Complete Theory

TM 1 MOLE CONCEPT
MOLE CONCEPT
Target And Contents Of The Chapter :
This chapter focuses on the very basics of physical chemistry: Atoms and Molecules
and calculations related to them. The target of this chapter is to make a child understand
that this world is made up of atoms and molecules, and to make him do the related calculations
in a very simple way and teach him to play with numbers in Physical Chemistry. Mostly,
unitary approach can be applied to all the calculations related to no. of atoms, molecules in
a given sample, stoichiometry of reactions, mass composition and empirical formulae, laws
of chemical combination, reactions in aqueous media etc. The task of a teacher should be
making Physical chemistry simple and lucid, and remove the fear of MOLE from the mind
of a student. The numerical problems are well graded and techniques used very simple.
LECTURE - 1
1. Atom: Definition
2. Atomic mass : amu and g
3. Definition of Mole: Avogradros number
4. Molecules
5. Molecular mass : amu and g
LECTURE - 2
1. Chemical Reactions : Conservation of atoms and mass
2. Stoichiometry: Moles of reactants and products
3. Limiting Reagent and Excess reactant
4. Mass-Mole conversions
5. Mole-Mass Conversions
LECTURE - 3
1. Percent yield
2. Reactions in aqueous media: solutions
3. Strength of solutions: all parameters
LECTURE - 4
1. Variation of strength of solutions
2. Application on reactions
LECTURE - 5
1. Mass Percentages, Empirical Formulae and Molecular Formulae
2. Laws of Chemical Combination: Definite, Multiple and Reciprocal proportions
3. Application of law of conservation of atoms on stoichiometry
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MOLE CONCEPT 2 TM
LECTURE - 6
1. Equivalent concept
2. Acid-Base Neutralisation Reaction
LECTURE - 7
1. Origin of equivalent concept
2. Variation in equivalent weights
3. Equivalent volume of gases
4. Normality
5. Application of equivalent concept in sequential reaction
This chapter is divided into 7 lectures plus one doubt session. (7+1 plan)
TM 3 MOLE CONCEPT
LECTURE - 1
1.1 DEFINITION OF ATOM

The first and foremost question: What is an Atom?
An Atom is the smallest part of an element that can participate in a chemical
reaction.
Initially it was believed that atoms are indivisible (Old Daltons Theory) but later on it
was discovered that atoms can be further subdivided into sub-atomic or fundamental particles
like protons, electrons and neutrons. But it is known that in non-radioactive reactions atom
is the smallest possible representative of an element.
1.2 Atomic Mass

The second question: How do we measure the mass of an atom of an element?
Atoms being very small in size, the common units of mass like g and kg could not be
conveniently used to measure their mass. Thats why a smaller unit called Atomic Mass
Unit (a.m.u) was defined.
1 a.m.u. = 1/12th of the mass of one C12 atom
In this reference system, the mass of the atom of lightest element hydrogen comes out to be
almost 1 amu (1.008 amu precisely) and most of the atomic masses are found to be close to
whole numbers. Thats why this is a good reference system.
The following are some of the atomic masses obtained:
Important - 1
Element Mass of one atom in amu
H 1 amu
Na 23 amu
O 16 amu
This means:
Mass of one atom of sodium = 23 amu
Mass of 2 atoms of Na = 46 amu
Mass of 10 atoms of Na = 230 amu
Important - 2
Remember: amu is a very small quantity and represents very small mass.
Therefore we can define atomic mass of an element in amu as:

Mass of one atom of an element in amu is called its Atomic mass
For example: Atomic mass of Oxygen is 16 amu (mass of one atom of oxygen)
Atomic mass is also referred to as unified mass and is denoted by u.
MOLE CONCEPT 4 TM
Class Example-1:
Calculate the number of atoms in the following samples:
(a) 200 amu He
(b) 3200 amu O
(c) 46000 amu Na
Sol. (a) Atomic mass of He = 4u
\ Mass of 1 atom of He = 4u
\ 4u is the wt. of 1 He atom.
1
\ 200 u is the wt. of 200 He atom = 50 He atoms.
4
(b) Atomic mass of O = 16 u
\ 16u is the mass of 1 O atom.
1
\ 3200 u is the mass of 3200 = 200 O atoms.
16
(c) No. of atoms of Na in 23u = 1
1
\ No. of atoms of Na in 1u = .
23
1
\ No. of atoms of Na in 46000 u = 46000
23
= 2000 atoms
(if need be, give more similar examples until a child grabs the funda of a.m.u)
1.3 Mole & Avogadro Number
Now, the next important target was to relate the unit a.m.u with the commonly used unit
of grams. As a.m.u is not used generally. (eg: We never go to a Kirana store and ask for
10000 amu rice!!)
To find this relation between g and a.m.u what we did was, we took 3 samples one each of
Hydrogen, Sodium and Oxygen such that:
Element Atomic mass in amu Mass of sample taken

H 1 a.m.u. 1g
Na 23 a.m.u. 23 g
O 16 a.m.u. 16 g
And number of atoms in each of these samples was calculated somehow (dont focus on
method of calculation). And to everyones surprise the number of atoms of every element in
these three samples was found to be the same.
No. of atoms of every element in above samples = 6.022 1023 atoms

This number is termed as Avogadros number or Avogadros constant. For convenience
it was also termed as 1 mole.
That is: 1 mole = 6.022 1023
Mole is just a term to denote this number, nothing else. As we use 1 million = 106 in the
same way we can say 1 mole = 6.022 1023.
TM 5 MOLE CONCEPT
Look at the following examples:
Number of atoms of Na in 23 g sample = 1 mole atoms of Na = NA atoms of Na (Avogadros number)
Number of atoms of Na in 230 g sample = 10 mole atoms of Na
That is: If 23 a.m.u. of Na means 1 atom of sodium then 23 g means 1 mole atoms of
sodium.
Important - 3
Remember: 23 g Na cannot represent 1 atom of Na, atom cannot be this big!!
Therefore we can now define atomic mass of an element in grams:

Mass of one mole of atoms of an element in grams is called Molar Atomic mass in grams
(which is numerically equal to atomic mass in amu)
Class Example-2:
What is the atomic mass of Sulphur?
Sol. The atomic mass of sulphur is 32u.
i.e. Mass of 1 atom of S = 32u. & Mass of 6 1023 atoms of S = 32g.
Class Example-3:
Calculate the number of atoms of elements in the following samples:
(a) 200 g He (b) 1600 g O
(c) 2300 amu Na (d) 2.3 kg Na
(e) 320 amu S (f) 32 kg S
Sol. (a) Atomic mass of He = 4u.
\ Molar atomic mass of He = 4g.
\ No. of atoms in 4g of He = NA = 6.022 1023.
NA
\ No. of atoms in 200g of He = 200 = 50 NA = 50 6.022 1023
4
= 3.011 1025 Ans.
(b) Molar atomic mass of O = 16g.
\ No. of atoms in 16g of O = NA = 6.0221023
\ No. of atoms in 1600g of O = 100 NA
= 6.0221025 Ans.
(c) Atomic mass of Na = 23u.
No. of atoms in 23u Na =1.
\ No. of atoms in 2300 u Na = 100 Ans.
(d) Atomic mass of Na = 23u; Molar atomic mass of Na = 23g.
\ 23g of Na contains 6.022 1023 atoms.
\ 2300g of Na contains 6.022 1025 atoms Ans.
(e) Mass of 1 atom of S = 32 u.
\ No. of atoms of S in 32u =1
1
\ No. of atoms S in 320 u = 320 = 10 Ans.
32
(f) Mass of 1 atom of S = 32u.
\ Molar Mass of S = 32g.
No. of atoms of S in 32g = 6.022 1023
\ No. of atoms of S in 32 kg = 6.022 1026 = 6.022 1026 Ans.
MOLE CONCEPT 6 TM
Important - 4
Repeat this funda of a.m.u. and g until clear, very critical and give answers in mole,
NA and actual number
Now, we have to relate g and a.m.u.

Relationship between grams and amu :
1 atom of Hydrogen = 1 a.m.u.
2 atoms of Hydrogen = 2 a.m.u.
100 atoms of Hydrogen = 100 a.m.u.
...........
NA atoms of Hydrogen = NA a.m.u.
Now we also know NA atoms of Hydrogen = 1 g (atomic mass)
Therefore,
1 g = NA a.m.u.
OR
1 a.m.u. = (1 / NA) g = 1.66 10-24 g
Class Example-4:
Calculate the mass of one oxygen atom in grams.
Sol. Mass of 1 O atom = 16u.
\ Molar mass of O = 16g.
16g of O contains 6.022 1023 atoms
\ Mass of 6.022 1023 O atoms = 16g.
16
\ Mass of 1 O atoms = 10 -23 g
6.022
= 2.658 1023g Ans.
Class example-5:
Calculate the mass of 100 atoms of He in grams.
Sol. Molar atomic mass of He = 4g.
6.022 1023 He atoms have a mass of 4g.
4 100g 20
\ 100 He atoms have a mass of = 10-22 g
6.022 10 23
3.011
= 6.67 1022g Ans.
multiply by multiply by
Mass MOLAR AVOGADROS Number

of Moles
MASS NUMBER of atoms
substance
divide by divide by
This flowchart illustrates the mass-mole-number
TM 7 MOLE CONCEPT
1.4 Molecules & Molecular Mass
The next question is: What are Molecules?

Molecules are group of two or more atoms of the same or different elements
E.g. : CO2 represents a molecule of carbon-di-oxide containing 1 atom of C and 2 atoms of O.
C6H12O6 represents a molecule of Glucose containing 6 atoms of C, 12 atoms of H and 6
atoms of O.
And the obvious next question that should come to our minds: How do we measure the mass
of one molecule?
The answer is pretty simple: Add the mass of all the atoms present in the given molecule.
Eg: Mass of 1 CO2 molecule = 12 a.m.u. + 2 16 a.m.u. = 44 a.m.u.
Mass of 1 Glucose molecule = 6 12 + 12 1 + 6 16 = 180 a.m.u.
This means:
44 a.m.u. = 1 molecule of CO2
440 a.m.u. = 10 molecules of CO2
And therefore, by the relation between grams and a.m.u. we can say that:
44 g = 1 mole molecules of CO2 = NA molecules of CO2

Remember: On changing a.m.u. into g, the number of molecules get multiplied by 1 mole.
Therefore, we can now define molecular mass of a compound.
Mass of one molecule in a.m.u. or the mass of one mole of molecules in grams is called
Molecular mass of a compound.
Units of Molecular Mass = g / mol
Molecular mass in g is also called Molar Mass.
Class Example-6 :
For Glucose, C6H12O6 calculate the following:
(a) Molecular mass in g and a.m.u.
(b) Number of molecules of glucose in 5400 a.m.u.
(c) Number of atoms of every element in 5400 a.m.u.
(d) Number of molecules of glucose in 5400 g
(e) Number of atoms of every element in 5400 g
Sol. (a) Formula of glucose : C6H12O6.
\ 1 Molecule of glucose has 6C, 12H & 60 atoms.
\ Molecule mass of glucose = 6 atomic mass of C + 12 at. Mass of H + 6 atomic
mass of O.
= 6 12u + 12 1u + 6 16u.
= (72 + 12 + 96) u
= 180 u Ans.
\ Molar mol. mass of glucose = 180g Ans.
(b) Mol. mass of glucose = 180u.
\ 180u glucose contains 1 molecule.
1
\ 5400 u glucose contains 5400 molecules.
180
= 30 molecules of glucose. Ans.
MOLE CONCEPT 8 TM
(c) We know 1 molecule of glucose contains 6C; 12H & 60 atoms.

\ 30 molecules of glucose contains 180C, 360H, 1800 atoms Ans.
(d) Molar mol. mass of glucose = 180g.
\ 180g of glucose contains 6.022 1023 molecules.
6.022 1023
\ 5400g of glucose contains 5400 molecules.
180
= 1.8066 1025 molecules Ans.
(e) Again ; 1 molecule of glucose contains 6C ; 12H & 6 O atoms.
\ 1.8066 1025 molecule of glucose contains 6 1.8066 1025 C atoms.
= 1.08396 1026 C atoms, 1.08396 1026 O atoms, = 2.16792 1026 H atoms Ans.
Important - 5
Focus on the difference in 5400 a.m.u. and 5400 g
Class Example-7:
(a) Calculate the mass of one molecule of H2SO4 in a.m.u. and grams.
(b) Calculate the number of atoms of every element in a sample of sulphuric acid
weighing 4.9 kg.
Sol. (a) Mol. mass of H2SO4 = 2 1u + 1 32u + 4 16 u
2H atoms, 1S atom, 4O atoms = 98u Ans.
\ Molar moleculas mass of H2SO4 = 98g.
\ 6.022 1023 molecules of H2SO4 weigh 98g.
98
\ 1 molecule of H2SO4 weigh 10-23 g = 16.267 1023 g Ans.
6.022
(b) 1 molecule of H2SO4 contains 2H, 1S & 4 O atoms.
\ n molecules of H2SO4 contains 2nH ; nS & 4n O atoms.
Now, 98g of H2SO4 contains 6.022 1023 H2SO4 molecules.
4900
\ 4900g of H2SO4 contains 6.022 1023 H2SO4 molecules.
98
= 3.011 1025 molecules.
\ No. of H, S & O atoms are calculated by putting n = 3.011 1026.
\ H :- 6.022 1025, S :- 3.011 1025, O :- 1.2044 1025 Ans.
Stress Point : Avogadro number is a fundamental physical constant.
TM 9 MOLE CONCEPT
Illustration-2: Olmsted and Williams Pg 110 Figure 3-15
Mass SUBSTANCE Moles AVOGADROS Number

of sample MOLAR MASSS of NUMBER of molecules
substance
divide by divide by
MOLECULAR
FORMULA
Number
Mass ELEMENTAL Moles AVOGADROS of atoms
of each MOLAR MASS of each NUMBER of each
element element
element
divide by divide by
This flowchart illustrates the mass-mole-number

relationships for a compound.
MOLE CONCEPT 10 TM
LECTURE - 2
Important Funda Question

Class Example-8:
Haemoglobin contains 0.25% iron by weight. The molecular weight of Haemoglobin
is 89600. Calculate the no. of iron atom per molecule of Haemoglobin.
Sol. Molecular weight of Hb = 89600u.
0.25
Now, 0.25% of it is weight of Fe = 89600u = 224 u
100
We know atomic mass of Fe = 56u.
\ No. of Fe atoms in 56u is 1
\ No. of Fe atoms in 224u is 4 Ans.

Class Example-9: Source : Numerical Chemistry, P. Bahadur, Page-118, Q 28 (Insulin)
Insulin contains 3.2% sulphur by mass Calculate minimum mol. wt. of insulin.
Sol. Insulin contains 3.2% sulphur. by wt.
If. mol. wt. of insulin = x. amu.
\ wt. of sulphur in insulin = (0.032 x) amu.

Also, wt. of 1 sulphur atom = 32 amu.
Suppose insulin contains n sulphur atoms is 1 molecule of insulin.
\ Total wt. of sulphur in 1 insulin molecule = (32 n) amu.
\ 32n = 0.032x. ; Now to minimize x; n =1.
32000
\ x= u = 1000u Ans.
32
Now we will study :
Chemical Reactions and Law of conservation of mass
Stoichiometry
Limiting Reagent and Excess Reactant
Mole- Mass relations
2.1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
First and foremost Question: What is a chemical Reaction?
Rearrangement of atoms between various molecules of the reactants to form new

molecules of Products is called Chemical Reaction.
In a non-radioactive chemical reaction, atoms are always conserved as only rearrangement

takes place. Atoms are conserved and thats why mass is also conserved. This is termed as
Law of conservation of atoms and Law of conservation of mass.
Example of Chemical Reaction: N2 + 3H2 2NH3
TM 11 MOLE CONCEPT
2.2 Stoichiometry
Now the next question that arises: What is stoichiometry?
Stoichiometry is study of chemical reactions and calculations related to it.
To study any chemical reaction, first of all we always balance it. Balancing involves equating
the number of atoms of every element involved on the both sides of a chemical reaction.
That is applying the law of conservation of atoms on a chemical reaction.
Unbalanced Equation: SO2 + O2 SO3
Balanced Chemical Equation: 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation are called stoichiometric coefficients of

reactants and products. For example, in the above balanced equation the coefficients are 2,
1 and 2 for SO2, O2 and SO3 respectively. These coefficients represent the number of molecules
of every compound reacting in the reaction and number of molecules of products formed.
Important - 6
Number of molecules need not be conserved in a chemical reaction.
Next Question: Do the stoichiometric coefficients represent mass?

This is a common misconception that the coefficients represent mass; they represent number
of molecules which on multiplying by Avogadros number get converted into moles. This can
be easily explained by the following example:
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
NA (2 molecules + 1 molecule 2 molecules)
2 mol + 1 mol 2 mol
4 mol + 2 mol 4 mol
No moles of the reactants will be left.
Limiting Reagent
Important - 7
As shown above, in any chemical reaction if the moles of reactants are taken in the
stoichiometric ratio then the reaction is complete with no reactants left behind. But if
they are not in the stoichiometric ratio then one of the reactants will be exhausted
before the others. This reactant will limit the progress of the reaction and thats why it
is called Limiting Reagent.
The reactant that gets exhausted first and limits the reaction is called Limiting Reagent.
Similarly there are those reactants which are left at the end of the reaction.
MOLE CONCEPT 12 TM
The reactants which are left at the end of the reaction are called Excess Reagent.
LR ER
Eg: 3A + 6B 3C + 5D 3mol A 5 molD
i 9 mol 27 mol 9 mol 15 mol 9 mol 15 mol
f 0 mol 18
9 mol
The amount of products can be calculated by taken the stoichiometric ratios and identifying
limiting reagent in a reaction. The amount can also be calculated from the excess reactant
but we have to take the amount reacting in that case as all excess reactant does not react.
Class Example-10 :
Identify the Limiting Reagent (LR) and Excess Reactant (ER) in the following reactions
and also calculate the moles of the products formed and reactants left behind.
(a) 7A + 6B 3C + 4D
i 21 mol 24 mol
(b) 2A + 3B 4C + D
i 20 mol 25 mol
(c) 10A + 7B 2C + 6D
i 30 mol 21 mol
2.3 Stoichiometric Calculations
If instead of moles, the amount of reactants is given in grams or kg then there can be two
ways of carrying out the calculations, either convert the mass into moles by dividing by
Molar mass or find out the mass relationship of the reaction by stoichiometry and then apply
the unitary calculations.
Case-1: (Converting mass into moles)

To calculate the wt. of SO3 produced by starting with 2.56g SO2 by the reaction
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
2mol 1 mol 2 mol
Mol. wt : 64g/mol. 32g/mol. 80g/mol.
2.56
\ No. of moles of SO2 in 2.56g = = 0.04
64
\ No. of moles of SO3 produced = 0.04.
\ wt. of SO3 produced = 80 0.04 = 3.2g Ans.
Case-2: (Converting moles into mass)

For the above reaction calculate the wt of SO3 produced starting with 3.7 g SO2.
2.56 g of SO2
128g SO2 produces = 160g SO3
160
3.7g SO2 produces = 3.7 =4.625g SO
128 3
TM 13 MOLE CONCEPT
Class Example-11:
What mass of CaO will be formed on heating 5 kg of CaCO3?
Sol. CaCO3 CaO + CO2.
1 molecule 1 molecule 1 molecule
1 Mole 1 Mole 1 Mole
\ 100 g 56 g 44 g.
Q 100 g CaCO3 gives 56g CaO
56
\ 5000g CaCO3 gives 5000g CaO
100
= 2800 g = 2.8 kg CaO Ans.
Class Example-12: Schaum Series,Pg 165, Q 11.2
Calculate the number of mol of Ca(HCO3)2 required to prepare 1.50 mol of CO2
according to the equation
Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O
Sol. Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O
?? (moles) 1.5 moles.
1 mol. of Ca (HCO3)2 gives 2 moles of CO2.
1
\ To produce 1.5 moles of CO2; moles of Ca (HCO3)2 needed = 1.5
2
0.75 moles Ans.
Class Example-13: Schaum Series, Pg 166, Q 11.6
The equation for the reaction of sucrose (sugar) with oxygen is

C12H22O11 + 12O2 12CO2 + 11H2O
How many g of CO2 is produced per g of sucrose used? How many g of oxygen gas is
needed to react with 1.00 g of sucrose?
Sol. C12H22O11 + 12O2 12CO2 + 11H2O
1g.
1 molecule of sucrose produces 12 molecules of CO2.
\ 1mole of sucrose produces 12 moles of CO2.

\ 342g of sucrose produces 12 44g of CO2
12 44
\ 1g of sucrose produces g of CO . = 1.54g Ans.
342 2
Also, 342 g of sucrose reacts with 12 32g of O2
12 32
\ 1g of sucrose reacts with g of O2. = 1.02g of O2 Ans.
342
MOLE CONCEPT 14 TM
Class Example-14: Source : Numerical Chemistry, P. Bahadur, Pg 123, Problem 43
The reaction, 2C + O2 2CO is carried out by taking 24 g of carbon and 96 g O2, find
out:
(a) Which reactant is left in excess?
(b) How much of it is left?
(c) How many mole of CO are formed?
(d) How many g of other reactant should be taken so that nothing is left at the end of
reaction?
Sol. 2C + O2 2CO
24g 96g
(a) 2 moles of C reacts with 1 mole of O2.
\ 24g of C reacts with 32g of O2.
But weight of O2 taken is 96g which is greater than 32g.
\ O2 is in excess Ans.
(b) Moles of O2 needed for reacting with 2 moles of C =1 .
96
Moles of O2 taken = = 3.
32
1 moles of O2 in excess = 3 - 1 = 2 moles Ans.
(c) Moles of CO formed by reacting 2 moles of C = 2 Ans.
(d) 1 mole of O2 reacts with 2 moles of C.
\ 3 moles of O2 reacts with 2 3 moles of C.
= 6 moles of C.
\ Wt. of C needed to react completely with 96g O2 = 72g Ans.
TM 15 MOLE CONCEPT
LECTURE - 3
Class Example-15: (Sequential Reactions) Schaum Series, Pg 178, Q 11.68
For the reaction 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3, 4.80 g of oxygen is used to burn 0.150 mol of
iron. What mass of Fe2O3 will be produced? What mass of Fe will be left over at the end
of the reaction? What mass of O2 will be left over at the end of the reaction?
Sol. 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
0.15 mol. 4.8g O2.
4.8
moles of O2 taken = = 0.15
32
Now, 4 moles of Fe reacts with 3 moles of O2.
3
\ 0.15 moles of Fe needs 0.15 moles of O2.
4
= 0.1125 moles of O2.
But moles of O2 taken is greater than 0.1125
\ O2 is in excess & Fe is the Limiting reagent.
Q 4 moles of Fe produces 2 moles of Fe2O3.
\ 0.15 moles of Fe produces 0.075 moles of Fe2O3.
\ Mass of Fe2O3 produced = 0.075 (2 56 + 3 16).
3
= 0.075 160 = 160 = 12g Ans.
40
Moles of O2 in excess = 0.15 0.1125 = 0.0375
\ mass of O2 in excess = 1.2 g Ans.

Class Example-16 : (Sequential Reactions) Schaum Series, Pg 172, Q 11.43
KClO4 may be made by means of the following series of reactions :
Cl2 + 2KOH KCl + KClO + H2O
3KClO 2KCl + KClO3
4KClO3 3KClO4 + KCl
How much Cl2 is needed to prepare 200 g KClO4 by the above sequence?
Sol. Cl2 + 2KOH KCl + KClO + H2O
3KClO 2KCl + KClO3
4KClO3 3KClO4 + KCl.
Let moles of KClO4 be x.
\ moles of KClO3 in eq 3 = 4/3 x
\ moles of KClO in eq 2 = 4x moles of Cl2 = 4x.
Now,
200 200
x= \ moles of Cl2 = 4.
138.5 138.5
200 4 71
\ wt. of Cl2 = = 410.108 g Ans.
138.5
MOLE CONCEPT 16 TM
In the last lecture we covered the following topics:
Stoichiometry of a reaction
Calculations based on that
Limiting and Excess Reactants
Mass-mole calculations
Mole-mass calculations
3.1 Percent Yield
Percent Yield of a Reaction:

Lets start from a small but important concept called Percent Yield of a reaction. Not all
the reactions produce the amount of product which is expected from stoichiometric
calculations. This happens due to processes involved and practical problems. The amount of
a product obtained from a reaction is often described in terms of yield of the reaction. The
quantity of product predicted by stoichiometry is called Theoritical yield whereas the amount
actually obtained is called Actual Yield. Percent Yield is defined by the ratio of the two.
Percent Yield = (Actual Yield / Theoritical Yield) 100
Class Example-17:
A on controlled oxidation gives X according to the reaction
2A + 9B 2X + 4Y + 4Z.
Some of the reactant A oxidizes into some other product and only 70% of the maximum
yield predicted by the equation is actually obtained. What weight of X is produced if the
weight of A taken is 200g and the mol. wts. of A & X are 128 & 148 gms/mole respectively.
actual yield
Sol. % yield = theoritical yield .
Here, % yield = 70%

actual yield can be obtained by stoichiometry as shown below
2 molecules of A gives 2 molecules of X.
\ 2 moles of A will give 2 moles of X.
or, 1 mole of A will give 1 mole of X.
\ 128g of A will give 148g of X.
148
\ 200g of A will give 200g of X.
128
= 231.25 g.
actual yield 70
\ = actual yield = 231.25 0.7g = 161.875g Ans.
231.25g 100
TM 17 MOLE CONCEPT
Class Example-18: (Tutorial 2 (2009) Ques. 16)
Calculate the amount of lime (CaO) that can be prepared by heating 200 kg of limestone
that is 95.0% pure CaCO3.
Sol. 106.4 Kg
CaCO3 D
CaO + CO2
200kg (95%) ?
wt. of CaCO3 taken = 200 kg
\ wt. of pure CaCO3 taken = 0.95200103g
0.95 200
\ moles of pure CaCO3 = 103 moles.
100
= 1.9 103 moles
\ moles of CaO produced = 1.9 103 moles
\ wt. of CaO produced = (1.9 56 103)g
= 106.4 Kg Ans.
3.2 Strength of Solutions
Reactions in Aqueous Media:
Some reactions take place in water. For example, if we have to react two salts which are in
solid phase, then we have to make two solutions of the salts in water and then mix them and
then they will react and products will be formed. Before proceeding ahead we will take a look
at what is a solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components.
A solution which contains only two components is called Binary Solution. The major
component is called Solvent and the minor one is called Solute.
The amount of solute dissolved per unit solution or solvent is called Strength of solution
There are various methods of measuring strength of a solution:
1. Mole Fraction:
It represents the moles of a solute present in one mole of solution
Mole Fraction, X = (Moles of a component / Total Moles in solution)
For example, in a solution of 36 g water (H2O) and 46 g ethanol, (C2H5OH) there are 2
moles of water and 1 mol of ethanol and therefore their mole fractions are:
Xwater = 2/3 and XEthanol = 1/3
2. Mass Percent (%w/w strength):
It represents mass of a solute present in 100 g of solution

Mass Percent = (Mass of solute/Mass of solution)100
For example, if a solution is 30%w/w then in 100 g of it there are 30 g of solute and 70
g of solvent.
MOLE CONCEPT 18 TM
3. Mass by volume percent (%w/v strength):
It represents mass of solute in grams present in 100 mL of solution
Mass by volume percent = (Mass of solute in g/Volume of solution in mL)100
For example, if a solution is 45%w/v it means in 100 mL of it there are 45 g of the

solute. So this one relates mass with volume.
4. Volume by volume percent (%v/v strength):
It represents volume of solute in 100 mL of solution
Volume by Volume percent = (Volume of solute/Volume of solution)100
For example, if a cough syrup is 5%v/v of alcohol then 100 mL of the syrup contains 5
mL of alcohol. This unit is applicable to Liquid-in-Liquid solutions only.
5. Grams per Litre strength (g/L):
It represents mass of solute in grams present in 1 L of solution
It is just a modification of %w/v strength.
Relationship between g/L and % w/v

1L solution 100 g (100 g/L)
or 1000 mL solution 100g
100 mL solution 10g (10% w/v)
\ g/L = 10% w/v
6. Parts per Million (ppm):
It represents mass of solute present in 106 grams (million grams) of solution
Parts Per Million = (Mass of solute/Mass of solution)106
7. Molality, m:
It represents moles of solute present per kg of solvent

Molality, m = (Moles of solute/Mass of solvent in kg)
Units of molality are mol/kg which is also represented by m or molal.
For example, 2.5 m solution means there are 2.5 moles of the solute in 1 kg of the
solvent.
TM 19 MOLE CONCEPT
8. Molarity, M:
It represents moles of solute present in 1 L of solution

Molarity, M = (Moles of solute/Volume of solution in L)
Units of Molarity are mol/L also represented by M or Molar.

1.7 M solutions means there are 1.7 moles of the solute per L of the solution. This is
one of the most important units of strength. Molarity is generally taken to be synonymous
to Concentration of a solution.

Exactly 117 g NaCl is dissolved in sufficient water to give 1500 cm3 solution. What is
the molar concentration?
Sol. Wt. of NaCl dissolved = 117g.
117
\ moles of NaCl taken = = 2.
58.5
Also vol. of solution = 1500 cc = 1500 ml = 1.5L
moles of solute 2
We know, molarity = vol. of solution in L. = 1.5 = 1.33M Ans.

What volume of 1.71 M NaCl solution contains 0.20 mol NaCl?
Sol. We know, MV = n
\ 1.71 V = 0.2
20
\V= = .117L = 117 mL Ans.
171

How many g of a 5.0% by weight NaCl solution are necessary to yield 3.2 g NaCl?
Sol. 5% by wt. NaCl 100g of solutions contains 5g of NaCl.
100
\ 3.2g of NaCl will be contained in 3.2
5
= 64g Ans.

To prepare 100.0 g of a 19.7% by weight solution of NaOH, how many g each of NaOH
and H2O are needed?
Sol. 100g of solutions should have 19.7g of NaOH.
\ wt. of NaOH needed = 19.7g
\ wt. of H2O needed = 100 19.7g = 80.3g Ans.
MOLE CONCEPT 20 TM
Many a times the above parameters are linked to each other by using density of the
solution. So its very important to be clear about the use of density as well.
Density of a solution is mass of the solution per unit volume
Density, d = (Mass of solution/Volume of solution) = m/V
Units of density may be g/mL, kg/L, kg/m3 etc.
Calculate the mass of anhydrous HCl in 5.00 mL concentrated hydrochloric acid

(density 1.19 g/mL) containing 37.23% HCl by weight.
Sol. Vol. of solutions = 5mL.
& It is given that the solution contains 37.23% by wt. HCl.
\ 100g of solutions contain 37.23g of HCl.
Now, wt. of 5mL of solution = density of solution vol of solution.

= 1.19g/mL 5mL. = 5.95g.
\ 5.95g of solutions will have

37.23
5.95 g of HCl = 2.22g of HCl Ans.
100
TM 21 MOLE CONCEPT
LECTURE - 4
Calculate the volume of concentrated sulfuric acid (density 1.84 g/mL), containing
98.0% H2SO4 by weight, that would contain 40.0 g pure H2SO4.
Sol. Given, 100g of solution contains 98g of H2SO4.
Q 98g of H2SO4 is contained in 100g of solution
100 2000
\ 40g of H2SO4 is contained in 40g of solution = g.
98 49
Given density = 1.84g/mL; vol. of solutions = Mass = 2000

density 49 1.84
= 22.2mL Ans.
Important funda question

Class Example-25:
A 49% w/w solution of H2SO4 in water has a density of 1.2 g/mL. Calculate the Molarity
and Molality of the solution.
Sol. In questions like this always take a basis first keeping in mind what to calculate.
In this case a very good basis will be 100 g of the solution as mass percent is given.
100 g solution will contain 49 g H2SO4 which is equal to (49/98) mol = 0.5 mol
The volume of 100 g solution can be calculated by dividing the mass by density. But the
volume obtained will be in mL which will have to be divided by 1000 to convert in L.
Volume = (100/1.2)(1/1000) = (1/12) L
Molarity = mol/volume = 0.5 / (1/12) = 6 M Ans.

For calculating molality, we will have to find out the mass of solvent in kg
Mass of solvent = Mass of solution Mass of solute

= 100 g 49 g = 51 g = (51/1000) kg
Molality = moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg = 0.5 / (51/1000) = 9.8 m Ans.
MOLE CONCEPT 22 TM
Algorithm Approach :
Given : mass %, density of solution (g/mL)
To Calculate : Molarity
Molecular
weight
Mass of Moles of
solute solute
Interpret
Strength Molarity
(Mass%)
Mass of Volume of
solution solution
density
of solution
x solution 10
Molarity = Mo
x : Mass percent
rsolution : Density of solution in g/mL
Mo : Molecular weight of solute
Given : mass %
To Calculate : Molality
Mol. Mass
Mass of Mass of
solute solute
Molality
Interpret
Strength Mass of
(mass%) solvent
Convert
wt to kg.
Mass of
solution
1000x
Molality =
Mo (100 - x)
x : Mass percent
Mo : Molecular wt. of solute.
Given : Mole fraction of solute (Xsolute), rsoln. (g/mL)
To Calculate : Molarity
1000 X solute soln.
Molarity =
X solute Msolute + (1 - x) Msolvent
Given : Mole fraction of solute (Xsolute)

To Calculate : Molality
1000 X solute
Molality = (1 - X) Msolvent
TM 23 MOLE CONCEPT
4.1 VARIATION OF STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS
Dilution of Solution:
Dilution means decreasing the strength / concentration of the solution. A solution can be
diluted by adding more solvent to it. In the process of dilution moles of solute remains constant.
Volume increases and Molarity decreases.
n = M V = constant
\ M 1 V1 = M 2 V2
Important - 8
It is important remember that it is the no. of moles that is conserved i.e.

M1V1 = n = M2V2
Where 1 and 2 represent the state before and after dilution respectively. For subsequent
dilutions:
M1V1 = M2V2 = M3V3 = ......so on
If two solutions of the same solute are added then the moles of solute and volumes of solution
both get added and the new molarity can be calculated by-
MNEW = (M1V1 + M2V2) / (V1 + V2)
Calculate the final concentration of solute after 250 mL of 5.0 M antifreeze solution
and 500 mL of 4.0 M antifreeze solution are combined and diluted to 2.0 L with water.
Sol. First let us consider the first solution :-
moles of solutions = M1V1 = 250mL 5.0 moles/lt.
= 0.25 5 moles = 1.25 moles.
Now, in second solution :-
moles of solutions = M2V2 = 500 mL 4.0 moles/lt.
= 0.5 4 moles = 2 moles.
\ On mixing these two solutions :-
Total moles of solute = 1.25 + 2 = 3.25
Final vol. of solution after mixing = (0.25 + 0.5)L = 0.75
\ New molarity after mixing = 3.25 = 13 M

0.75 3
13
Now, by dilution law; 0.75 = M 2 M = 1.625 M
3 2 2
\ Final molarity = 1.625M Ans.
MOLE CONCEPT 24 TM
What volume of 96.0% H2SO4 solution (density 1.83 g/mL) must be used to prepare
2.00 L of 3.00 M H2SO4 solution?
Sol. We need 2L of 3M H2SO4 solution.
\ Moles of H2SO4 needed = 2 3 = 6 moles.
\ wt. of H2SO4 required = 6 98 = 588g.
Also given that 96g of H2SO4 is contained in 100g of solution taken.
100
\ 588g of H2SO4 is contained in 588 g of solution taken.
96
= 612.5g
612.5
\ vol. of solutions needed = = 334.699 mL Ans.
1.83
Class Example-28: (Tutorial - 3 (2009) question - 8)

3 3
A procedure calls for 100 cm of 20.0% H2SO4, density 1.14 g/cm . How much concentrated
3
acid, of density 1.84 g/cm and containing 98.0% H2SO4 by weight, must be diluted with
3
water to prepare 100 cm acid of the required strength?
Sol. We are diluting 98% H2SO4 to make it 20% H2SO4
mass of solute will remain same.

Lets assume we have V mL of 98% H2SO4 solution
mass of solution = (1.84 V) g
100g solution contains = 98g H2SO4
(1.84 V) g solution contains = 0.98 (1.84 V) g H2SO4

Now same mass of H2SO4 should be present in 20% H2SO4 solution
mass of solution = 1.14 100 = 114g
100g solution contains = 20g H2SO4
114g solution contains = 22.8g H2SO4
\ 22.8 = 0.98 (1.84V)
V = 12.6 mL
Effect of Temperature on Molality and Molarity:

Molality is independent of temperature as neither moles nor mass is affected by change in
temperature. But volume is affected by this change and therefore Molarity also changes. In
general volume of a liquid increases with increase in Temperature thereby decreasing the
Molarity.
FYI
We are talking about variation of molarity and molarity with temperature with an
assumption that the solution is a closed system and no loss of any kind is happening.
TM 25 MOLE CONCEPT
4.2 Application On Stoichiometry
Application of Molarity on Stoichiometry:
When reactions take place in solution phase, then many a times strength terms are used to
represent the amount of reactants. Mostly the term used is molarity. We have to remember
that moles can be calculated if we have molarity and volume.
Number of moles, n = M V
And after calculating moles, the concept of Limiting Reagent and Excess Reactant can be
applied easily, and even the final molarities of products and excess reactants calculated.
Calculate the concentration of an HCl solution if 2.50 mL of the solution took 4.50
mL of 3.00 M NaOH to neutralize.
Sol. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
\ 1 mole of HCl requires 1 mole of NaOH for reaction.
Now, moles of NaOH taken = 4.5 103 3
= 13.5 103 moles.
\ Moles of HCl required = 13.5 103 moles
Given, vol. of HCl = 2.5mL. = 2.5 103 L.
n 13.5 10 -3
\ Molarity of HCl = = = 5.4M Ans.
v 2.5 10-3
What volume of 0.20 M H2SO4 is required to produce 34.0 g H2S by the reaction
8KI + 5H2SO4 4K2SO4 + 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O?
Solution : 8KI + 5H2SO4 4K2SO4 + 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O.
34
moles of H2S produced = =1
34
\ moles of H2SO4 req. = 5
given molarity = 0.2
n 5
\ volume needed = = = 25L Ans.
M 0.2
MOLE CONCEPT 26 TM
A 40.0 mL sample of Na2SO4 solution is treated with an excess of BaCl2. If the mass
of the precipitated BaSO4 is 2.33 g, what is the molar concentration of the Na2SO4
solution? (Atomic Mass of Ba = 137)
Solution : BaCl2 + Na2SO4 BaSO4 + 2NaCl
2.33g.
wt. of BaSO4 deposited = 2.33g
2.33
\ moles of BaSO4 deposited = = 0.01
233
\ moles of Na2SO4 needed = 0.01
given volume = 40mL = 0.04L
n 0.01
\ molarity = = = 0.25M Ans.
v 0.04
TM 27 MOLE CONCEPT
LECTURE - 5
5.1 Some Important Points to Remember

'' molecular weight ''
Vapour Density (V.D.) of a gas is mathematically equal to .
2
When gases are involved in a chemical reaction and their volume is given we can use
the fact that one mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.4 L at STP
STP means Standard Temperature and Pressure that is 00C and 1 atm
We can also apply the equation PV = nRT but it will be covered later on
Condition T P Vm (Molar Volume)

1
Latest S.T.P 273.15 L 1 bar 22.7 L mol
3 3 1
or 22.7 10 m mol
1
Earlier S.T.P 273.15 L 1 atm 22.4 L mol
3 3 1
or 22.4 10 m mol
1
S.A.T.P. 273.15 L 1 atm 24.8 L mol
3 3 1
or 24.8 10 m mol
5.2 Empirical & Molecular Formula
Mass Percentage composition of a molecule:
We can calculate the mass percentage composition of a molecule by dividing the mass of
individual elements present in one mole of it by the Molecular mass of the compound.
Mass Percent = (Mass of an element in 1 mol / Molar Mass of the compound) 100
For example, if we take Glucose the in 180 g of C6H12O6 there are 6 12 = 72 g carbon
therefore mass percentage of carbon is (72/180) 100 = 40%
Empirical and Molecular Formulae:
Empirical Formula represents the atoms present in a molecule of a compound in their

simplest whole number ratio.
Molecular formula represents the actual number of atoms in a molecule of a compound.
For example, the empirical formula of glucose, C6H12O6 is CH2O and the former represents
the molecular formula.
n-factor :- The number which when multiplied to the empirical formula gives the molecular
formula is called then n-factor denoted by n i.e. (empirical formula)n molecular formula.
molecular weight of the compound
Also n =
Empirical formula weight
MOLE CONCEPT 28 TM
Determination of Empirical and Molecular Formulae from mass percent composition data:
If mass percent composition of a compound is given then the molar ratios of all the atoms
can be calculated by dividing them by respective atomic weights and converting it into simple
whole number ratios the empirical formula can be determined. Then by knowing the ratio of
molecular formula mass and empirical formula mass (n-factor) the molecular formula may
be deduced.
Class Example-32: Schaum Series, Pg 54, 4.89
Derive the empirical formula of a hydrocarbon that on analysis gave the following
percent composition: C = 85.63%, H = 14.37%.
Sol. C : 85.63% H = 14.37%
85.63 14.37
\ C: = 7.13 H:
12 1
7.13 14.3
\ nc = =1 nH =2
7.13 7.13
Emp. for = CH2.

A compound has the following percent composition :
C = 40.0%, H = 6.67%, O = 53.3%.
Its molecular weight is 60.0. Derive its molecular formula.
Sol. C : 40% H = 6.67% O = 53.3%
40 6.67 53.53
\C= H: O:
12 1 16
= 3.33C = 6.66H = 3.33 O
\ nC = 1 nH = 2 nO = 1
\ Empirical formula = CH2O.
mol. wt. of empirical formula = 30.
given, mol. wt. of compound = 60.
\ n factor = 2
\ compound = C2H4O2
Class Example-34: (Tutorial -4 (2009) Ques. 12)
A 15.00g sample of an unstable hydrated salt, Na2SO4 .xH2O, was found to contain
7.05 g of water. Determine the empirical formula of the salt.
Sol. 15g. Na2SO4. xH2O contains 7.05g water.
From formula we know that 1 molecule contains x water molecules or, (142+18x)g
contains 18x g of H2O.
18x 7.05
\ = 18 (15 - 7.05)x = 142 7.05
142 + 18x 15
\x=7
\ Empirical formula = Na2SO4 7 H2O
TM 29 MOLE CONCEPT
5.3 Laws of Chemical Combination
These are primitive laws which define chemical combination in a compound or compounds.
(a) Law of conservation of mass:
In a chemical reaction the mass of reactants consumed and mass of the products
formed is same, that is mass is conserved.
This is a direct consequence of law of conservation of atoms.
(b) Law of Constant / Definite Proportions:

The ratio in which two or more elements combine to form a compound remains fixed
and is independent of the source of the compound.
For example: In CO2 the ratio in which C and O combine is 12:32 = 3:8 and this remains
fixed whatever the source of the gas is.
(c) Law of Multiple Proportions:

When two elements combine to form two or more compounds then the ratio of masses
of one element that combines with a fixed mass of the other element in the two
compounds is a simple whole number ratio.
For Example: Lets take two compounds as N2O and NO2:
Mass of Nitrogen combining with 16 g oxygen in N2O = 28 g
Mass of Nitrogen combining with 16 g oxygen in NO2 = 7 g
Ratio of the masses of Nitrogen combining with a fixed mass of oxygen = 28:7 = 4:1
And hence, the law of multiple proportions is applicable.
(d) Law of Reciprocal Proportions:

When three elements combine with each other in combination of two and form three
compounds then the ratio of masses of two elements combining with fixed mass of the
third and the ratio in which they combine with each other bear a simple whole number
ratio to each other
H(2g)
H2S H2O
S(32g) SO2 O(16g)
For example: Lets take SO2, H2S and H2O
Ratio in which H and O combine with 32 g of S in H2S and SO2 = 2: 32 = 1: 16
Ratio in which H and O combine in H2O = 2: 16
MOLE CONCEPT 30 TM
Ratio of the above two ratios = 1: 2
Therefore the two ratios bear a simple whole number ratio to each other and that is
law of reciprocal proportions.
All these laws indicate that in chemical combination atoms combine in whole numbers
with each other.
5.4 Principle Of Atomic Conservation (POAC)
Conservation of atoms may be applied on certain cases of stoichiometric calculations but

with a lot of caution. If atoms of particular element are neither added nor lost in a sequence
of reactions then conservation can be applied on that particular atom and stoichiometric
calculations may be done without writing chemical equations at all.
For example:
X mol of A2B3 Y mol A3C5 Z mol A5D7
If in the whole sequence A was neither added nor removed then its number of atoms should
be conserved, that is:
2X mol = 3Y mol = 5Z mol
Even if A is removed or added those moles can be taken into account for conservation, but lot
of involuntary errors may occur in this short cut method.
Class Example-35:
27.6g of K2CO3 was treated by a series of reagents so as to convert all of its carbon to
K 2 Zn 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ] 2 . Calculate t he weight of t he pr oduct . (Molecular Mass
of K2Zn3 [Fe (CN)6]2 = 698.5)
Sol. K2CO3
reagents.
K2 Zn3 [Fe (CN)6]2.

concentrating only on the carbon atoms & balancing it
Product side :- 1 molecule contains 12 C atoms.
& 12 K2CO3 molecules can provide 12 C atoms.
1
\ moles of product = moles of K 2CO3
12
Given; wt. of K2CO3 = 27.6g.
27.6
\ moles of K2CO3 = = 0.2
138
0.2
\ moles of product =
12
0.2
\ wt. of product = 698.5g
12
= 11.64g Ans.
TM 31 MOLE CONCEPT
Class Example-36: Source : Chemical Calculations, RC Mukherjee, Pg 25, Ex 6
In a gravimetric determination of P, an aqueous solution of dihydrogen phosphate

ion H2PO4- is treated with a mixture of ammonium and magnesium ions to precipitate
magnesium ammonium phosphate, Mg(NH4)PO4 . 6H2O. This is heated and decomposed
to magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg2P2O7, which is weighed. A solution of H2PO4- yielded
1.054 g of Mg2P2O7. What weight of NaH2PO4 was present originally ?
(Na = 23, H = 1, P = 31, O = 16, Mg = 24
2+
- D
Solution : H2 PO4 Mg (NH4 ) PO4 . 6H2O
Mg
NH4+
Mg 2P2O7 .
1.054g.
Applying POAC to P
Moles of NaH2PO4 = 2 moles of Mg2P2O7.
1.054
now, moles of Mg2P2O7 =
222
wt. of NaH2PO4 2 1.054

=
120 222
1.054 120
Wt. of NaH2PO4 =
111
= 1.14 g Ans.
FYI Module-1 Vidyamandir Page No. 17

Expressing a sample of oleum (a mixture of free SO3 and H2SO4 H2S2O7) in terms
of % H2SO4
Let us take 100g of oleum sample and let us assume that it contains x g of free SO3.
mass of H2SO4 = (100 x) g
To express the sample in terms of H2SO4, convert SO3 to H2SO4 by adding some water
into the solution
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
x
moles of SO3 =
80
moles of H2SO4 = x/80
x
mass of H2SO4 = 98 g
80
98x 18x
Total mass of H2SO4 in soln = 100 x + = 100 +
80 80
mass of H2SO4 18x

% H2SO4 in oleum = mass of oleum 100 = 100 + 80 %

MOLE CONCEPT 32 TM
TM 33 MOLE CONCEPT
No Tutorial in Lecture - 6 LECTURE - 6
6. 1 Equivalent Concept: Introduction
Equivalent concept is not just a method of solving questions; it is a way of understanding

reactions and processes involved in chemistry. There can be numerous ways to
understand the concept but the best method is to study it from the charge perspective.
We know that in nature, a unit positive charge combines with a unit negative charge.
This is the underlying principle of Equivalent Concept. We will try and understand it by
taking the example of an acid-base neutralisation reaction and then continue with our
discussion.
6.1.1 Acid-Base Neutralisation Reaction
We know that an acid is a compound which furnishes H+ ion and base is the one which
give OH- ion in water. When acid and base react with each other water and salt are
formed. This reaction is called Acid-Base Neutralisation. For example,
H2SO4 + NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
What we see above is an overall reaction which takes place inside water. But the
underlying reaction in the above process is the one between H+ ion and OH- ion to give
water.
H+ + OH H2O
In this reaction 1 mol H+ combines with 1 mol OH to give 1 mol water. We can also say
that 1 mole positive charge is combining with 1 mol negative charge in the process.
This is a universally true statement. Now, let us focus our attention on the sources of
these negative and positive charges.
Acid is source of positive charge and base is the source of negative charge. As we know 1
mol positive charge will always combine with 1 mol negative charge we can also infer that
those masses of the sources should react which furnishes 1 mol of the respective charges.
Mass of source producing 1 mol +ve charge Mass of source producing 1 mol ve charge
It can be clearly seen in the above reaction that 98 g of H2SO4 gives 2 mol +ve charge
(H+) and 40 g of NaOH gives 1 mol ve charge(OH). Therefore according to the above
relation 49 g of the acid should combine with 40 g of the base both of which are responsible
to give 1 mol of the respective charges.
98 g of H2SO4 2 mol H+
1 mol H+ 49 g H2SO4
1 mol OH 40 g NaOH
49 g H2SO4 40 g NaOH
This can be verified by a balanced chemical equation and applying mole concept. The
conclusion is:
In an acid-base reaction, that mass of an acid which give 1 mol H+ combines with that
mass of a base which gives 1 mol OH-.
From the above comes the definition of Equivalent weight and no. of equivalents for
acid and base.
The mass of an acid which furnishes 1 mol H+ is called its Equivalent mass.
The mass of the base which furnishes 1 mol OH- is called its Equivalent mass.
And according to the above concept acid and base always react in the ratio of their
Equivalent masses.
MOLE CONCEPT 34 TM
Class Example-37: (Basics of acid base reaction)

What mass of H2SO4 is required to completely react with:
(a) 80 g of NaOH
(b) 74 g Ca(OH)2
Solution:
We know that acid and base always react in the ratio of their equivalent masses:
Equivalent mass of H2SO4 = 98/2 = 49 g
Equivalent mass of NaOH = 40/1 = 40 g
Equivalent mass of Ca(OH)2 = 74/2 =37 g
Therefore,
40 g of NaOH 49 g H2SO4
80 g NaOH 98 g H2SO4
Similarly,
74 g Ca(OH)2 98 g H2SO4
6.1.2 Definition of Equivalent mass and equivalents
Now we know how to calculate the equivalent mass of an acid and a base. It is represented
by E.
M.M.
E=
Z
Where, z is called valency factor which in case of acid and base is the number of H+
and OH furnished by one molecule of the compound. As we define moles for Molar
mass we define equivalents for equivalent mass. For example, just like we say 98 g of
H2SO4 contain 1 mol of the acid, in the same way we say that 49 g contains 1 equivalent
of the acid.
No. of equivalents, eq = weight/Equivalent weight = w/E
Therefore we can say that 1 equivalent of an acid always combines with 1 equivalent
of a base.
Class Example-38: (Basics of equivalents)

Calculate the number of equivalents and milliequivalents in the following samples:
(a) 980 g H2SO4 (b) 800 g NaOH
(c) 365 g HCl (d) 7.4 g Ca(OH)2
Solution:
First calculate the equivalent weights of the compounds by using E = M/z where z is
the number of replaceable H+ or OH-.
E (H2SO4) = 49 g, E(NaOH) = 40 g, E (HCl) = 36.5 g, E (Ca(OH)2) = 74/2 = 37 g
Now divide the weights of the given samples by equivalent weights of the respective
compounds to get the number of equivalents:
Equivalents of H2SO4 = 980/49 = 20 eq = 20000 meq
Equivalents of NaOH = 800/40 = 20 eq = 20000 meq
Equivalents of HCl = 365/36.5 = 10 eq = 10000 meq
Equivalents of Ca(OH)2 = 7.4/37 = 0.2 eq = 200 meq
After this definition of equivalents we can also say acids and bases always react in
equivalents. That is 1 equivalent of an acid neutralises 1 equivalent of a base as
these are the masses that furnish 1 mol of H+ and OH respectively.
TM 35 MOLE CONCEPT
Important
1 equivalent of an acid 1 equivalent of a base
This is law of chemical equivalence applied to acids and bases.
Class Example-39: (Simple acid base reaction)

What mass of following bases is required to react completely with 3.65 g of HCl?
(a) NaOH (b) Ca(OH)2 (c) Al(OH)3
Solution: Let us go step by step:
1. First, calculate the number of equivalents of the acid present by the relation: eq = w/
E
Number of eq of acid = 3.65/36.5 = 0.1 eq
2. We know that same number of equivalents should be present in the base samples for
complete neutralisation:
Number of equivalents of the base = 0.1 eq
3. Now, to calculate the mass of the bases given multiply the number of equivalents by
the respective equivalent weight.
Weight of NaOH needed = 0.1 40 = 4 g (z =1)
Weight of Ca(OH)2 needed = 0.1 37 = 3.7 g (z=2)
Weight of Al(OH)3 needed = 0.1 26 = 2.6 g (z=3)
6.1.3 Mixture of Acids and Bases
As we have applied the law of equivalence on the reaction of one acid and one base sample, in
the same way we can apply it to a mixture as well. For complete reaction equivalents of acids
present in mixture should be equal to equivalents of bases present. This is because in equivalent
concept it doesnt matter what the compound or the balanced reaction is. We know that total H+
should be equal to total OH for complete reaction.
Total equivalents of acids = Total equivalents of bases
Class Example-40: (Mixture of acids and Bases)

A mixture of three acids 3.65 g of HCl, 4.9 g H2SO4 and 9 g H2C2O4 is made to react with
a mixture of two bases 8 g NaOH and w g Ca(OH)2. Calculate w for complete
neutralisation.
Solution:
We know that total equivalents of acids must be equal to total equivalents of bases.
S (w/E)ACIDS = S (w/E)BASES
3.65/36.5 + 4.9/49 + 9/45 = 8/40 + w/37
w = 7.4 g
If same problem would have been solved by mole concept then it would have looked
much tougher as there are multiple reactions involved. Thats why equivalent concept
is a much simpler way to solve these types of problems.
MOLE CONCEPT 36 TM
6.2 Law of Chemical Equivalence

According to this law: In any chemical combination, 1 equivalent of a reactant combines
with 1 equivalent of the other to give 1 equivalent of every product.
For example in the reaction:
aA + bB cC + dD
Irrespective of the stoichiometric coefficients 1 equivalent of A will react with 1
equivalent of B to give 1 equivalent each of C and D. That is if 4 eq of A are present with
3 eq of B then only 3 eq will react to form 3 eq each of C and D (B will be limiting
reagent).
Class example- 41: (basics of LOCE)

For the reaction 3A + 5B 6C + 7D if 10 eq of A are mixed with 20 eq of B, identify the
limiting reagent and excess reactant and calculate the equivalents of the products
formed.
Solution:
Always remember, law of chemical equivalence is independent of the stoichiometry
of the reaction. We know that 1 eq of A will react with 1 eq of B.
1 eq A 1 eq B
10 eq A 10 eq of B
Therefore B is in excess and A is limiting
1 eq A 1 eq C 1 eq D
Therefore, 10 eq of C and D will be formed.
Before we go further and understand the application of this law we will understand
how to calculate equivalent weight of other type of species involved.
6.3 Valency Factor and Equivalent Weight
We already know how to calculate the valency factor of acids and bases and their
equivalent weight.
For acids, z is the number of replaceable H+ ions in one mole of the compound.
For bases, z is the number of replaceable OH ions in one mole of the compound.
Now let us focus on ions: cations and anions. Take for example the combination of Fe2+
with Cl to form FeCl2. We know that 1 unit positive charge will combine with 1 unit
negative charge in nature.
56 g of Fe2+ = 2 mol positive charge
35.5 g of Cl = 1 mol negative charge
Therefore, 28 g of Fe2+ combines with 35.5 g Cl both carrying same amount of opposite
charges. Therefore:
Equivalent weight of Fe2+ = 56/2 = 28 g (valency factor = 2)
Equivalent weight of Cl = 35.5/1 (Valency factor = 1)
For ions, z is the amount of charge present on 1 mol of the ion/1 ion.
TM 37 MOLE CONCEPT
This is the basic principle of chemical combination (The one we studied in primary
classes). Lets try the same for Al3+ and SO42-.
1 eq of Al3+ should combine with 1 eq of SO42-
Equivalent weight of Al3+ = 27/3 = 9 g
Equivalent weight of SO42- = 96/2 = 48 g
Therefore 9 g of Al3+ will combine with 48 g of SO42-. These are also their equivalent
weights or 1 equivalent.
Now we can discuss the case of salts. Salts are compounds which give cations and
anions in water that is they furnish positive charge and negative charge. So there
primary property is to give an equal amount of positive and negative charge. For example
Na2CO3 is a salt one mole of which will give 2 unit positive charge and two units negative
charge in form of cation and anion respectively. Equivalent weight of a salt is defined
as that mass which gives 1 mol positive charge or 1 mol negative charge. For example,
106 g of Na2CO3 gives 2 mol positive and negative charge, then its equivalent weight
will be 53 g.
For salts, z is defined as the total amount of positive or negative charge furnished by 1
mol of the salt.
For example, for Al2(SO4)3 the total positive charge is 6 units and therefore z = 6.
Class Example- 42: (Ions and salts)

Determine the valency factor and calculate the equivalent weight of the following:
(a) CO32- (b) C2O42- (c) Fe3+ (d) K+
(e) FeCl3 (f) Na2SO4 (g) NaHCO3
[Ans: (2,30g); (2,44g);(3,18.67g);(1,39g);(3,54.17g);(2,71g);(1,84g)]
In case of salts we can say that 1 equivalent of a cation combines with 1 equivalent of
an anion to give 1 equivalent of the salt. Therefore, equivalent weight of the salt can
also be defined as sum of equivalent weights of cation and anion of that salt. For
example,
1 equivalent of Al2(SO4)3 = 1 equivalent of Al3+ + 1 equivalent of SO43-
E (Al2(SO4)3) = E (Al3+) + E (SO42-) = 9 + 48 = 57 g
This can be tallied by the method for the salt. For this salt z=6 and M = 342 g therefore
E = 342/6 = 57 g.
MOLE CONCEPT 38 TM
LECTURE-7
7.1 Origin of Equivalent concept
We have almost completely dealt with equivalent concept. But it is important to know
the origin of it and understand it from the very basics. Equivalent weight for various
elements was initially defined in terms of hydrogen.
That weight of an element that combines with 1 g of hydrogen is called its
Equivalent weight.
Here the assumption was that equivalent weight of H is 1 g.
For example, in AlH3 27 g Al combines with 3 g H, therefore 9 g Al will combine with 1 g
H which is its equivalent weight.
Then it was found that not every element shows a tendency to combine with hydrogen
so Oxygen was used as a basis.
That weight of an element that combines with 8 g of oxygen is called equivalent
weight.
That is equivalent weight of O is taken to be 8 g because it exists as O2- (16/2).
For example, in Al2O3:
54 g Al 48 g O
Therefore, 8 g O 9 g Al and EAl = 9 g.
Whatever the basis may be, the result for the same species should be unchanged.
If we have to calculate the equivalent weight of Al2O3 then we can either do it by the
charge method (z=6) or by adding the equivalent weights of the components involved:
1 equivalent of Al2O3 = 1 eq of Al + 1 eq O
Equivalent weight of Al2O3 = 9 + 8 = 17 g (verify it by charge method)
So if we generalise this, for any compound of the form MXNY:
Equivalent weight of MXNY = Equivalent weight of M + Equivalent weight of N
irrespective of x and y.
Now let us apply law of chemical equivalence to the formation of an oxide:
Say a metal M is to be converted into its oxide MXOY:
1 equivalent of M 1 equivalent of the oxide MXOY
For example, if Fe is to be converted into Fe2O3 then
1 equivalent of Fe 1 equivalent of Fe2O3
E g metal will give (E+8) g of the oxide which the equivalent weight of the oxide.
7.2 Variation in equivalent weights
There is a common misconception that equivalent weight remains the same for a
given element. But this is not true. It depends on its valency. For example, Iron will
have two different equivalent weights in Fe2+ and Fe3+ (56/2 and 56/3 g). However,
equivalent weights of elements like hydrogen and Oxygen are generally the same that
is 1 g and 8 g respectively.
TM 39 MOLE CONCEPT
7.3 Equivalent Volumes of gases
The way we defined molar volume of a gas at STP as the volume occupied by one mole
of a gas at STP which is 22.4 L assuming it to be ideal gas, in the same way we can
define equivalent volume.
Equivalent Volume is the volume occupied by 1 equivalent of a gas at STP.
For example, equivalent weight of H is 1 g. 2 g of H2 occupies 22.4 L at STP then 1 g will
occupy 11.2 L which is its equivalent volume. In the same way:
Equivalent Volume of Oxygen = 22.4/4 = 5.6 L
Equivalent volume of Chlorine = 22.4/2 = 11.2 L
These volumes are very important in calculations. For example O2 is formed in a reaction
by 3 eq of a reactant then 3 eq of O2 gas will be formed which will occupy: 3 5.6 = 16.8 L
volume at STP.
given volume
eqts = Eqt. volume
Class Example-43: RC Mukherjee, Pg 91, Ex 1
If W1 and W2 are the weights of two reactants in any reaction, having their equivalent
weights E1 and E2 respectively, which of the following equations represents the law of
equivalence correctly ?
(a) W1E1 = W2E2 (b) W1E2 = W2E1 (c) W1W2 = E1E2
Sol.The answer is (b) because number of equivalents = W1/E1 = W2/E2.
12 g of an element combines with 32 g of oxygen. What is the equivalent weight of the

element if the equivalent weight of oxygen is 8 ?
Sol.Suppose the element is M.
No. of eq. of M = no. of eq. of O
wt. of M wt. of oxygen

=
EM EO
12 32 12 8
= EM = =3
EM 8 32

The equivalent weight of a metal is double that of oxygen. How many times is the
equivalent weight of its oxide greater than the equivalent weight of the metal ?
EMO EM + EO
Sol. E = E
M M
1
=1 + = 3/2
2
MOLE CONCEPT 40 TM
0.376 g of aluminium reacted with an acid to displace 0.468 litre of hydrogen at NTP.
Find the equivalent volume of hydrogen if the equivalent weight of Al is 9.
Sol.Equivalent of Al = equivalent of hydrogen.
weight of Al volume of hydrogen at NTP

\ =
eq. weight of Al equivalent volume of hydrogen
0.376 0.468
=
9 V ( litre )
\ V = 11.2 litres
Class Example-46: RC Mukherjee, Pg 100, Problem 7

9.44 g of a metal oxide is formed by the combination of 5 g of the metal. Calculate the
equivalent weight of the metal.
Sol. eqts of MO = eqts of M
9.44 5
=
E MO EM
9.44 5
=
EM + E O EM
9.44 5
=
EM + 8 EM
EM = 9.01g/eq
Class Example-47: P Bahadur(2007), Pg 203, Problem 40

A solution containing 4.2 g of KOH and Ca(OH)2 is neutralized by an acid. If it consumes
0.1 equivalent of acid, calculate composition of sample in solution.
Sol.Let mass of KOH = x g
Mass of Ca(OH)2 = (4.2 x) g
EKOH = 56
ECa(OH)2 = 37
eqts of acid = eqts of base
x 4.2 - x
+ = 0.1
56 37
x = 1.47g
7.4 Concept of Normality

As we define Molarity of solutions as moles of solute per Litre of the solution in the
same way we define Normality for equivalents.
TM 41 MOLE CONCEPT
Normality is the number of equivalents of a solute present in 1 L of solution.

N = No. of Equivalents of solute/Volume of solution in L
N = eq/V
The units of Normality are eq/L or Normal represented by N. For example when we say
a solution is 0.2 N then we mean that 1 L of the solution contains 0.2 eq of the solute.
As we applied the equation of dilution in case of molarity similarly it can be applied to
Normality as well.
N1V1 = N2V2
This equation can also be used to equate the equivalents of two reactants.
7.4.1 Relationship between Normality and Molarity
N = eq/V
eq = w/E
E = M/z
Substituting:
N = z w/( M V) = z n/V = z M
Therefore, Normality = z Molarity
Also, eqts = z moles

How many (a) equivalents and (b) meq. of solute are present in 60 mL of 4.0 N solution ?
Sol. (a) number of equivalents = (number of liters) (normality) = (0.060 L)/(4.0 eq/L) = 0.24
eq.
(b) (0.24 eq.) (1000 meq./eq.) = 240 meq.
Another method
Number of meq. = (number of mL) (normality) = (60 mL) (4.0 meq/mL) = 240 meq.

Calculate the normality of each of the following solutions : (a) 7.88 g of HNO3 per L
solution (b) 26.5 g of Na2CO3 per L solution (if acidified to form CO2).
Sol. (a) Equivalent weight of HNO3 = formula weight = 63.02 g/eq
( 7.88 g ) / ( 63.02 g /eq )

N = normality = = 0.1251 eq /L = 0.1251 N
L
(b) Equivalent weight of Na2CO3 = (1/2) (formula weight) = (1/2) (106.0) = 53.0
( 26.5 g ) / ( 53.0 g /eq )

N= = 0.500 N
1.00 L
MOLE CONCEPT 42 TM

Calculate the approximate volume of water that must be added to 250 mL of 1.25 N
solution to make it 0.500 N (neglecting volume changes).
N1V1 (1.25 N ) ( 250 mL )

Sol. V2 = = = 625 mL
N2 0.500 N
The volume increase is V2 V1 = 625 mL 250 mL = 375 mL (When liquids are mixed,
the final volume is not necessarily the sum of the volumes of the original liquids. For
dilute aqueous solutions being mixed with each other or with water, however, the
volumes are very nearly additive.)
Class Example-51: (Application of Normality on Reactions)

Schaum Series, Pg 296, 16.12
How many mL of 6.0 N NaOH is required to neutralize 30 mL of 4.0 N HCl ?

Sol. (Volume HCl) (normality HCl) = (volume NaOH) (normality NaOH)
(30 mL) (4.0 N) = (volume NaOH) (6.0 N)
( 30 mL ) ( 4.0 N )
Volume NaOH = = 20 mL
6.0 N

A 0.250 g sample of a solid acid was dissolved in water and exactly neutralized by 40.0
mL of 0.125 N base. What is the equivalent weight of the acid ?
Sol. Number of meq. base = (40.0 mL) (0.125 meq/mL) = 5.00 meq.
Number of meq. acid = number of meq. base = 5.00 meq.
250 mg
Equivalent weight of acid = 5.00 meq = 50.0 mg/meq = 50.0 g/eq
Class Example-53: (Mixtures) P Bahadur(2007), Pg 204, Problem 42

0.50 g of a mixture of K2CO3 and Li2CO3 required 30 mL of 0.25 N HCl solution for
neutralization. What is % composition of mixture ?
Sol. let x g K2CO3
Mass of Li2CO3 = (0.5 x) g
eqts of acid = eqts of base
EK2CO3 = 69
ELi2CO3 = 37
x 0.5 - x
+ = 0.03 0.25
69 37
x = 0.479g
TM 43 MOLE CONCEPT
7.5 Application of Equivalent Concept in sequential reaction
In long reactions equivalent concept may be applied to obtain the final answer very
easily. For example:
ABCD
If we start with A and through a series of reactions we obtain D then provided everything
else is in excess.
Equivalents of A = Equivalents of D
Say we start with 6 eq of A and we add a reagent R to convert it into B and so on. If we
take 3 eq of R and everything else in excess then 3 eq of D will be formed as R will be
limiting reagent. These problems can be solved without writing any reactions in general.
Class Example-54: (Sequential Reaction) P Bahadur (2007), Pg 212, Problem 59
A small amount of CaCO3 completely neutralizes 525 mL of N/10HCl and no acid is

left at the end. After converting all calcium chloride to CaSO4, how much Plaster of
Paris can be obtained ?
1
Sol. Meq. of CaCO3 = Meq. of HCl = Meq. of CaCl2 formed = 525 = 52.5
10
1
This CaCl2 is now converted to CaSO4 and then to Plaster of Paris CaSO4 . H2O
2
\ Meq. of CaCl2 formed = Meq. of CaSO4 obtained by this CaCl2
1
\ Meq. of CaSO4 . H2O or Plaster of Paris = Meq. of CaSO obtained by CaCl
2 4 2
w
1000 = 52.5
145/2
1
\ Weight of CaSO4 . H2O = 3.81 g
2
MOLE CONCEPT 44 TM
FYI
Calculation of equivalent Mass :
While calculating the equivalent mass of a compound we must check the source of the
compound as the equivalent mass may vary depending on the source.
H+ + OH H2O
E (H2O) = E (H+) + E (OH)
= 1 + 17
= 18g
1
H2 + O2 H2O
2
E (H2O) = E (H) + E (O)

=1+8
= 9g
C + O2 CO2
32g oxygen combines with = 12g carbon
12
8g oxygen combines with = 8
32
= 3g
E (CO2) = E (C) + E (O)
=3+8
= 11g
+3 +4
4
C 2 O -2 Z =1
2 CO2
44
E (CO2 ) = = 44g
1
Dream on !!

MOLE
CONCEPT
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TM 1 MOLE CONCEPT

1.1 DEFINITION OF ATOM

1.2 Atomic Mass

Element Mass of one atom in amu

Therefore we can define atomic mass of an element in amu as:

Atomic mass is also referred to as unified mass and is denoted by u.

1.3 Mole & Avogadro Number

Element Atomic mass in amu Mass of sample taken

No. of atoms of every element in above samples = 6.022 1023 atoms

Remember: 23 g Na cannot represent 1 atom of Na, atom cannot be this big!!

Therefore we can now define atomic mass of an element in grams:

Now, we have to relate g and a.m.u.

Mass MOLAR AVOGADROS Number

This flowchart illustrates the mass-mole-number

1.4 Molecules & Molecular Mass

The next question is: What are Molecules?

44 g = 1 mole molecules of CO2 = NA molecules of CO2

Therefore, we can now define molecular mass of a compound.

(c) We know 1 molecule of glucose contains 6C; 12H & 60 atoms.

Stress Point : Avogadro number is a fundamental physical constant.

Illustration-2: Olmsted and Williams Pg 110 Figure 3-15

Mass SUBSTANCE Moles AVOGADROS Number

This flowchart illustrates the mass-mole-number

Important Funda Question

Important Funda Question

\ wt. of sulphur in insulin = (0.032 x) amu.

Now we will study :

Chemical Reactions and Law of conservation of mass

Limiting Reagent and Excess Reactant

Mole- Mass relations

2.1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

First and foremost Question: What is a chemical Reaction?

Rearrangement of atoms between various molecules of the reactants to form new

In a non-radioactive chemical reaction, atoms are always conserved as only rearrangement

Now the next question that arises: What is stoichiometry?

Stoichiometry is study of chemical reactions and calculations related to it.

Unbalanced Equation: SO2 + O2 SO3

Balanced Chemical Equation: 2SO2 + O2 2SO3

The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation are called stoichiometric coefficients of

Next Question: Do the stoichiometric coefficients represent mass?

2.3 Stoichiometric Calculations

Case-1: (Converting mass into moles)

Case-2: (Converting moles into mass)

Class Example-12: Schaum Series,Pg 165, Q 11.2

Class Example-13: Schaum Series, Pg 166, Q 11.6

The equation for the reaction of sucrose (sugar) with oxygen is

\ 1mole of sucrose produces 12 moles of CO2.

Also, 342 g of sucrose reacts with 12 32g of O2

Class Example-14: Source : Numerical Chemistry, P. Bahadur, Pg 123, Problem 43

Important Funda Question

In the last lecture we covered the following topics:

3.1 Percent Yield

Percent Yield of a Reaction:

Percent Yield = (Actual Yield / Theoritical Yield) 100

Here, % yield = 70%

\ 128g of A will give 148g of X.

Class Example-18: (Tutorial 2 (2009) Ques. 16)

3.2 Strength of Solutions

Reactions in Aqueous Media:

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components.

There are various methods of measuring strength of a solution:

It represents the moles of a solute present in one mole of solution

Mole Fraction, X = (Moles of a component / Total Moles in solution)

2. Mass Percent (%w/w strength):