ELECTRICAL SCIENCE - II

Basics of AC Circuits analysis

Lecture 1-3

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 What is the difference between
DC and AC

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Electrical or Mechanical or
DC and AC Electrical
Mechanical Motor

Generator

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 A complete power plant

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 AC wave form

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 Frequency in Hz = 1/Period in
sec.
Example
If a periodical signal has 10 sec., its
frequency is 0.1 Hz

If a periodical signal has 100 sec., its

frequency is 0.01 Hz

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 Common Signals

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 Measurement of AC Magnitude

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 Periodical signals

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 Non periodical signal

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 AC Circuits
AC Signals and rms Values
There are a number of ways to describe the current
or voltage for a time varying signal: peak value,
peak-to-peak, and rms. Write in your own words
what each means and indicate the three values on
the sine wave signal shown below.

Vp Vpp Vrms
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 Power dissipation

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 AC Circuits
The rms value is found by squaring the
signal, integrating over one period, and then
taking the square root. Lets do it. First
square the following signal.
V 2(t) = V 2sin2(wt)
V(t) = Vmsin(wt) m

Now integrate this with respect to time from t =

0 to t = T (the period). Vm
T T
t sin(2wt )
T Vrms
Vm sin (wt )dt V sin (wt )dt V 2 4w
2 2 2 2 2
m
0
m
0
2
0

T sin(2wT ) 2 T
V
2
Vm
4w
m
2 2
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 Phase shift

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 Complex Numbers {Amplitude &
Phase shift)

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 Complex vector addition

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 Polar notation

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 Rectangular notation

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 Example: Convert from Polar to
Rectangular

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 Example: Convert from
Rectangular to Polar

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 AC Circuits
What is V average, Vave?
Vave 0
How is Vrms related to Vm?

Vm 2Vrms
We will derive this in a minute.

When you measure an ac current or voltage

with a MI meters you are measuring rms
values.

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 AC Circuits
Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance
When we discuss resistors, capacitors, and
inductors in a circuit there are two important points
to remember.

The magnitude relationship between the current

in and voltage across a resistor, capacitor, or
inductor.

The phase relationship between the current in

and voltage across a resistor, capacitor, or
inductor.

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 Review of Complex Numbers
A complex number is a number that is a
function of the square root of minus one.
We use the symbol j to represent this,
1 j.
Remember that j does not exist. It is a figment of our
imagination. It is just a tool we use to get solutions that do
exist.

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 Review of Complex Numbers
Complex numbers can be expressed as having
a real part, and an imaginary part. The imaginary
part is the coefficient of j. The real part is the part
that is not a coefficient of j. Thus, in the example
given here, for the complex number A,

A 3 4 j,
the real part is 3, and the imaginary part is 4.

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 Review of Complex Numbers
Complex numbers can also be expressed
as having a magnitude, and a phase. For
example, in the complex number A,
j 53.13
A 3 4 j 5e ,
the real part is 3, the imaginary part is 4,
the magnitude is 5, and the phase is
53.13[degrees]. Remember that all four
parts are real numbers.
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 Review of Complex Numbers 4
It is easiest to think of this in terms of a plot,
where the horizontal axis (abscissa) is the real
component, and the vertical axis (ordinate) is the
imaginary component. So, if we were to plot our
complex number A in this complex plane, we
would get Imaginary
Axis
3

j 53.13
A 3 4 j 5e .
5
4

53.13o
Real
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 Review of Complex Numbers 5
We can get the relationships between these values from
our trigonometry courses, just looking at the right triangle
given here. For review, they are all given here.

A x yj Me j , where
Imaginary
Axis
M x y , 2 2

y
tan ,
1
y
M

x

x M cos , and x
Real
Axis

y M sin .
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 Review of Complex Numbers 6
We often use a short hand notation for complex
numbers, using an angle symbol instead of the complex
exponential. Specifically, we write

A x yj Me j M .
Imaginary
Axis

M
y

Real
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 AC Circuits
Resistance
The simplest case is a resistor in a circuit.
The current and voltage are in phase
The magnitude is VR=IR

The current and voltage are in phase in a resistor.

Current and voltage reaches a minimum at time T

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Phasor Diagram for AC Resistance

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 AC Circuits
Inductive Reactance
When we discuss inductors in a circuit there are
two important points for an inductor. One is the
phase relationship between the current in and
voltage across an inductor. What is the phase
relationship?
The voltage across an inductor leads the current by 900.

Voltage reaches a maximum at time

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Current reaches a maximum at a laterLecture1
time T+DT
 AC Circuits
The second point is the magnitude relationship
between current and voltage for a inductor. What is
this relationship?
VL,p I p X L

To make this look like Ohms law we define

inductive reactance. What is the definition for
inductive reactance?

X L wL 2fL
What are the units?

ohms

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AC Inductance with a Sinusoidal Supply

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Inductive Reactance against Frequency

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 AC Circuits
Capacitive Reactance
When we discuss capacitors in a circuit there are two
important points for a capacitor. One is the phase
relationship between the current in and voltage
across a capacitor. What is the phase relationship?
This is the bold statement on page 855 in your text.
The current in a capacitor leads the voltage by 900.

Current reaches a minimum at time T

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time T+DT
 AC Circuits
The second point is the magnitude relationship
between current and voltage for a capacitor. What is
this relationship? Like
VC,p I p XC or VC,rms Irms XC VR,p I p R
This is equation (33-5) in your text. To make this
look like Ohms law we define capacitive reactance.
What is the definition for capacitive reactance?
1
XC dQ d
wC I I p sin wt Qp sin wt wQp cos wt
dt dt
Qp Ip
VC , p XCIp
C wC
What are the units?
ohms
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AC Capacitance with a Sinusoidal Supply

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Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

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 AC Circuits
Summary of AC circuit equations

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Series Resistance-Inductance Circuit

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V equals the r.m.s value of the applied voltage.

I equals the r.m.s. value of the series current.

VR equals the I.R voltage drop across the resistance which is in-phase with the current.

VL equals the I.XL voltage drop across the inductance which leads the current by 90o.

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The Impedance of an AC Inductance

Impedance, Z is the "TOTAL" opposition to current flowing in an AC circuit that

contains both Resistance, ( the real part ) and Reactance ( the imaginary part ).
Impedance also has the units of Ohms, 's.

Impedance can also be represented by a complex number, Z = R + jXL but it is not a

phasor, it is the result of two or more phasors combined together.

If we divide the sides of the voltage triangle above by I, another triangle is obtained
whose sides represent the resistance, reactance and impedance of the circuit as
shown below.
The RL Impedance Triangle

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 A coil has a resistance of 30 and an inductance of 0.5H. If the current flowing
through the coil is 4amps. What will be the value of the supply voltage if its
frequency is 50Hz.

A capacitor which has an internal resistance of 10's and a capacitance value of

100uF is connected to a supply voltage given as V(t) = 100 sin (314t). Calculate the
current flowing through the capacitor. Also construct a voltage triangle showing the
individual voltage drops.

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Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit

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 Power in Resistive Components

Suppose a voltage v = Vp sin wt is applied across

a resistance R. The resultant current i will be
v V sin wt
i I P sin wt
R R
1 cos 2wt
p vi VP sin wt IP sin wt VP IP (sin wt ) VP IP (
2
)
2
The result power p will be
The average value of (1 - cos 2wt) is 1, so
where V and I are the r.m.s. voltage and current
1 VP IP
Average Power P VP IP VI
2 2 2
 Relationship between v, i and p in a
resistor
 Power in Capacitors
16.3

From our discussion of capacitors we know

that the current leads the voltage by 90.
Therefore, if a voltage v = Vp sin wt is
applied across a capacitance C, the current
will be given by i = Ip cos wt p vi
Then VP sin wt IP cos wt
VP IP (sin wt cos wt )
sin 2wt
VP IP ( )
2
 Relationship between v, i and p in a
capacitor
 Power in Inductors
16.4

From our discussion of inductors we know

that the current lags the voltage by 90.
Therefore, if a voltage v = Vp sin wt is
applied across an inductance L, the current
will be given by i = -Ip cos wt
Therefore p vi
VP sin wt IP cos wt
VP IP (sin wt cos wt )
sin 2wt
VP IP ( )
2
 Relationship between v, i and p in an
inductor
 Circuit with Resistance and Reactance
When a sinusoidal voltage v = Vp sin wt is
16.5

applied across a circuit with resistance and

reactance, the current will be of the general form
i = Ip sin (wt - )
Therefore, the instantaneous power, p is given by
p vi
VP sin wt IP sin(wt )
1
VP IP {cos cos( 2wt )}
2
1 1
p VP IP cos VP IP cos( 2wt )
2 2
 The expression for p has two components
The second part oscillates at 2w and has an average
value of zero over a complete cycle
this is the power that is stored in the reactive
elements and then returned to the circuit within
each cycle
1 1
p VP IP cos VP IP cos( 2wt )
2 2

The first part represents the power dissipated in resistive

components. Average power dissipation is
1 VP IP
P VP IP (cos ) (cos ) VI cos
2 2 2
 The average power dissipation given by
1
P VP IP (cos ) VI cos
2
is termed the active power in the circuit
and is measured in watts (W)
The product of the r.m.s. voltage and
current VI is termed the apparent power,
S. To avoid confusion this is given the
units of volt amperes (VA)
 1 1
p VP IP cos VP IP cos( 2wt )
2 2
The expression for p has two components
The second part oscillates at 2w and has
an average value of zero over a complete
cycle
this is the power that is stored in the reactive
elements and then returned to the circuit
within each cycle
The first part represents the power
dissipated in resistive components.
Average power dissipation is
1 VP IP
P VP IP (cos ) (cos ) VI cos
2 2 2
 The average power dissipation given by
1
P VP IP (cos ) VI cos
2

is termed the active power in the circuit

and is measured in watts (W)
The product of the r.m.s. voltage and
current VI is termed the apparent power,
S. To avoid confusion this is given the
units of volt amperes (VA)
 From the above discussion it is clear that
P VI cos Active power (in watts)
Power factor
Apparent power (in volt amperes)
S cos

In other words, the active power is the

apparent power times the cosine of the
phase angle.
This cosine is referred to as the power
factor
P
Power factor cos
S
 POWER FACTOR

Power Triangle
 Active and Reactive Power
When a circuit has resistive and reactive parts, the
resultant power has 2 parts:
The first is dissipated in the resistive element. This is
the active power, P
The second is stored and returned by the reactive
element. This is the reactive power, Q , which has
units of volt amperes reactive or var
While reactive power is not dissipated it does have an
effect on the system
for example, it increases the current that must be
supplied and increases losses with cables
 Consider an
RL circuit
the relationship
between the various
forms of power can
be illustrated using
a power triangle
 Therefore

Active Power P = VI cos watts

Reactive Power Q = VI sin

var

Apparent Power S = VI
VA

S2 = P2 + Q2
 WHAT CAUSES LOW POWER FACTOR

What causes a large KVAR in a system? The answer

isinductive loads.
Inductive loads (which are sources of Reactive Power)
include:
Transformers
Induction motors
Induction generators (wind mill generators)
High intensity discharge (HID) lighting
 POWER FACTOR

Why Should I Improve My Power Factor?

Active power = cos * apparent power

Lower utility fees
Reducing peak KW billing demand
Eliminating the power factor penalty
Increased system capacity and reduced system losses in
your electrical system
Increased voltage level in your electrical system and
cooler, more efficient motors
 POWER FACTOR

How Do I Improve My Power Factor?

Reactive Power Suppliers which increase power
factor:
1. Capacitors
2. Synchronous generators (utility and emergency)
3. Synchronous motors
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

Resonance in electrical circuits consisting of passive and active

elements represents a particular state of a circuit when the current or
voltage in the circuit is maximum/minimum w.r.t the magnitude of
excitation at a particular frequency, the circuit impedance being either
minimum / maximum at the power factor unity.
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

Series RLC circuits

the impedance is given by
1 1
Z R jwL R j(wL )
jwC wC

if the magnitude of the reactance of the

inductor and capacitor are equal, the
imaginary part is zero,
and the impedance is simply R
jwterm1 = 0 at w1 = w 1
oL
wo C
w o w0o
2

LC LC
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

This situation is referred to as resonance. The frequency at

which is occurs is the resonant frequency
1
wo fo
1
Where fo is frequency at resonance
LC 2 LC

Z in w wo
Zo R j * 0
pf 1 Minimum valve
Z o Z in w w R
2 1
2


o

Z in R wL
wC Io
V V

Zo R
Maximum valve
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

Variation of zin with w

1
Z in R j(wL )
wC
CASE-1

w wo
Z in R j * 0 ..purely Resistive

cos pf 1
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

CASE-2
w wo
Z in R j * valve ..Inductive in nature
cos pf is lagging

CASE-3
w wo
Z in R j * valve ..capacitive in nature
cos pf is leading
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

SUMMARY for Series RLC CIRCUIT:

1. At resonance, the input impedance is purely resistive, has a
minimum valve so that voltage and current are in phase and the
power factor is unity.
2. At resonance, the current drawn by the circuit has a maximum
valve
3. At resonance, the voltage across the inductor and that of
capacitor are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase.
4. At w=wo, the input impedance is resistive and pf is unity
5. At w>wo, the network behaves as an inductive n/w so that pf is
lagging.
6. At w<wo, the network is capacitive and the pf is leading.
7. The rate at which the electrical energy stored in the capacitor is
transformed to magnetic energy in the inductor and vice versa is
called the frequency of resonance.
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

Parallel RLC circuits

the impedance is given by
1 1 1 1
Yin jwC j(wC )
R jwL R wL

if the magnitude of the reactance of the

inductor and capacitor are equal, the
imaginary part is zero,
and the impedance is simply R
j wterm1 = 0 at w1 = w 1
o C
wo L
w o w0o
2

LC LC
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

This situation is referred to as resonance. The frequency at

which is occurs is the resonant frequency
1
wo fo
1
Where fo is frequency at resonance
LC 2 LC

1 Minimum valve
Yin w w Yo j * 0 Y0 Yin w w
1
o
R o
R
pf 1 Maximum valve
1
1 2 2
Z0
1 Y0
Yin wC
R w L
V Minimum valve
I o V * Y0
R
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

Variation of zin with w

1 1
Yin j(wC )
R wL
CASE-1
w wo
1
Yin j * 0 ..purely Resistive
R
cos pf 1
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

CASE-2
w wo

Yin j * positivevalve ..Capacitive in nature

1
R
cos pf is leading
CASE-3
w wo

Yin j * valve ..inductive in nature

1
R
cos pf is lagging
 SUMMARY for parallel RLC CIRCUIT:

1. At resonance, the imaginary part of input admittance is zero and

has only real part. At this frequency the input voltage and current
are in phase and pf is unity.
2. At resonance, the input admittance is minimum and there fore
input impedance of n/w has maximum valve.
3. The current drawn by n/w at this frequency is minimum.
4. At w=wo, the current through the inductor and capacitor are equal
in magnitude and are out of phase by 180.
5. At w=wo, the input impedance is purely real and pf is unity
6. At w>wo, the network behaves as an capacitive n/w so that pf is
leading.
7. At w<wo, the network is inductive and the pf is lagging.
8. The rate at which the electrical energy stored in the capacitor is
transformed to magnetic energy in the inductor and vice versa is
called the frequency of resonance.
Introduction to Three-Phase Power

ECE 441 96
Typical Transformer Yard

ECE 441 97
Basic Three-Phase Circuit

ECE 441 98
 What is Three-Phase Power?

Three sinusoidal voltages of equal

amplitude and frequency out of phase with
each other by 120. Known as balanced.
Phases are labeled A, B, and C.
Phases are sequenced as A, B, C
(positive) or A, C, B (negative).

ECE 441 99
ECE 441 100
 Why Three Phase is preferred Over
Single Phase?

There are various reasons for this question because there are numbers
of advantages over single phase circuit.
The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it
can act as three single phase system.
The three phase generation and single phase generation is same in
the generator except the arrangement of coil in the generator to get
120 phase difference.
The conductor needed in three phase circuit is 75% that of conductor
needed in single phase circuit.
And also the instantaneous power in single phase system falls down to
zero as in single phase we can see from the sinusoidal curve but in
three phase system the net power from all the phases gives a
continuous power to the load.

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Three-Phase Power

ECE 441 102

 Definitions

4 wires
3 active phases, A, B, C
1 ground, or neutral
Color Code
Phase A Red
Phase B Black
Phase C Blue
Neutral White or Gray

ECE 441 103

Phasor (Vector) Form for abc
Vc=Vm/+120

Va=Vm/0

Vb=Vm/-120

ECE 441 104

Phasor (Vector) Form for abc
Vc=Vm/+120

Va=Vm/0

Vb=Vm/-120
Note that KVL applies .... Va+Vb+Vc=0
ECE 441 105
ECE 441 106
 How are the sources connected?

(a) shows the sources

(phases) connected in
a wye (Y).
Notice the fourth
terminal, known as
Neutral.
(b) shows the sources
(phases) connected in
a delta ().
Three terminals

ECE 441 107

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Vector addition to find VAB=VAN-VBN
-VBN

ECE 441 112

Using the Tip-to-Tail Method

-VBN

V = Line-to-Neutral,
or Phase Voltage

VAB = VAN VBN = 3V

ECE 441 113

 Conclusions for the Y connection

The amplitude of the line-to-line voltage is

equal to 3 times the amplitude of the
phase voltage.
The line-to-line voltages form a balanced
set of 3-phase voltages.
The set of line-to-line voltages leads the
set of line-to-neutral (phase) voltages by
30.

ECE 441 114

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 W1 = V1I1
W2 = V2I2
W3 = V3I3

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The Two Wattmeter Method is explained, taking an example of a balanced load. In
this, we have to prove that the power measured by the Two Wattmeter i.e. the sum
of the two wattmeter readings is equal to root 3 times of the phase voltage and line
voltage (3VLIL Cos) which is the actual power consumed in a 3 phase balanced
load.

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 Now, the current flowing through the
current coil of the Wattmeter, W1 will be
given as

Potential difference across the pressure or

potential coil of the Wattmeter, W1 will be

To obtain the value of VYB, reverse the

phasor VBN and add it to the phasor VYN as
shown in the phasor diagram above. The
phase difference between VRB and IR is
(30 )

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 Therefore, the power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 is

Current through the current coil of the Wattmeter, W2 is given as

Potential difference across the Wattmeter, W2 is

The phase difference VYB and IY is (30 + ).

Therefore, the power measured by the Wattmeter, W2 is given by the equation
shown below.

Since, the load is in balanced condition,

hence,

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Therefore, the wattmeter readings will be

Now, the sum of two Wattmeter readings will be given as

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 Transformers

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 Transformers
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from
one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe
transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus
a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force
(EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called
inductive coupling.
load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the
secondary winding, and electrical energy will be transferred from
the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal
transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is
in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp) and is given by the ratio
of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of
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 Ideal two winding transformer

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 Core type transformer

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Constructional features of electrical
machines

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 DC amchine

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 Synchronous machine

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 Animation of syn. machine

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 Induction machines

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 Elementary synchronous machine

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 Non salient pole rotor

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 Distributed windings and distribution (or Belt) factor

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Concentrated windings in which all conductors of a given
phase per pole are concentrated in a single slot, are not
commercially used because they have the following
disadvantages,

1. They fail to use the entire inner periphery of the stator iron
efficiently.
2. They make it necessary to use extremely deep slots
where the windings are concen-
trated. This causes an increase in the mmf required to setup
the airgap flux.
3. The effect of the second disadvantage is to also increase
the armature leakage flux and
the armature reactance.
4. They result in low copper-to-iron ratios by not using the
armature iron completely.
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5. They fail to reduce harmonics
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as effectively as distributed
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