channel is said to ‘have a normal slope denoted by S,, 8 What are the flow profiles possible in mild stoped channels? ov" 06) 1) Flow behind an overflow weir 2). Flow overa free overfall 3) Flow downstream of a sluice gate 9 Classify surface profiles in a channel. (May! 08 & Nov' 06) Based on channel slopes, channels can be classified into five types as stated earlier. t 1. Mild slope (M) 2. Critical slope (C)eens 3. Steep slope (8) 4, Horizontal slope (H) 5. Adverse slope (A) Apalad Hyoraule Engine 10. What are the methods used to determine the length surface profile? Length of surface profile determined with the help of any one of the following methods, 1. Graphical Integration method 2. Direct step method 3. Standard step method I) Define the Afftux, INov'08] Afflux is defined as the maximum increase in water level due to obstruction in the path of flow of water 12) What is transition in open channel? ‘Transition means a change of channel eross section. (Provision of a hump ot depression along depth arid Gi) Contraction or expansion of channel width, in any combination 13) Write down the applications of transition. Transition in open channel flow is made to measure discharge of channel. Generally, discharge, Q = Area (4) X Velocity (V). For discharge calculation, both cross section of flow and velocity are necessary, With the help of channel transition, discharge of water obtained from aie Fw 397 measured flow eross section dimensions and /specific energy equations. 14) What is hydraulic jump in horizontal bed channel? (Nov! 06 & May’ 07) ‘The rise of water level which takes place due to the transformation of the shooting to the streaming flow is, known as hydraulic jump, 15) Write the expression for hydraulic jump? 2a) Depth of hydraulic jump where wu Depth of flow at section 2-2 F, > Froude number at section 1-1 16) Define loss of energy due to hydraulic jump. lepth of flow at section I-1 epth of flow at section 2-2 17) Give the relationship between Length and depth of Aydraulic jump.98) © Anal varie Enoinetng? From experiments, for a rectangular channel length of hydraulic jump is equal to 5 to 7 times the height of the hydraulic jump. =Si0o7 bay (Nov' 06, Nov! 07 & May" 10) ‘The kinetic energy of flow after the hydraulic jump is greatly reduced, which may prevent erosion of the channel boundaries of downstream side, i Sette nf odatame \ 19) Explain the classification of hydraulic jumps. (May' 10) Based on Froude number (/), hydraulic jump can be classified into 5 types. “Ya Undulation jump: The Froude number F ranges from 1 to 1.7 and the liquid surface does not rise shortly but having undulations of gradually decreasing size. }, Weak jump: The Froude number F ranges from 1.7 to 2.5 and the liquid surface remains smooth. ¢. Oscillating jump: The Froude number F ranges from 2.8 to 45 and there is an oscillating jet which enters the jump bottom and oscillates to the surface. Steady jump: The Froude number F ranges from 4.5 10 9 and energy loss due to steady jump in between 45 and 70%. ‘Valier Bw PRN POH 309 Strong jump: The Froude number F greater than 9 and the downstream water surface is rough, Energy loss ‘duc to strong jump may be up to 85%. 20) Define Surges: 5 ‘When the flow properties, such as discharge or depth, ‘varies suddenly is called surge. Example: Sudden closure of gate. 21) What are meant by postive and negative surges? (ox' 07) 1. Positive surge—a surge producing inerease in depth 2, ‘Negative surge ~ surge producing decrease in depth 22) Define the term backwater eurve. “The profile ofthe rising water on the upstream side of the dam is called back water curve. The distance along the bed of the channel between sections where water is having ‘maximum height is known as length of back water curve 23) Write down the dynamie equation for gradually varied flow. 4 Slope offre water surface, ei de 5-5, = ay ine, 5= Slope ofthe bed Se Slope ofthe energy ine = Depth of flow of a rectanglar channel V= Velocity of flow300 Anil’ Hydrate Engineer 24) Write down the formula for length of backwater curve. Length of backwater curve, = 42—4i where, Ez = specific energy at section 2-2 where water starts is ; i ing = 9, +4 2g Ey = specific energy at section 1-1 at the end of Px rey the water curve = 3.12, REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, Derive the dynamic equation for gradually varied flow stating the assumptions made. ov" 07) Classify surface profiles in a channel and explain in detail Define backwater curve. Also derive the expression for the Jength of backwater curve. 4. What are the methods used for determining the length of backwater curve? Explain each method. 5. Ina given channel, y, and y. are two fixed depths, if Q, and S, are fixed. Also, there are three possible relations between J and y.. Further there are two cases y, does not exist. Based on these, how the channels are classified? Explain ditect step method for computing the length of the water surface profile, ov" 07) * sor ? How transitions are made in open channel? Also give its application. 8, Derive the expression for depth of hydraulic jump. 9. Why energy dissipation occurs in open channel flow? Derive the expression for loss of energy due to hydraulic jump, 10, Define Surges. Expl sketch, 1. Show thatthe head loss in a hydraulic jump formed in a rectangular channel may be expressed as (Nov 06) hy 2H Hh) types of surges in detail with neat 12. Derive the dynamic equation of gradually varied flow in ‘an open channel and also state the methods of estimating the flow profile. (ay’ 06) 13, Show thatthe loss of energy in a hydraulic jump, where yy and yj are the two conjugate depths. (May' 09) 14, How to estimate the length of hydraulic jump and draw sketch of the jump? ay’ 06) 3.13. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1) A trapezoidal channel with a base of 3m side slope of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical conveys: water at 10n?/s with a depth of 1m. Is the flow situation sub or supercritical?SAU LEE 2 3) 4) 5) 6 Rpg Hyeraut Engineering “A-venturiflume is 1.50 wide at entrance and 0.907 at the throat. Neglecting hydraulic losses in the flume, calculate the flow, if the depth af the entrance and throat is 0.5mm and 035m. A hump is now installed at the throat, of height 15cm, so that @ standing wave is formed beyond the throat. |What is the increase in the upstream depth, wien the same flow as before passes through the flume? Find the slope of the free water surface of a rectangular stream 7.5m wide and 2.5m deep. The slope of the stream ‘bed is 1 in 3500, Total discharge is 15m’fs. assume C= 62 and that the depth is increasing in the direction of flow. ‘A tiver 80m wide and 32m deep has stable bed and vertical banks with a surface slope of 1 in 2800, Estimate the length of backwater curve produced by an afflux of 1.5m, Assume Manning's n= 0.028, ‘A dam is built across a stream of rectangular cross section which caries water at the rate of Smits. as a result the depth of flow just upstream of the dam is inereased to 2.5 m. The stream is 2.5m wide has a bed slope of 1 in ‘4000, Manning’s constant ‘n’ = 0.025. How far upstream is the depth within 10cm of the normal depth? ‘Water flows at the rate of 1.Smis along a channel of rectangular section 1.75m in width. Calculate the critical depth. Ifa hydraulic jump formed at a point where the ‘upstream depth s 0.15m, what would be the rise in water evel and power lost inthe jump? = are Flw | 3.103 7) Ina rectangular channel, given the discharge intensity q = 2 eumecs/m, and the loss of energy in the jump f= 1.8m, determine the two sequent depths. 8) A rectangular channel carrying a supercritical flow is to be provided with a hydraulic jump type of energy dissipater. Energy loss required in the hydraulic jump is 3m and inlet Froude number is 6, determine the sequent depths, 9) A rectangular flume 1.25m wide carries discharge atthe rate of 1.75m/s. the bed slope ofthe lume is 0.0005. Ata certain section, the depth of flow is 0.75m, Calculate the distance of the section downstream where the depth of flow is 0.63m, Solve by single slope method, Assume rugosity coefficient as 0.014 Is the slope of the channel mild or steep? How is this, type of surface profile classified? 10) During an experiment conducted on a hydraulic jump, in a rectangular open channel 0.75m wide, the depth of water changes from 0.3m to 045m, Determine the discharge in the channel and the loss of head due to the formation of hydraulic jump. 11) The Froude number before the jump is 8 in a hydravlic jump occurring ini a rectangular channel and the enerey loss is 2.5m. Estimate the (i) sequent depths (ii) the discharge