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1 R-93
(Reapproved 1998)
Behavior of Fresh Concrete During Vibration
Reported by ACI Committee 309
Ralph O. Lane
Chairman, Originating Committee
This report covers the stateof the art of processes that take place in the Chapter 4-References, pg. 309.1R-17
consolidation of fresh concrete during vibration These processes, theological and 4.l-Standards documents
mechanical in nature, are discussed to provide better understanding of the prin-
ciples. The first chapter presents the historical developments relative to consol-
4.2-Cited references
idating concrete. The second chapter deals with the rheological behavior of
concrete during consolidation and the associated mechanisms of dynamic com- CHAPTER l-HISTORY OF CONCRETE VIBRATION
paction. The third chapter presents the principles of vibratory motion occurring
during vibration, vibratory methods, and experimental test results. Continuing At the turn of the 20th century, concrete mixtures were
research in the field of concrete vibration, as evidenced by the extensive literature
devoted to the subject, is addressed. generally placed very dry. The material was deposited in
shallow lifts and rammed into place by heavy tampers, which
Keywords: admixtures: aggregates; aggregate shape and texture; aggregate size; involved hard manual labor. Large, open sections containing
amplitude; compacting; consolidation; damping; energy; fresh concretes; hardening; little or no reinforcement, such as foundations, retaining
history; mechanical impedance; mix proportioning; reviews; rheological properties;
stability; vibration; vibrators (machinery). walls, and dams were typical. Many of these structures are
still in service, proving that this type of construction produced
strong, durable concrete.
CONTENTS Later, reinforced concrete became a common construction
method. Thinner structural sections were consequently de-
Chapter l-History of concrete vibration, pg. 309.1R-1 signed. Constructors found the dry mixtures could not be
tamped in the narrow forms filled with reinforcing steel and,
Chapter 2-Influence of rheology on the consolidation of as a consequence, mixtures became wetter. When it was dis-
fresh concrete, pg. 309.1R-3 covered that mixtures could be transported by inclined
2.1-Rheology of fresh concrete chutes, the slump was further increased.
2.2-Rheology in practice It then became apparent that these wet mixtures were not
2.3-Conclusions producing good concrete. The result was lower strength, dur-
ability failures, drying shrinkage, and increased cracking.
Chapter 3-Mechanisms of concrete vibration, pg. 309.1R-7
3.1-Introduction *Task Force Leaders.
ACI 309.1R-93 supersedes ACI 309.1R-81 (Revised 1986) and became effective March
3.2-General 1, 1993. Revisions to this report were submitted to letter ballot of the committee, which
3.3-Parameters of concrete vibration consists of 15 members; ballot results were 11 affirmative!, no negatives, no abstentions,
3.4-Vibratory methods and 4 ballots not returned. Minor revisions have been made to the report. Additional
references have been added. The revisions have been successfully balloted by ACI
Committee 309 and processed in accordance with Institute procedures. The 1986 revi-
sion added nine references to provide more up-to-date sources of information. Also,
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
several minor editorial corrections were made. The 1992 revision added five additional
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, exe- references to provide more up-to-date sources of information.
cuting, or inspecting construction and in preparing specifications. Copyright Q 1981 and 1986 America Concrete Institute.
Reference to these documents shall not be made in the Project All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
Documents. If items found in these documents are desired to be means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or
part of the Project Documents they should be phrased in manda- mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual
tory language and incorporated into the Project Documents. reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieva1 system or device, unless
permission in writing is obtain from the copyright proprietors.
309.1 R-1
309.1R-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
The water-cement ratio concept, expounded about 1920, found to be the most important factors affecting the
demonstrated that the quality of concrete dropped rapidly as degree of consolidation.
more water was added to the mixture.
Methods other than tamping were tried to consolidate the In 1964, Murphy published a summary of post World War
stiffer concrete. Compressed air was introduced into the fresh II British research, and compared the findings and claims of
concrete through long jets. the different investigators. The studies made by Cusens,
Around 1930, machines were developed to impart vibra- Kirkham, Kolek, and Plowman on the subject of consolida-
tory motion to concrete. tion were particularly noteworthy.
In 1936, an ACI Committee 609 report* described the In 1965, Forssblad reported on measurements of the radi-
benefits of vibrators but failed to explain the interaction us of action of internal vibrators operating at different fre-
between a vibrator and fresh concrete. The frequencies of the quencies and amplitudes, and with different vibration times
early vibrators were limited to 3000-5000 vibrations per min and mixture consistencies. The radius of action was deter-
(50-80 Hz) because of design and maintenance problems. mined from photographs of the surface of the concrete.
When it became apparent that higher frequencies were pos- Some observations were made on the effect of air entrain-
sible and more effective in consolidating concrete, vibrator ment introduced in the late 1940s on concrete consolidation.
manufacturers made the necessary improvements. Air entrainment making the mixture more cohesive enhances
In 1948, LHermite and Tournon reported on their funda- particularly lean mixtures deficient in fines as well as mass
mental research into the mechanism of consolidation. They concrete. Reading observed in 1967, that for most ordinary
found that friction between the individual particles is the mixtures, the stickiness imparted by air entrainment makes it
most important factor preventing consolidation (densifica- difficult to release entrapped air; consequently, more vibra-
tion), but that this friction is practically eliminated when tion may be necessary for certain mixtures.
concrete is in a state of vibration. In 1968, Ritchie reviewed such concepts as workability and
In 1953, Meissner summarized previous research studies described such factors as stability, compactability, and mobil-
and reviewed the state of the art on available equipment and ity and corresponding methods of measurements.
its characteristics. Ultrahigh frequency vibration has been investigated in the
A 1960 ACI Committee 609 report gave recommendations Soviet Union by Shtaerman (1970). He reported that ultra-
for vibrator characteristics applicable to different types of high frequency vibration increases the hydration of the
construction and described field practices. cement and improves the properties of concrete. However,
In 1960, Walz described the various types of vibrators: in- high energy input and heat generation, and the small depth
ternal, surface form, and table-and their application. He of penetration of the vibration, are practical drawbacks to this
also showed that the reduction in internal friction is primarily method.
the result of acceleration produced during vibration. Also, in 1970, Wilde discussed the basic parameters in-
This was followed in 1962 by Rebuts discussion of the volved in the vibrator-concrete interaction and presented
theory of vibration, including the forces involved, the types of formulas for computing the radius and volume affected and
vibrators and their application to different classes of con- the time required for consolidation. In the early 70s, Csutor
struction, and vibration measuring devices. (1974) developed a method for calculating the pressure re-
Also in 1962, Ersoy published the results of extensive lab- quired to produce the same consolidation regardless of the
oratory investigations on the consolidation effect of internal type of vibrator used.
vibrators. He varied the concrete consistency, size and shape In 1972, a recommended practice for consolidation of con-
of form, and vibration parameters. Ersoy concluded that the crete by ACI Committee 309 was published. This paper
eccentric moment, weight of the eccentric times its eccen- explained the basic principles of consolidation and gave rec-
tricity, and frequency are the important factors for deter- ommendations for proportioning concrete mixtures, equip-
mining the consolidation effectiveness of an internal vibrator. ment, and procedures for different types of construction,
In 1963, a conference on vibration was held in Budapest, quality control, vibrator maintenance, and consolidation of
Hungary, where the following notable papers were given: test specimens.
A RILEM symposium (University of Leeds) held in 1973
1. Kolek (1963) describedvibration theories, formulas, and included papers by Ahmad and Smalley, Bache, Popovics, and
experimental work aimed at a better understanding of others dealing with theological properties and consolidation
the processes involved. He also gave an explanation of of concrete.
the process of consolidation, assuming it occurred in In 1974, Cannon reported on the compaction of zero
two stages: the first comprised the major subsidence or slump concrete with a vibratory roller. ACI Committee 207
slumping of the concrete; the second involved de- has prepared a state-of-the-art report on this subject.
aeration (removal of entrapped air). In 1976, Tattersall reported on the mobility of concrete by
2. Kirkham (1963) developed empirical formulas to ex- determining power requirements for mixing at various speeds.
plain the compaction of concrete slabs by the use of In 1976, Taylor published the results of extensive labora-
vibrating beams or screeds on the surface. The force tory tests on the effect of different parameters on the effec-
applied to the concrete, amplitude of vibration, and the
number of vibrations transmitted to the concrete were * See list of cited references in Section 4.2.
309.1R-3
tiveness of internal vibrators. Gamma ray scanning was used crete is still desirable.
to determine the density of the concrete, and hence the rad-
ius of action of the vibrators. Acceleration and amplitude
were found to be the most important parameters.
In 1977, Alexander reported basic research on the mech- CHAPTER 2-INFLUENCE OF RHEOLOGY ON
anics of motion of fresh concrete. It was found that the CONSOLIDATION OF FRESH CONCRETE
response of concrete to vibration under low applied forces
can be expressed in terms of stiffness, damping, and mass. 2.1-Rheology of fresh concrete
During vibration, stiffness and damping practically disappear Rheology is the science that deals with the flow of mater-
and only mass is involved. ials and includes the deformation of hardened concrete,
There have been a number of studies on the effects of re- handling and placing of freshly mixed concrete, and the
vibration. Tuthill summarized present knowledge of this sub- behavior of slurries and pastes. For purposes of this dis-
ject in 1977. Revibration may produce benefits, particularly cussion, only the rheological properties of fresh concrete are
for the wetter mixtures, in eliminating water gain under rein- considered.
forcing bars, reducing bugholes, especially in the upper In concrete work, it is usually desirable to produce the
portion of deep lifts, all of which increase the strength of the highest practical and economical density. Toward this goal, it
concrete. is necessary to compare the vibrator characteristics with those
In 1984, Winn, Olsen, and Ledbetter reported on the use of the concrete mixture. This requires a thorough understand-
of accelerometers to measure the effect of various concrete ing of the properties of fresh concrete under vibration. Stud-
mixture and vibrator parameters on consolidation of contin- ies on the rheology of fresh concrete by a number of investi-
uously reinforced concrete pavements. gators attempt to define the parameters involved (Lassalle
An International Symposium on Concrete Consolidation 1980). These parameters are reviewed on the basis of recent
was sponsored by ACI Committee 309 and presented in 1986 research and from the standpoint of application to the con-
in San Francisco. The symposium documents were published solidation of fresh concrete.
in 1987. Papers relating to the behavior of fresh concrete Current standard test methods for determining concrete
during vibration included: workability yield results of limited scope because they mea-
sure only one parameter. Examples of these tests are the
1. Forssblad (1987) reported on the need for consolidation slump, compacting factor, Vebe penetration, and other re-
of flowing concrete mixtures and how these mixtures re- molding and deforming tests. These tests, interpretation of
sponded to internal, surface and form vibration. their results, and rheology of fresh concrete are discussed by
2. Harrell and Goswick (1987) reported on the concurrent Popovics (1982).
use of internal and external vibration to obtain superior Ritchie (1968) subdivides rheology of fresh concrete into
consolidation in tunnel concrete. three main parameters: stability, compactibility, and mobility,
3. Kagaya, Tokuda and Kawakami (1987) studied the vari- as shown in Fig. 2.1.
ations in the contents of the mixture constituents and Although the diagram points out primary factors, it does
some of the mechanical properties at various heights of not show any relationship between categories. For example,
placement within both lightweight and normal weight viscosity, cohesion, and the angle of internal resistance may
concrete. They concluded that these variations had a affect mixture stability and compactibility. Ritchies work can
linear correlation with variations in the coarse aggre- be summarized as follows.
gate content. Furthermore, they showed that when vari- 2.1.1 Stability-Stability is defined as the flow of fresh
ations in the coarse aggregate content are expressed concrete without applied forces and is measured by bleeding
relative to the coarse aggregate content of a reference and segregation characteristics. Bleeding occurs when the
mixture, the optimum vibration time can be established mortar is unstable and releases free water. In special cases,
for a given placement height for the mixture being induced loss of water or controlled bleeding may be desir-
evaluated. able, but, as a rule, bleeding should be controlled and re-
4. Olsen (1987) used accelerometers to measure the rate duced to a minimum. Segregation is defined as a mixtures
of movement of fresh concrete and was able to esta- instability, caused by a weak matrix that cannot retain indi-
blish the minimum energy level required to achieve a vidual aggregate particles in a homogeneous dispersion. Seg-
degree of consolidation of 97 percent or more. regation is possible under both wet and dry consistencies.
5. Iida and Horigome (1987) reported that better compac- Wet segregation occurs when the water content is such that
tion properties of no-slump lean concrete can be the paste cannot hold the aggregate particles in position
obtained by dividing the mixing water into two portions while the concrete is transported and compacted. Conversely,
and adding it to the mixture at two different times. dry segregation takes place where concrete of low water con-
tent results in a crumbly mixture during handling. If mani-
It is apparent that enough has been learned about con- pulation can be minimized, these crumbly mixtures are often
crete vibration during the past 50 years to insure that low satisfactory and quite stable once they are consolidated.
slump concrete can be placed successfully. However, a better When concrete is vibrated, the matrix becomes momentarily
understanding of the interaction of vibration and fresh con- fluid and develops cohesion and shear resistance. Ritchie in-
309.1R-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
I I I
r-
STABILITY COMPACTIBILITY MOBILITY
BLEEDING SEGREGATION
RELATIVE DENSITY
I I I
VISCOSITY COHESION ANGLE OF
INTERNAL
RESISTANCE
dicates a definite link between cohesion and resistance hesion, and internal resistance to shear. The interaction
to segregation. between rheology and the stresses caused by vibratory consol-
2.1.2 Compactibility-Compactibility measures the ease idation is shown by Bache in a number of examples. He
with which fresh concrete is compacted. Compacting consists states flow is restricted by frictional, cohesive, and viscous
of expelling entrapped air and repositioning the aggregate forces. Cohesion develops due to attractive surface forces
particles in a dense state without causing segregation. between particles while resistance is caused by the viscous
The compacting factor test, covered by British Standard flow of the matrix. When increasing the shear stresses below
BS 1881, is designed to measure compactibility. Although the the yield value, no flow occurs, and the concrete behaves like
test has a wide range of applications, it has some limitations. a solid. At higher oscillating stresses, the bond strength
Cohesive mixtures stick in the hoppers of the test apparatus between particles becomes insufficient to prevent flow, and
and mixtures with low to very low workabilities produce wide at the same time the viscosity gradually decreases. Concrete
variations in results. Because of these variations, Cusens mixture proportioning, therefore, indirectly takes into account
(1955 and 1956) has suggested a vibrated compacting factor that the viscosity of the lubricating cement paste can be ad-
test for comparing mixtures of low workability. justed to the vibratory stress and its frequency. It follows that
Ritchie (1968) extended the compacting factor test by with increased vibratory or consolidation pressure an increase
taking two additional measurements. One measures the den- in paste viscosity is required, i.e., a decrease in the water-
sity of concrete in its loose, uncompacted state. This state is cement ratio and/or increased frequency of vibration.
achieved by placing the concrete from a hand scoop into the The momentum transport, as Bache calls the transmission
base container of the standard apparatus, without compac- of mechanical stresses on fresh concrete, is defined by such
tion, and then striking off the surface of the full container. parameters as elasticity, cohesion, friction, viscosity (shear
The other measurement determines the density of mechani- and bulk), density, damping, and sound velocity.
cally vibrated concrete sampled from the same batch; the The graph in Fig. 2.1.3a illustrates the various phases of
concrete was loosely placed and compacted in three layers in flow under applied stresses. At low stresses, the material
the base container with a l-in. diameter (25 mm) internal behaves as a solid of extremely high viscosity. As stresses
vibrator. These two readings plus the values obtained from increase, concrete behavior gradually changes to that of a
the standard compacting factor test give an indication of the liquid.
relative ease it takes to change a mixture from its loose to its As conceived by Ritchie, the viscosity of the matrix con-
compacted state. In addition, the difference between the tributes to the ease with which the aggregate particles can
actual compacted state and the theoretical maximum compac- move and rearrange themselves within a mixture. To achieve
tion, calculated from the specific gravity of the constituents, a better understanding of a mixtures flow characteristics, it
gives a relative measure of the void content of the concrete, is important to be able to measure the initial viscosity of the
and hence an indication of its durability, permeability, and cement paste fraction of the mixture and to study its stiffen-
relative strength of the hardened concrete. ing with time.
2.1.3 Mobility-Both Ritchie (1968) and Bache (1973) dis- Cohesion is defined by Ritchie (1968) as the force of ad-
cuss mobility of fresh concrete in terms of its viscosity, co- hesion between the matrix and the aggregate particles. It pro-
BEHAVIOR OF FRESH CONCRETE DURING VIBRATION 309.1R-5
for definitive conclusions. Tattersall found, however, that two The cement content also affects the workability of a con-
mixtures with identical values of g and h will also have iden- crete mixture. High cement content mixtures are generally
tical values for consistency, compacting factor, and Vebe sticky and sluggish, particularly in the normal range of slump
time. On the other hand, when these values differ, two mix- for cast-in-place concrete. Furthermore, the lower water-
tures may show similarity in any one of the three standard cement ratio and higher content of hydrating material reduce
tests, but will behave differently in the other two. The sig- the workability of rich mixtures from that measured immedi-
nificance of Tattersalls work is that test data can be provided ately after initial mixing.
at two or more points (shear conditions) by a single test 2.2.2 Consistency-The consistency of concrete, as mea-
method. Previous test methods have been based upon single sured by the slump test, is an indicator of the relative water
point tests (single test condition), and therefore had to be content of the concrete mixture. An increase in water content
used in combination with other tests to achieve a better un- or slump above that needed to achieve a workable mixture
derstanding of concrete rheology. For example, the Vebe test produces greater fluidity and decreased friction. More signif-
was previously cited for use with the compacting factor test icantly, the additional water increases the water-cement ratio
to measure mobility and compactibility. and has the undesirable effect of reducing the cohesion with-
in the mixture and increasing the potential for segregation
2.2-Rheology in practice and excessive bleeding. It is common to use more water than
The rheological properties or workability of a concrete needed, assuming that the rheological properties are thus
mixture are affected by mixture composition and the amount improved; in fact, this practice produces results to the
of each constituent, properties of the ingredients (especially contrary. Likewise, too low a slump or water can result in
particle shape, maximum size, size distribution, porosity, and equally undesirable properties of a concrete mixture by loss
surface texture of the aggregate), and the presence of admix- of mobility and of compactibility and can cause unnecessary
tures, the amount of mixing, and the time elapsed following delay and difficulty during placement and consolidation. An
mixing. increase of 1 percent air is equivalent to an increase of 1
2.2.1 Mixture proportioning- Concrete mixtures are propor- percent in fine aggregate or increasing the unit water content
tioned to provide the workability needed during construction by 3 percent. An excessively dry mixture may also result in
and to assure that the hardened concrete will have the re- loss of cohesion and dry segregation.
quired properties. Mixture proportioning is described in detail 2.2.3 Hardening and stiffening-Rapid loss of workability
in: can be associated with elevated concrete temperature, use of
high early strength cement, cement deficient in gypsum, and
a) Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for use of accelerating admixtures, all of which increase the rate
Normal and Heavyweight Concrete (ACI 211.1). of hardening. Dry, porous, or friable aggregates will rapidly
b) Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for reduce workability by absorbing water from the mixture or by
Structural Lightweight Concrete (ACI 211.2). increasing the surface area to be wetted. Use of cement with
c) Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for false setting tendencies can cause premature stiffening and an
No-Slump Concrete (ACI 211.3). almost immediate loss of workability unless the mixing time
can be extended to restore mixture plasticity. The interaction
A concrete mixture with an excessive coarse aggregate of various chemical admixtures or chemical compounds pre-
content lacks sufficient mortar to fill the void system, re- sent in a concrete mixture can accelerate the hardening rate
sulting in a loss of cohesion and mobility. Such mixtures are or cause other reactions which also may reduce the workabil-
termed harsh and require a great deal of effort to place and ity. In cases where loss of workability occurs, it is essential to
compact. Strength and impermeability of harsh mixtures, even transport, place, and compact the concrete as rapidly as pos-
at maximum density, will be less than those for a properly sible. Addition of water to restore the consistency will gener-
proportioned mixture. Harsh mixtures can also be caused by ally reduce the quality of the finished product.
a low air content; an increase in air may alleviate the excess- 2.2.4 Aggregate shape and texture- Aggregate particle shape
ive use of fine aggregate. On the other hand, excessive and particle size distribution are generally recognized as sig-
amounts of fine aggregate or entrained air in a concrete mix- nificant factors influencing the rheology of concrete. Accord-
ture greatly increase the cohesion and cause the mixture to ingly, ACI 211.1 takes these factors into consideration for
be sticky and difficult to move, The greatest effect, however, trial mixture proportioning. The coarse aggregate, dry-rodded
of a high fine aggregate content is an increase in surface area unit-weight method provides a factor based on voids in the
of particles within the mixture, which increases the amount of coarse aggregate which, when used in conjunction with the
water required to coat these surfaces. This in turn can result fineness of the fine aggregate fraction, will provide a reason-
in increased drying shrinkage and cracking. Unless the able coarse and fine aggregate content for workability. The
cement content is increased to maintain a constant water- unit weight of the coarse aggregate is a function of the par-
cement ratio, the mixture with excessive fine aggregate will ticle shape and size distribution. The unit weight of rough,
also have less strength. The current practice is to proportion highly angular particles will be less than that of smooth, well-
concrete mixtures with an excess of fine aggregate and to use rounded particles of the same density because of the particle
more cement than would be necessary for a concrete mixture friction and interference. Thus, the percentage of voids to be
of optimum fine aggregate content. filled by mortar will be greater, requiring higher fine aggre-
309.1 R-7
.g 5000
!!
k 4000
E
8 3000
2000
1000
0
-0 2g 4g 6g 8g 109 2g 4g 6g 8g 109 29 49 69 89 109
Acceleration of table
Fig. 3.3a-Correlation between compressive strength of the hardened concrete and acceleration during vibrating. Tests on vibrating
table
Table 3.3-Compressive strength and density of concrete specimens vibrated with internal vibrators at various frequencies
and amplitudes
Coefficient
of
l Specimen Variation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Mean Percent
I
po Static pressure
before vibration
n-r Electromagnetic vibrator
with variable frequency
and amplitude
LEGEND
l- S O L I D B E H A V I O R PRlOR TO BREAKDOW
Z = CZtltiM - K/W)2
z- P L A S T I C B E H A V I O R At B R E A K D O W N
3- L I Q U I D B E H A V I O R A F T E R B R E A K D O W N
Z=WM
.-
IO 1000 1,000 Hz
600 6000 6 0 , 0 0 0 Vib/min
FREQUENCY
inertia is the primary hindrance to motion, Newtons second namic theories based on the bubble movements in the fresh
law of motion can be applied: concrete. Studies on the same subject have also been made
by Smalley and Ahmad (1973). The tendency of the bubbles
F = ma to move upward depends on their buoyancy. There is also a
tendency for the bubbles to move toward a vibrating surface
where or even downward. For this reason, excessive vibrations of
forms or form sections must be avoided.
F = force, lbf (N) Bache (1977) also discussed the stability of freshly com-
pacted concrete. This stability is dependent on internal fric-
m = mass, tion, cohesion, and capillary pressure. Use of crushed aggre-
32.2 lflsec2b (98&d] gate increases internal friction. A high capillary surface
a = acceleration, in./sec (mm/sec) pressure can be obtained by vacuum treatment or by static or
dynamic pressure created during vibration.
This further indicates that acceleration is a major factor in 3.3.3 Energy consumption - T h e initial rapid subsidence of
the consolidation of concrete by vibration. the mixture during vibration can be characterized as plastic
Fig. 3.3.2c shows three types of behavior of fresh concrete deformation requiring a large energy consumption; for com-
that take place within a few seconds of each other. First, if plete consolidation the entire transmitted energy is con-
the force level being used to vibrate the concrete is below sumed.
that required to get the concrete to flow, the impedance will During the final de-aeration stage of vibration, no addi-
be according to Curve 1. The impedance can be described by tional energy is necessary to keep the mass in motion since
a simple model made up of one stiffness element (K), one the mixture behaves like a fluid without damping. In an ideal
mass element (M), and one damping element (C). When con- fluid, the energy consumption of the vibrator is theoretically
nected in the correct fashion, the impedance is equal to the same as in air. A small internal friction and damping re-
mains during the de-aeration stage, thus requiring a limited
z = c2 + (olu - K/o>2 energy supply.
in. mm
20 7 500
Fig. 3.4.1b- Correlation between radius of action, frequency, and amplitude for a 60 mm internal vibrator
To obtain an adequate radius of action, an internal vibra- acceleration, an internal vibrator will show best performance
tor must operate at a high vibration intensity. The effects of at high amplitudes.
internal vibrators on fresh concrete have been studied by Taylor (1976) and Ersoy (1962) measured the density of
Bergstrom (1949), Ersoy (1962), Forssblad (1965a), Taylor hardened concrete by nuclear density tests as a means of
(1976), Goldstein (1968) and others. determining the effective radius of action of vibrators.
Bergstrom and Forssblad measured the radii of action of Forssblad (1965a) investigated the influence of concrete con-
vibrators at various time intervals on the basis of photographs sistency, maximum aggregate size, form dimensions, form
of the concrete surface. Relationships between frequency, design, reinforcing steel, etc., on the performance of internal
amplitude, and radius of action for a 2 in. (60 mm) internal vibration. Tests by these authors indicate that the maximum
vibrator after 10 and 30 sec of vibration are shown in Fig. aggregate size may be an important parameter for the effec-
3.4.1b. The largest radius of action occurred at an optimum tiveness of internal vibration. This is an area which needs
frequency of about 200 Hz (12,000 vibration/min). An in- further study.
crease in amplitude resulted in an increased radius of action The following factors are of interest with respect to the
at all frequencies. At lower frequencies, an approximate rela- mechanisms of internal vibration:
tionship existed between the acceleration of the vibrator and
its radius of action. 1. Reduction of the amplitude of the vibrator head in
An optimum frequency for internal vibration has been fresh concrete
confirmed by experimental tests by Taylor (1976) and Gold- 2. Transmission of vibrations from the vibrator to the
stein (1968). Frequency curves presented by Ersoy (1962). fresh concrete
however, did not indicate optimum values. In his study, Ersoy 3. Geometric reduction in energy-density during circular
used small forms 34 in. x 8 in. x 8 in. (850 mm x 200 mm x propagation of the compression waves
200 mm), which may have influenced the test results. It is 4. Damping effect on wave propagation through the fresh
possible that reflections from the form walls and vibrations of concrete
the forms caused higher accelerations than would be the case
in larger forms. In fresh concrete, the amplitude of the vibrator head is
Results of research by Taylor (1976) indicate that acceler- reduced by the resistance of the concrete to the movement.
ations for internal vibrations should range from 100 to 200 g According to hydrodynamic theories, the effect of a sur-
(980 to 1960 m/sec) for concrete with maximum aggregate rounding fluid on a vibrating body may be represented by the
sixes of 1, and %a in. (38, 19, and 10 mm). For a given addition of a mass to the body. In the case of a vibrating
BEHAVIOR OF FRESH CONCRETE DURING VIBRATION 309.1R-13
cylindrical body, this mass is equal to the mass of the According to hydrodynamic principles, the weight of the
displaced fluid according to Lamb (1945). According to displaced concrete mass is directly related to the mass of
Kolenda (1972), it is then possible to calculate the ac- concrete placed in vibratory motion. As the displaced mass is
celeration a of a cylindrical internal vibrator operating in proportional to the area of the vibrator head, it follows that
concrete with the formula: the radius of action is directly proportional to the head dia-
meter of the internal vibrator. This has been confirmed by
4n2fmer tests (Forssblad, 1965a).
a= In a homogeneous fluid, the amplitude generated around
m, + me + m, the vibrating head will be the same as the amplitude of the
vibrator. Concrete, however, is not a homogeneous material.
where During vibration, cement paste will surround the vibrator
which may result in a reduction in energy transmission from
= acceleration, in./sec (mm/sec2) the vibrator to the fresh concrete. This reduction must be
; = frequency, Hz determined empirically.
% = weight of eccentric, lb (kg) Pressure reductions are generated in the fluid mixture by
r = eccentricity of the eccentric weight, in. (mm) the sinusoidal compression waves during half of their periods.
I?f = vibrator weight minus the eccentric weight, lb (kg) At increasing vibration intensity, the creation of vapor and
mb = weight of displaced concrete, lb (kg) gas bubbles, representing the initial stage of cavitation, can
reduce the energy transmission between the vibrator and the
The amplitude of an internal vibrator operating in con- concrete. These bubbles are likely to act as shock absorbers
crete is approximately 70 to 75 percent of its amplitude in air and dampen the compression waves. At decreasing pressures,
indicating good agreement between calculated and measured small bubbles merge to form large vapor pockets which can
values. (See Fig. 3.4.1c). be observed close to internal vibrators that are operating at
The centrifugal force F, which sometimes is used as a par- high acceleration. Cavitation starts when the pressure ampli-
ameter of an internal vibrator, is calculated according to the tude PC of the compression waves exceeds the available pres-
equation: sure.
in. mm mm in. Kolenda (1972) has developed curves for internal vibrators
0.06 24
of different diameters, which show combinations of frequen-
cies and amplitudes which should not be exceeded if cavita-
005 .- -i?O tion is to be avoided. See Fig. 3.4.ld.
The geometrical energy distribution due to the radial gen-
eration of compression waves, as well as the damping, can be
0.04 16
c calculated according to the formula postulated by Dessoff
.9
9
.
B
(1937):
Amplitude at tip
1215
3
.-
. go., 0
%
0.02 8
3
\
.
.,
, ..
.
1
.
,
.
.
Voids/ft 2 Voids/ m 2 24
16
-- -- __
0 20 40 0 20 40 0 2040 0 20 40 m m
0 0.8 1.6 0 0.8 1.6 0 0.8 1.6 0 0.8 1.6 in.
Amplitude
CHAPTER 4-REFERENCES
4.1-Standards documents
The documents of the standards-producing organizations
referred to in this document are listed below with their serial
designation, including year of adoption or revision. The docu-
Fig. 3.4.4c-Rotational and directional vibratory motions ments listed were the latest effort at the time this document
was revised. Since some of these documents are revised fre-
m/sec) before the forms are placed on the table and 2 to 4 quently, generally in minor detail only, the user of this
g (20 to 39 m/sec) during vibration are required. In practice, document should check directly with the sponsoring group if
accelerations higher than the minimum values based on lab- it is desired to refer to the latest revision.
oratory tests are used to reduce the vibration time.
For table vibration, the optimum frequency range is fairly American Concrete Institute
low: 3000 to 6000 vibration/min (50 to 100 Hz). Comparative-
ly large amplitudes are needed for efficient and rapid consoli- 207.1R-70 Mass Concrete for Dams and Other
dation. Given the same acceleration, a combination of high (Reapproved 1980) Massive Structures
amplitude and moderate frequency results in a more rapid 207.5R-80 Roller Compacted Concrete
consolidation than does a combination of high frequency and 211.1-81 Standard Practice for Selecting
low amplitude. (Revised 1984) Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight,
The energy formula W = c1 &p t is also applicable for and Mass Concrete
table vibration, according to Walz (1960). In a stiff fresh 211.2-81 Standard Practice for Selecting Pro-
concrete, a low vibration intensity can be compensated for by portions for Structural Lightweight
a longer vibration time. The energy formula indicates that the Concrete
influence of the amplitude is greater than that of the acceler- 211.3-75 Standard Practice for No-Slump Con-
ation. This is in accordance with test results and field ex- (Revised 1980) crete
perience. 309-72 Standard Practice for Consolidation of
The question of whether concrete forms should be rigidly (Revised 1982) Concrete
attached to the table or placed loosely has been investigated
by Strey (1960). Loose placement resulted in a product of British Standards Institution
higher strength and density. The difference, however, was
quite small and was probably affected by the higher acceler- BS 1881 Methods of Testing Concrete
ations resulting from the impact between the forms and the 1970 Parts 1-5
table. With loose forms the vibration time could also be 1971 Part 6
shortened. The noise level, however, is lower with the form
rigidly connected to the table. The above publications may be obtained from the fol-
Davies (1951) has studied the influence of the direction of lowing organizations:
table vibrations. Using concrete mixtures of very stiff consis-
tency, a circular vibratory motion of the table in a vertical American Concrete Institute
plane produced 10 percent higher concrete strength than did P.O. Box 19150
a horizontal circular vibratory motion. A decrease of 10 to 15 Detroit, MI 48219
percent in strength was obtained with vertically directed
vibrations as compared with vertical circular vibrations. (See British Standards Institution
Fig. 3.4.4c). With fluid to plastic mixtures, these differences 2 Park St.
are less pronounced. A vertically directed vibratory motion is London WlA 2BS
in many cases preferred, since the movements of the concrete England
mass are reduced as compared with those caused by a circu-
lar vibratory motion. 4.2-Cited references
For table vibration, a static load is sometimes applied to ACI Committee 609, Recommendations for Placing
the concrete surface. In this way, the increased dynamic pres- Concrete by Vibration, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 32,
sure benefits consolidation of dry and stiff mixtures. Exces- No. 4, Mar.-Apr. 1936, pp. 445-457.
sively high static loads dampen the vibratory movement of the ACI Committee 609, Consolidation of Concrete, ACI
concrete particles, thus reducing consolidation. Best results JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No. 10, Apr. 1960, pp. 985-1011.
can be attained by applying a combination of vibration and Vibroactivated Concrete, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
a moderate static pressure. By gradually increasing the pres- 67, No. 5, May 1970, pp. 416-417.
309.1R-18 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Ahlsen, UIf and Stefan Montin, Methods for Determining Destoff M., Sur lEtude de la Pervibration du Beton,
the Degree of Compaction in Fresh Concrete, (in Swedish) Annales des Ponts et Chaussees (Paris), No. 5, 1937, pp.
CBI Research Report No. 5:79, Swedish Cement and Concrete 681-688.
Research Institute, Stockholm, 1979, 42 pp. Ersoy, Sedad, Investigations on the Consolidation Effect
Alexander, A. Michel, Study of Vibration in Concrete; of Immersion Vibrators (Untersuchungen uber die Verdich-
Mechanics of Motion of Fresh Concrete, Technical Report tungswirkung von Tauchruttlern), Technische Hochschule,
No. 6-750, Report 3, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- Aachen, 1962, 99 pp.
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Anderson, Fred A, RCC Does More, Concrete Inter- von Tauchruttler, Technische Hochschule, Aachen, 1962, 99
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Andriolo, Francisco Rodrigues, Gustavo Reis Lobo de M. Reiner, Editor, North-Holland Publishing Company,
Vasconcelos, and Humberto Rodrigues Gama, Use of Roller Amsterdam, 1954.
Compacted Concrete in Brazil, Concrete International: Design Forssblad, Lars, Investigations of Internal Vibration of
& Construction, V. 6, No. 5, May 1954, pp. 29-34. Concrete, Civil Engineering and Building Construction Series
Bache, H.H., The Processing of Fresh Concrete, Con- No. 29, Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, Stockholm, 1965a, 32
crete Research Laboratory, Karlstrup, Jan. 1973. pp.
Bache, H.H., Mechanical Stability of Green Compacted Forssblad, L., Investigations on Soil Compaction by Vi-
Concrete (Mekanisk Stabilitet of Frisk Komprimerat bration, Civil Engineering and Building Construction Series
Betong), Nordisk Betong (Stockholm), No. 6, 1977. No. 34, Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, Stockholm, 1965b,
Bergstrom, S., and Linderholms, S., La Vibration du 185 pp.
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Institute, Stockholm, 1949, 80 pp. of Concrete Products and Prefabricated Building Units,
Bingham, E.C., and Reiner, M., The Rheological Proper- Swedish Cement Association, Malmo, 1971.
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1933, pp. 88-96. bration (Betongvibreringens Reologi Och Mekanism),
Bresson, J., and M. Brusin, Influence of the Character- Nordisk Betong (Stockholm), No. 4, 1975.
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Publication Technique No. 32, Centre dEtudes et de cized Concrete Mixes, Consolidation of Concrete, SP-96,
Recherches de lIndustrie du Beton Manufacture, Epernon, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1987, pp. 19-37
1977, 23 pp. Goldstein, W.G., Wybor Parametrow Glubinnych Vibra-
Cannon, Robert Williams, Concrete Dam Construction torow dla Uplotnienia Betona, Moscow, 1968.
Using Earth-Compaction Methods, Economical Construction Halken, O.V., Technology of Concrete Consolidation
of concrete Dams (Engineering Foundation Conference, Paci- (Betongkomprimeringens teknologi), Betongelmentforen-
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Added Mass and Damping of a Vibrating Rod in Confined Consolidation Achieved by a Harmonic Blend of Internal and
Viscous Fluids, Journal of Applied Mechanics, June 1976. External Vibration, Consolidation of Concrete, SP-96,
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Davies, R.D., Some Experiments on the Compaction of Lean Concrete Subjected to Vibrating Compaction, Consol-
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(London), V. 3, No. 8, Dec. 1951, pp. 71-78. pp. 215-246.
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of Consolidation in Fresh Concrete, Consolidation of crete International: Design & Construction, V. 7, NO. 4, April
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pp. 161-178 Reading, Thomas J., What You Should Know About Vi-
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