Performance (CHAPTER 1 - CERTIFICATION & STATISTICS. AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATION : : STATISTICS AND SAFETY Magis PERFORMANCE CLASSES. Claw A airra (Claes Birra Class C Aircraft - “THe PERFORMANCE MANUAL. (CHAPTER 2—THE BASICS... = 1 2 3 7 a 5 0 1 ser Tunest, ' ‘The Variation of Pras with Speed. 2 Variation of Thrst with liad ei Variation of Tart with Temperature 3 Variation of Fue Fow: a fect of Aiud. 6 Effect of Temperature 6 fect of Ram z 6 “let Power, 6 Pronerin Tis 7 PROPELLER POWER 9 aac. 9 ‘Spud Sibi. io The Efe of Flap. u The fect of Mas. 2 The Bfect of Speed B The Efe of Altitude and Temperate The Efect of eng “4 Wing King. 4 Talplane ing 5 udder eig. 1 ‘Tom. 15 Fur Coxsirion 6 “Tue RUNWAY DistaNets AValLAnLE. 0 RUNWAY SLOPE Demos, GGERERAL DEriNiiONS ENGINE DEFINITIONS : ison Engines: Turbine Engines. -amsnets Brrarnions [ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE DEFINITIONS, Mass Dinxtnions.. DECLARED RUNWAY DISTANCES, SPEEDS... = (CHAPTER 3-THE TAKE-OFF. ‘THE FoncES ACTING ON THE AIRCRAFT. The Thrust to Weight Rao The Variation of Thrust with Speed. 1 1 1 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 3 ‘Performance Tesue © Contents 4he Variation of Drag with Speed. Rotation. (CONSTRAINTS ON. ‘Stalling Contac. Tyre Sped FACTORS AFFECTING TAKE-OFF DisTaNCE ‘iver Mas. Tempera. Presvare Ae Engine bled air. Ruy Slope Runay Surface ‘lap Seung (CHAPTER 4- THE ENGINE FAILURE ON TAKE-OFF, ‘ToStoroR To Go? 1 A RANGE OF DECISION SPEEDS. 5 SAPETY FactoRs 6 Wer RUNWAYS, 6 Lisarsox Vy, 8 Decide fore Rotate 5 5 ° 9 ° u ‘Can the brates doth job? you goat V can you keep the aircraft sag? What IVs restricted by Va? What iV reseed by Vacs? What Vie restricted by Vag? [THEALLENGINE CAS. u “THE EFFECT OF CLEARWAY. i ‘THE BALANCTD FIELD VL 7 ‘TORR Consipexarions| 1 ASDR CONSIDERATIONS 19 Factors Acting Accelerate Stop Distance. 20 diver Mass 0 Temperate. 2 Engine bled ai. 2 Presvare Aiud. 2 Wind. 2 Runay Sop 2 Rasrnay Surface 2 Reverse Thrust. 2 (CHAPTER S—THHE CLIMB. [BEST ANGLE OF CLM. Facrons Tat arFect linia GRADIENT. “Aiud and Temperate, ‘Mase Paps Wind. Banik gle. [FACTORS THAT AFFECT Vx Temperature and Pressure Mose Flaps. Contents? —=~=~*~*~*~*~S~SSS*~*~*~*~*~*« rm(Cun GRADIENT CALCULATIONS ‘TAKE-OFF SAFETY SIDED, Vs ‘The Efe of Flap Selection and Vics on Van WaT ox Cunt ts. = [BEST RATE oF CUM, Factons nav arvect Rate or CL “Altitude and Temperate Mass lope and Gear Wind. catcurations “Alte and Temperature Mase Flaps and Gear \Wach Sree 70 USE Bryne Out Al Engines, ison and Turboprop Climb ANGLE OF ATTACK INTHE CLI. . Frit PATH ANGLE AND PrrcH ANGLE. [NOISE ABATENINT PROCEDURES, ‘Noise Corian (CHAPTER 6 THE CRUISE... CCrxTREOF Gaxviry PosmiON JETATICRAFT, (Optimising Specific Fue! Consumprion Optimising Range. Optimising Atide The Crise Clin Fuel Mileage. Opimising Endurance PROPETLER AIRCRAFT : Optimising Specific Fuel Consumption ‘Optimising Range. Piston engines SEC. Turboprop engines ‘Smnary. Optimising Endrance ‘Smmary “Angle of Atak ne Cre FUEL FLOW CALCULATIONS ve “THE ERECT oF WIN. Lona RANGE CRUSE, = “Tur Erect of Wet ast icine POWER AVAILABLE IV Tie CRUSE POWER REQUIRED INTHE CRUISE. [LONG RANGE REQUIREMENTS AND TOPS ‘Long vangebvins withou TOPS. og range bins wit BTOPS. Aeroplanes with vee or moe engines wo engines inoperative TEENS. ‘The FMS Optima Ate ‘The FMS Maxima Altade Performance Taaues‘hie BUFFET BOUNDARY Las RANGEPAYLOAD DIAGRAMS. (CHAPTER 7- DESCENT AND LANDING, Descent ‘he lide Descent CCaeutating the Gide ng Factors hat Aft he Glide Angle The Drfdown| Opninam Drown Spee. Rate of Decent {Gidins for Erna The Emergency Descent Avrnonct “Missed Approach. Bante Landing LANDING Factors dieting Landing Grownd Ra Speed. Mass dir Density Wind: Safety Factors on Landing 'SGEDULED LaNbINes. (CHAPTER §- OBSTACLE CLEARANCE TAKEOFF. Single Engine Class 8 ‘Muli-Engine Class Band Css he Net Tae-OF Fight Path EN-ROUTE TANDING : (CHAPTER 9 ADVANCED TAKE-OFF TECHNIQUES. ‘Tue INCREASED V; PROCEDURE. “nereasedV; to Overcome a WATIClimb Limit Increased V, to Improve Climb Gratien REDUCED THRUST TAKI-OFFS : Restisons om Use Method. Ccatainaa Rina Wer Damp avd Dry Runs. Regulations. ‘he Efe on Arca Performance Dynamic Hopton. scons Hoping. Reverted Rubber Hyroplaning Braking Co-rocedures ‘when determining the accelerate stop distance on a wet Funway. An unserviceable thrust reverser will ineur a weight, reduction penalty aaIntentionally BlankChapter 5 - The Climb Best Angle of Climb he balance of forces in a steady climb show thrust is ‘acting upwards and an element of weight is adding to the drag. As the thrust assists the it the hit required is, less than in level Might. Loss it is roquired Pipe 1354 For a steady speed to be maintained the thrust and the two retarding effects of aerodynamic drag and the weight element canbewitien ss efemula. SE T = D+Wsin ‘and the formula can be transposed to read Sno = TaD Performance BaWhich shows that Sin @ depends on the excess thrust over drag and the weight. If we recognise that for small angles Sin 8 equals Tan @, and that Tan 0 in turn is the amount of height fined per unit of distance we get an approximate formula for ‘limb gradient: ‘Climb gradion TD) + weight for, in words, the greatest climb gradient is obtained when the Diggest difference between thrust and drag exists and the weight is least, Note that the svmbol y (gamma) may be used Instead of 6 (hela). ‘The formula above gives the climb gradient as a number, in ‘other words if ten metres of horizontal movement gives a height gain of one metre the formula would show the gradient as 1 40 = 0.1. To express 0.1 as a percentage multiply it by a hundred, 10%. An approximate formula for gradient as a percentage is therefore: Climb gradient = =~ (=D) x 100 8 a percentage weight \We know that thrust reduces as speed increases. Ifwe put two typical thrust lines on ane graph with a typical ‘drag curve’ we ‘can see that the best angle of climb speed, Vi, is a low speed ‘on a prop aircraft and a higher speed on «low bypass ratio jet, Figure 13.52 52 Teaue 5 Performance aon jets close 10 Vin and 4.4Ve ‘ona propAireraft climb best when fpleas | Figure 13-5-2 shows that Vi for a jet is pretty close to the minimum drag speed, Vso, whereas a piston aircraft will have ‘best angle of climb close to the stalling speed, about 1.18 Factors that affect Climb Gradient Altitude and Temperature ‘The drag for a given EAS, which is close to the IAS we read off the ASL stays the same with variations in temperanure and pressure but the thrust does not. Hecause thrust reduces at hhigh temperatures and tow pressures either of these will produce a decrease in climb gradient. ‘As you climb, however, the pressure reduces tending to decrease climb gradient but the temperature alto reduces tending to increase it The reduction in pressure is more significant than the reduction in temperature so, overall, as the aircraft climbs the limb gradient is reduced, ‘An increase in aircraft mass increases the lif incuced drag reducing the excess thrust. Heavier aircraft have @ reduced climb gradient Flaps Increasing the fap setting increases the drag. Note that, from the formula at the bottom of page 5.1, the change of lit produced produces no benefit to climb gradient. Climb radients are best when the aircraft is lapless ‘The climb gradient in aerodynamic terms is considered in the air mass and is therefore not affected by wind. Ifthe gradient is related to ground distance a headwind will increase the climb ‘gradient whereas a talwind will decrease it Bank Angle Increasing bank angle increases induced drag and makes the excess of thrust over drag reduce, Climb gradient reduces, Performance Teewe 5 33Factors that affect V,, ‘Temperature and Pressure ‘Thrust reduces with increasing temperature or reducing pressure but the EAS at which the greatest excess thrust is found remains substantially the same. This means that the BAS of Vx is unchanged with altitude Mass: An increase in aircraft mass increases lift induced drag and does not change profile drag, As the total drag increases Ve and Vo, increase. This means that as mass increases Vx for both the jet and propeller driven airerat also increases, Flaps. When the flap setting is increased the profile of the wing is changed and the wing's capability to provide lit at low speeds Js increased. The actual lit, though, remains the same'as it only balances the weight. As the actual lit remains the same the lit induced drag is pretty much the same. ‘The increase in flap setting also increases the profile drag. The increase in profile drag reduces Vy. This means that for jets ‘a8 the flap Setting is increased Vy is decreased. For propeller aircraft Vx also reduces as flap setting increases as the reduction in stalling speed permits lower Right speeds. ‘The effects of these variables on the climb gradient itself and com the best climb speed are summarised in figure 13-5-3. Figure 13-53 CL PerformanceClimb gradient calculations Climb gradient calculations use the formulae we met earlier, Example: Solution: Performance Giver: ‘A four engine aeroplane. ‘Thrust = 45000 N per engine, Drag = 69525 N g- 1om/sec*, ‘The minimum gross gradient (2% segment) = 3% (Thrust ~ Drag) + Weight. Determine the maximum take-off mass limited by the second segment climb gradient. Although it is not stated in the question you are expected to remember that we have assumed an engine failure at Ver and therefore have only three fengines remaining ‘We have seen that a gradient expressed as a decimal is preity much the same as sind so sind = 0.03 fand the thrust = 3.x 45000 N 135000 N ‘Transpose the formula to find weight and substitute known values Weight = Thust— Drag sin8 Weight = 135000 - 69525 0.03 = 2182500 N Now divide the answer by g = 10m/see2to get ie Mags = 218,250 kg Tasue 5 3s‘Take-off Safety Speed, V, Vs has been defined s0 far as the take-off safety speed, the lake-off climb speed or the apeed at 25f The more detailed Gefinitions, which you should not try to remember, are, for Clase B aircraft, the highest of: +e + ve ‘+a speed that is safe under all reasonable conditions © and, fora twin, 1.1 we Class A aircraft use Ves, the stall reference speed, rather than Va; but itis substantially the same thing. These definitions for Vouncdo need to be remembered. ‘The Class A take-off safety speed is the highest of: + 1.13 Vor for wo-engine and three-engine turboprop powered aeroplanes and jet aircraft without provisions. for obtaining a significant reduction in the one-engine- Inoperative power-on stall speed, ‘+ 1.08 Ve for turboprop aeroplanes with more than, three engines and jet aircraft with provisions for obtaining a significant reduction in the one-engine- Inoperative power-on stall speed, © 1.10Ve + Veplus the speed increment attained before reaching & height of 35 ft above the take-off surface + Aspeed that provides adequate manoeuvring capability ‘The Effect of Flap Selection and Vic on Var: With reference to figure 13-5-4, given the Vay criteria itis apparent that at low temperatures, low pressure altitudes and low humidity, where asymmetric thrust is highest, Vax will be restricted by the 1-1Vyca requirement at low weights. As the aircraft weight increases then the Viner becomes restricted by the Ver requirement. Any increase in flap selection will lower Ver and as a consequence the Van restriction may change from a Vox restriction toa Vwca restriction, coe ete se tees PerformanceVets ot best angle ‘of climb speed on a fase Aste Vein Te an Tatoo Figure 135-4 ‘The value of Vs using these criteria will be so low as to certainly be on the wrong side of the drag curve. Notice also that neither of these ists make any mention of the best angle ‘of climb speed, ‘As it happens, because Vx is low on propeller driven aircraft, Va willbe close to the speed for best climb angle. Operating jets at Vo is mote questionable from a performance point of view because Vi will be some way below best angle of climb speed. 1 begs the question for jets, why not accelerate to best climb speed? The answer lies in economics and in the feld length requirement. It would take too much extra distance. to Accelerate to the optimum speed. It ia easier to sal jets that can operate to the minimum standards of V2 from short Funways of 8,000f to 10,000f than it is to sell aircraft that require 11,000ft or 12,000" runways but have a more sensible initial climb speed, formance Tsao 5 37Figure 13.55 {tis worth noting that Vs only used a the inal arg spend in the climb for jets if an engine has been lost on the take-off In the all engines case a jet aircraft is usually accelerated to Vs “Lok (V,) after rotation becatise it gives a better angle of climb, a more manageable pitch attitude and, if an engine ‘subsequently falls, the climb gradient will be better than ‘calculated forthe situation where an engine fails at Ver. WAT or Climb limits €S lay down minimum climb gradients to be met on take-of. ‘These have nothing to do with obstacle clearance, which is considered separately, but ensure only that the aircraft has & respectable climb gradient. ‘The definition of ‘respectable’ depends on the number of engines and, once again, on the Performance Class, ‘The climb gradient depends, among other things, on the Weight, the Altitude and the Temperature so the regulatory climb limit is commonly called the WAT limit, Climb limit and (WAT limit have the same meaning. It may also be referred to ‘the mass, altitude temperature limit. ‘The minimum climb gradients in CS 25 consider an engine Iaulure at several different stages of the departure. The limiting ‘gradient is usually, but not always, the gradient to be met with fan engine out in the initial climb once the aircraft is out of se SS”*~*~*~*wueSSS~*«é rman (nal ongines the Initialy at Veground effect: The required gradients are steeper for four ‘engined aircraft than for those with two or three engines. AA second Climb Limit will apply for multi-engine aircraft at landing. This is called the balked climb limit or landing Climb Limit for all engines or the missed approach climb limit for one engine inoperative. Climb limits must always be checked and can restrict both take-off and landing weights in high temperatures of at high altitude aerodromes Best Rate of Climb ‘The rate of climb is the aircraft vertical speed, the height {gained per unit of time, usually expressed in feet per minute, Considering an aircraft in a steady climb the rate af climb is affected by the TAS and the climb angle, 8, theta ory,gamma. If the apeed increases at a given climb angle the aircraft climbs faster and, for a given speed, if the climb angle increases the rate of climb inereases, Figure 13.56 Or, a8 8 formula, Rate ofolmb === ‘TAS Sind Dut we already know that sin - 1D so Rateofclimb © =~ TAS (T= D) ‘Performance ——~=~S~*~*S aw aebut TAS times thrust is the definition of power available and TAS times drag is the power required s0 the formula can be rewritten to read, Rate of Climb = (power available - power required) weight Figure 13-5-7 isa graph of power available and power required, plotted against TAS at sea level. TAS at sea level is nearly the Same ag both IAS and EAS. Jet thrust (on low bypass ratio engines) is roughly constant ‘with speed, so jet poster available, thrust times TAS, is roughly 42 straight line increasing from zero at zero speed. The power delivered by a propeller aircraft is also zero at zer0 speed, i rises rapidly a3 speed increases and reduces again at high speed when propeller efficiency fll. ‘The power requited line is drag times TAS, which is EAS at sea level Drag at higher speeds is proportional to EAS? so the power required curve at sea level is uitimately proportional to BAS? and rises sharply with increasing speed. ower al et wor Rage (Bog xTAS). Power Arata Po Seat Cn Spe Pop Beat Cn Spd in| wo 700 300 ao 500 a0 se ‘The graph shows that the best rate of climb speed, Vy, fora jet fs quite high. It also shows that the speed can vary widely from the optimum and not affect the rate of climb much. Vs for a propeller driven aircraft is quite low. Speeds above the optimum de not affect rate of climb much but speeds below Vy lead to very low climb rates. ‘sa0 isues~S”S”~*« erformanee Powers TAS reFactors that affect Rate of Climb Altitudle and Temperature ‘As the aircraft climbs thrust reduces and therefore power ‘available reduces. Drag remains constant for a fixed EAS but drag times TAS increases as the TAS increases. This means that the power required inereases by the same percentage as the increase in TAS. As the power available decreases so the rate of climb must, in turn, decrease with an increare of height, fd Similarly decrease With an increase of temperature Mass Because the rate of climb is power available miaus power required divided by weight as the mass of the aireatt increases, the rate of climb decreases. Flaps and Gear Increasing the drag increases the power required and decreases the rate of climb. ‘Wind does not affect the rate of climb, Calculations Note that, as before, the formula can use the gradient expressed as a decimal rather than sin @ so Rate ofclim’ == ~—“TAS x Gradient ‘As an example, therefore, for @ 1 in 10 climb: Rateofelim = TAS x 1/10 ‘But another way of describing a 1 in 10 climb is to say it has a aragient of 10%, by whieh we mean 10/ 100, 808 2qually correct to aay Rate ofclimd = ~—“TAS x %Gradient+ 100 formance: Taue 5 eatFactors that affect Vy Altitude and Temperature ‘hs altitude increases thrust reduces, This and the changing. ‘relationship between EAS and TAS move the poster available line down, and the power required line up and to the right to increase the TAS for best rate of climb. Figure 13-5-8 is drawn for TAS S00 ‘The change in air density with altitude also means that for a given TAS the EAS and IAS reduce. The reduction in EAS and IAS is faster than the increase of TAS so, as Vy is ideally expressed as an IAS, the overall result ie that the indicated speed Vs decreases as height increases, In lower temperatures BAS and TAS diverge lesa, while in high temperatures they diverge more. Vy will therefore reduce with height in low temperatures and more in high temperatures. Mass Increasing mass increases the induced drag which has the ellect of lifting the left hand side of the power required curve. ‘This leads to an increase of Vy as mass increases. Baa Teens 5 Performancesa Figure 135.9 Flaps and Gear Increased flap and use of gear increases the profile drag which hhas the effect of liting the right hand side of the power required curve. Increasing flap reduces Vy, ste dees wont ae Figure 136-10 ‘These effects are summarised in Sigure 13-5-11 formance Teaue 5 oa3Figure 135-44 Which Speed to Use? ‘There are now two ‘optimum’ epeeds for the initial climb, best angle and best rate. Although it might not be possible to use fither, the best angle of climb speed will generally be the best choice near the ground where obstacles are a consideration ‘and best rate of climb might be a better choice away from the [ground as the aircraft will each height quicker, Engine Out ‘The reality is that, with an engine out from Vir, the choice is not available, the flight path and speed control in the early ‘stages of a climb are governed by. the performance requirements of FARS and CS. ‘Aj aircraft with an engine out will climb initially at Vs, which ‘gives neither the best rate nor the best angle, up toa lap Fetraction height which is a minimum of 400% above the ‘aerodrome. An engine failure on takeoff would normally require a landing back at the departure field after fuel has ‘been jettisoned to reduce the landing mass. All Engines: tt an engine has not felled it ia normal to climb at Vs to lap Tetraction Height and then lower the pitch ange to allow the fircraft to both accelerate and climb. As the areraft accelerates flapa and slate are retracted and the aircraft is climbed ‘ypically atthe minimum speed for zero lap pus ten leno, Vir “Yok, sntit 30008 and then accelerated to the en-route climb speed Ce Performance “The inital tim, ‘engine out ie at VsATC restrictions may keep the en-route climb speed to 250%t IAS up to 10,0008. in most FIRS at which point the aircraft is allowed to accelerate to a faster speed, typically 300Kt IAS. In thie phase of the climb a constant IAS leads to both an increasing TAS and an inereasing Mach number. ‘As the Mach number increases at fixed IAS the aircraft ‘approaches MO,70 to MO.80 at which point the clirrb changes from a fixed IAS to « fixed Mach mumber. This is called the crossover altitude, From now on the TAS and IAS reduce in the climb, 1 you are fying for range in a jet itis best to climb at nearly full thrust, called. climb thrust, and at the recommended speeds until you reach your eruising altitude, Ifyou continue climbing you may reach a height where there is no excess thrust and therefore no excess power available, Vr will have reduced t0 Vivo, which is Vj, and you will be at your fsbsolute ceiling JetVsand Vrat Power Regulrd ‘Sea evel (Brag TAS) and atthe spsoite cong Figure 13.54 From figure 13-5-12 you can see that Vx is always a lower value than Vy except at the absolute ceiling where Vx equals Ve You can get above the absolute ceiling by exchanging speed built up at a lower level for height in a “zoom climb", but you. cannot then sustain fight at altitudes above th: absolute ceiling, Performance Bas[At high subsonic speeds drag created by shock wave formation Starts to change the shape of the power curve at a speed known as Meos. While Mcoa is above Vy this has no effect on the climb but, as altitude increases, Meus occurs at 2 reducing EAS until eventually it hits Vy and then subsequently becomes Ve Meas changing the shape ofthe powerreauieS et Power une Avaiable. [ewer Racuies (rag TAS) Power ‘Shockwave formation at TVs Min | vs, Best Rate "Drag "| acim ‘speed _| Speed TAS Figure 138-13 If you stil have reserves of power at this point itis possible to continue climbing at Mepe until BAS falls to some minimum tontrol speed near the stalling speed, then hold this EAS until you reach your high speed Mach limit, Myo. You are then at oolfin corner” at your aerodynamic ceiling, and can neither fy slower nor faster nor higher. ‘The service ceiling is lower than the absolute ceiling and is defined for jet aircraft as the height at which the rate of climb falls to S00R/min. Aircraft may also be limited by the pressurisation ceiling, a structural limit on the pressure bull Piston and Turboprop Climb For propeller driven aircraft the different shape of the power rnilable rairve malees the elimb speed, Vy, much lower Power available falls as height increases, and power required Increases in exactly the same way as for a jet, for it is an airframe and not an engine effect. Once again, although TAS for best climb increases the EAS for best climb reduces as you eoup. ‘The only significant differences between piston and turboprop powered aircraft are that with the turboprop the intake ram Performance‘effect maintains the power output to higher speeds - until propeller eficiency is markedly alfected at a TAS between S00Kt and 400kt'- and the turboprop maintains its power ‘output better at height as the lower intake temperatures increase the thermal efficiency of the engine, as with a jet Prop Vx and Wy at sbsolte celing TAS (Mt) Figure 135-16 You are unlikely to meet Mach problems at the lower climbing speeds, but M cox would impose a limit on climb speed as for the jet climb, ifyou reached that Mach nuraber. Service ceiling {or a propeller aircraft is the height where the rate o climb has fallen to 1008 /rain, Angle of Attack in the Climb Maximum angle of attack occurs at the stall, Speeds higher than Vs have a lower angle of attack. Once the climb is ‘established at @ fixed IAS the angle of attack will remain constant. In the constant Mach phase of the cli IAS. will reduce and angle of attack increase. Performance Teewo BayFlight Path Angle and Pitch Angle Pitch angle ig the angle between a tine through the aircralts ‘nose and the horizontal. Flight path angle is the angle between the aircraft's velocity vector and the horizontal. Figure 13-545 If we were being precise 7 would be the symbol for fight path angle and @ for pitch angle. In practice the angle of attack is ‘small enough that it can normally be ignored and the symbols fare interchanged. Noise Abatement Procedures Noise abatement procedures are common for take-off and landing at international airports, the local Authority is responsible for ensuring noise abatement objectives. are specified by aerodrome operators. Procedure 1 is designed to reduce noise levels close to the runway, procedure 2 is designed to cope with noise sensitive ‘reas in the latier part of the procedure. Both procedures require an intial climb under full take-off thrust climbing at V2 $TOket to Va + 20kt, Procedure 1 reduces thrust early and Gelays Map retraction to 3000K, Procedure 2 starts flap retraction under take-off thrust at a minimum of 8O0ft. Figure 18-5-16 shows the two procedures, the Vr referred to ls the ‘minimum manoeuvre speed with zero flap or laps up sett Performancereduce power at ‘00R, aps in at Procedure 2, Maps nat 800", then reduce power Mass constraints Festrietions must Procedure 4 Sane Sanaa =e 2o00n Cine tvr08 100 ‘a mira ot Seesensotie enrat ‘Xa rine oon nc vera Figure 138.46 Noise Certificates Ifthe Noise Certificate contains a limitation on maximum mass for take-off and landing this limitation must be observed unless exceptionally authorised for an aerodrome or runway where noise abatement is not required Performance Teewe SIntentionally blankTre Corie usualy in font of tec of? Chapter 6 - The Cruise he forces acting on an aircraft in light are ‘conventionally separated into lit, weight, thrust and ‘drag. These can be considered in pairs, total lit acting ‘against weight and thrust acting against drag. The total mass of the aireraft can be said to act through one Foint called the centre of gravity or C of G, sometimes shortened to CG. The total Hit acta through the centre of pressure. In level, non ‘accelerating flight these forces balance out. Figure 136-4 Centre of Gravity Position The forces do not actually have to act through the same point {as shown above, its quite normal for the thrust lin to not act ‘through the same point as the drag line, particularly when engines are mounted in pods below the wings. ‘The same is true when the lift/weight couple is considered. In practice the centre of gravity is usually forward of tke centre of pressure because the more forward the C of G is the more Tesue 5stable the aircraft is in pitch, Some stability in pitch is desirable, but not too much because there is a dawn side. ‘The down side is that putting the centre of gravity forward of the centre of pressure means the mainplane lit tends to pitch the aircraft nose down. This requires a balancing down force from the elevator atthe back of the aircraft ‘There are now two forces acting down, the weight and the down force on the elevator. The lift from the wing now MUSt beg forward € of 6 increased to balance them both in the vertical sense and keep jmereanesstebty, the aircraft in the alr. More lit means more drag, more dra, faetconsumpton ‘means higher fel consumption. More hit also means a nigher Su Seammg'seooa ‘wing loading, stalling speeds are increased as C of G moves Forward Figure 13.62 Aireraft manufacturers determine a safe range forthe centre of The optimum ¢ of gravity. The aft limit is usually just in front of the centre of Gt near the aft pressure, the forward limit controlled by the increasing tm stability and higher stalling speeds of the aircraft. For fuel efficiency the optimum centre of gravity is positioned near the Aft limit ofthe envelope. In summary, a forward C of G, Increases stalling speed increases drag increases stability {increases fuel consumption decreases range ez cs ~S«CerformanceJet engines are rou 90% rpm Jet Aircraft Optimising Specific Fuel Consumption Im level flight at constant speed thrust balances drag. The ‘engines are designed to work at their most efficient around a ‘certain rpm, about 90% of the maximum thrust. It is only ‘when thrust has reduced at altitude that the point of maximum efficiency is reduced to a low enough value to Balance the draz_ At this point the engines deliver their best SEC for the conditions Optimising Range “The best SAR is obtained when the most miles are travelled for every kg of fue as SAR = TAS fuel Now For a jet aircraft, src fue flow + thrust * fuelfow = SFCx Thrust ‘and, combining the two formulae, SAR TAS = (SFC x Thrust) ‘But in level, unaccelerating, Might thrust equals drag so itis ‘equally correct to say SAR - mss Drag Sec ‘Tinus we can say that the Specific Air Range improves a8 the SFC reduces and is also dependant on the best ratio of TAS to Drag. The best TAS to drag ratio occurs at the tangent to the ‘drag curve, which ean be ealeulated a 1-32 Vio Performance Tees SSSOS~DRAG Bost rango speed 122Ve0, [At low level the best range speed at 1.32Vyo will not be the ‘speed that corresponds to 90% thrust and consequently best SFC. Only at altitude will the aireraft be able to fly a8 slow as 1.32 Viuo and also be at corzect thrust for best SFC. This then Js the optimum altitude. It inere ‘mass decreases, The ‘option to fly at this altitude may be restricted by ATC, correct semi-circular Might level or the cruise buffet boundary limits, ‘Wind along track will also be a consideration. It may be more beneficial to ly above or below the stil air optimum Night level Af the wind a more favourable at that level. The modern reality fn that the FMS wil calculate the best level Good} | BestRange | | al | | rage | a) 0 We mk m | Re | When SAR is plotted against altitude, the best height for range fon a jet tums out to be around 40,0008 for most aircraft, although there are exceptions such as the BAe 146 whose oa whore 90% pm ‘ives 1.32 Ve snout ‘evcterstingholding speed is Ven or bit faster for speed stability Best endurance combination of drag, thrust and engine design daliver best ange around 30,000%. ‘The Cruise Climb ‘Once you have achieved your initial optimum eruise altitude, fying at 1.32Vun and with the engines at 90% rpm, the fuel ‘burn will reuce weight. [As the weight decreases both Vwo and induced drag decrease. ‘This means that 90% thrust will accelerate you bevond 1.32uqo, in effect our optimum altitude has increased, In order to avoid this the aircraft can be put into « very slow climb $0 that it is always at the optimum altitude, and where ‘00% thrust always gives 1.32Vio. This steady ‘continuous imb is called a cruise climb, A cruise climb is the optimum ‘cruise profile for a jet airerat Air ‘Traffic Control may not allow a cruise limb. ‘The compromise between a level eruise and a cruise clizb is a step imb, Here you remain level at frst, reducing RPM as weight reduces to maintain the correct speed ~ this 1s mare elficient than keeping RPM constant and accelerating ~ until you have some thrust in hand to climb to a higher level, where you start the process again. Fuel Mileage ‘The SAR takes no account of wind, the Gross Fuel Flow (GFF) oes, by dividing fuel flow by groundspeed: GFP ~ fuel ow + groundspeed ‘The gross fuel flow is also known as the fuel mileage, the units of which ean be given as kg/nm or nm ke, Optimising Endurance ‘The endurance is the time that the aircraft can remain airborne. This depends entirely on fuel flow which is, as we hhave seen, a product of SFC and Drag. The optimum endurance will be obtained when SFC is at its lowest, once ‘again at the design optimum around 90% of engine thrust and this can only be obtained without accelerating at altitude. Ideally drag should be minimised by flying at the minimum drag speed. The best endurance for a jet is therefore found where the two parameters coincide, where 90% thrust maintains Vaxo. This will be higher than the altitude for best range where 90% thrust’ maintains 1.32Vig. T° the best altittide ean not be realised endurance speed is ill Vin, Tesue 5 6s‘The best endurance speed in the Aeroplane Flight Manual may bbe above Vino a8 the advantage of speed stability is often considered to outweigh the reduction in endurance caused by flying faster. Jet drag curves are quite Mat so the reduction in enduirance ie small if this technique is used, Propeller Aircraft Optimising Specific Fuel Consumption ‘SFC for a propeller aircraft is fuel flow + power. SFC for a turboprop behaves like a jet, decreasing with altitude. A piston sireraft has a decreasing SFC to full throttle height, after which fuel consumption increases, Optimising Range ‘Just lke the jet the best SAR for a propeller driven aircraft i ‘obtained when the most miles are travelled for every kg of fuel SAR = TAS+ fuel Now But fora propeller aircraft, SFC = fuel tow + power %0 fuel flow = SFC x Power ‘and, combining the two formulae, SAR = TAS+ (SFC x Power) Power available is Thrust x TAS or, in unaccelerating fight, it must equal Drag x TAS which is the power required ‘Therefore: SAR - mas xk a Dragxtas ” SFC Disregarding the SFC for now, the best SAR will be found at the best ratio of TAS over power required. When we look at the propeller power required curve we find this speed lies at the tangent to the curve. ean te tee Pavtonaance,propeleralvratt Ful hott hola, igh boost and low rm for piston nd MERPA for oroprep range Power Reid (Org x TAS). —— Poweeavaite Pep — ‘Bec cimo poss op —e “00200 300 00 50D 600 TASH) Figure 13.65 Because this is a power required curve, not a dag curve, this, point represents the minimum value of drag x TAS * TAS ‘which is the minimum value of drag, Vio. Piston engines SFC If we now consider the SFC element of the formula; piston ‘engines give their best SFC when the intake pressure is high, RPM low and the throttle wide open. At low level this will give too much power, but as height is increased you will reach a point where the power required to fy at the ODM range speed is achieved with the throttle fully open, weak mixtere set and cruise RPM selected. This, at what is called full throttle height, is where you will get best SFC and maximum SAR. ‘Turboprop engines ‘Turhoprop engines have complex fuel control systems, and no fone set of rules can be laid down to cover all systems, In general, turboprops Tun at a constant maximum continuous RPM (MCRPM) and fuel flow and propeller blade angle are adjusted automatically in response to throttle inputs. Like jet fngines, their thermal ficiency improves with lower intalee Temperatures, and like jet engines the ‘engine eficlency Increases slightly with increasing speed ~ another reason for fying a lite above Vac, Best SAR will be obtained by fying at medium shitade, where the power at MCRPM gives the performance manta range speed. From this point-on best SAR will be maintained, as Weight decreases, In a cruise climb while holding MCRPM. PerformanceFollow the specific instructions in the performance manual for the type. ‘Summary. Propeller aircraft will obtain best SAR at medium altitude at the recommended Flight Manual speed for range fying, which ‘will probably be at Veo plus 10-20%. ston engine alreraft will, Start the cruise at full throttle height, turboprop aireraft at the Iheight where MCRPM gives best range speed for the aircraft eieht. Propel aircraft are unlikely to encounter Mach drag "se problems. Optimising Endurance ‘The best endurance speed for a propeller driven aircraft is the minimum power speed, Vig. js the minimum power required to maintain level flight and is the point where the product of speed and drag are at a minimum. Vyr is always less than Vio and therefore speed unstable. ‘Summary “The speeds for best range and best endurance for jets and for propeller driven aircraft are shown in figure 13-6-6: Best Range Spoed 13240 Yao Best Endurance Speed Vu Yur Angle of Attack in the Cruise Maximum angle of attack occurs at the stall. Speeds higher than Vs have a lower angle of attack. For @ fixed mass if Indicated airspeed increases angle of attack decreases and, as indicated airspeed decreases angle of attack increases. [As mass reduces at a fixed apecd the lift required will decrease land angle of attack will decrease If mass reduces and the aircraft speed is reduced with it to always fy at best range speed, 1.82Vyo or Vio, then the angle of attack stays the same as Vo represents the best Lit/Drag ‘atio and the optimum, and constant, angle of atack. ea PerformanceFuel Flow Calculations ‘Simple calculations can be made about fuel flow based on the formulae we have obtained Example: Solution: ‘Two identical turbojets are cruising at the same altitude and speed and have the sane specific fuel consumption. Plane A weighs 150,000kg, has 4 fuel flow of 4000kg/hr and is fying at Vyo. Plane B weighs 135,000kg, what is its hel Now? ‘There are two ways of solving this, the complicated way and the ‘rule of thimb!. The ‘complicated way fist ‘At Vio the profile drag is the same as fie induced drag. Not knowing the values we wil give each a value of 1 so the total drag is 161 = 2 ‘We know that SRC = fuel Now + vhrust If the second plane less because there is less induced drag, but how ‘much less? If the aircraft hae consant speed then thrust equals drag, We know that induced rag is proportional to the square af the weight ‘The weight has reduced by a factor of 135000 + 150000 = 0.9 0 the induced drag should have reduced by 09x09 = 0.81 Because the profile drag is unchanged as it does not change with mass, and the induced drag is ecreased to 0.81 of its former value the total drag is now 1 + 0.81 = 1.81 as opposed to 2, 8 reduction of 1.81+ 20.905 ‘and therefore the fuel fow should reduce by 0.908 4000 x 0.905 = 3620 kee/hr ‘This question is contrived, and will only work from a starting point of Vun where we know the values of profile drag and induced drag are the Tesue 5 a)same, It may be that similar exam questions do ‘ot mention this point, if that happens you must ‘assume that this is the case if you use the lone, method. A& a short cut, notice that for small changes, the fuel flow changes roughly in proportion to the weight change, a good rule of humb 4000 x 0.9 = 3600 ke/hr Applying similar rules gives rise to the following table that Sates the effect of a 10% increase in mass for a jet aircraft ‘maintaining 1.32Vsm and for a propeller driven aircraft maintaining Vwo. The differences occur because at Vu the Induced drag is half the total drag whereas at 1.32Vun it is, ‘about a quarter of the total | rove sto | sto woe Figure 13.67 ‘ea0 ae Performance Fe ow for jot oughly reduces oF proportion to weight‘Bost range speed Is ‘The Effect of Wind Wind does not affect endurance fying but it can affect range flying, Theory suggests you should fly slightly sbwer in a tailwind and slightly faster in a headwind. The method can be solved graphically fora jet Irom the head of tailwind to ep ot Power Rewnes Figure 13.68 Notice that the headwinds require greater speed changes than tailwinds. Because jet drag curves are flat, using a speed above 1.32 Vp does not wildly affect the TAS/Drag ratio but wil, benefit the headwind case. Long Range Cruise Jets often use a Long Range Cruise (LRC) Speed that is above the Max Range Speed as a ‘standard’ cruise speed. LRC is described by both Boeing and Airbus as being 4% aster than best range and offering 1% less range. ‘The advantages of operating at LRC are twofold. Firstly, when used as a ‘standard speed’, LRC is a better speed ina hheadwind than max range speed. Secondly, keeping the fuel used to a minimum is not the only consideration for operators, they must also take into account engine and airframe time, @ reduction in flight time fora slightly higher fuel bum might be a bargain to the airline's accountants Performance ae 8 eat‘The Effect of Weight and Height ‘The effect of change of weight can be seen in figure 136-9, Notice that the endurance speed, max range speed and LRC all reduce as weight reduces. Spoor ax ange Long Ranoe 88 Constant gan oa Figure 13.69 Notice also that max range speed and long range cruise speed fare based on points on the drag curve and are quoted as an EAS here, however they are eventually described in the aircraft ‘manuals. This means in turn that, because for the same EAS Mach nuimber and TAS increases with height, we would expect the Long Range Cruise Mach number and TAS to also increase ‘with height Power Available in the Cruise. Power available, Thrust x TAS, will be directly affected by the ambient conditions, Flying from a cold air mags to a warm air mass will reduce power available and increase the power ‘required as TAS increases. The loss of thrust with the increase {in temperature and decrease in pressure can be significant and may as a consequence prevent sustainable economical Tight at the higher levels Power Required in the Cruise. Because power required is Drag xTAS any inerease in total «drag (which is proportional to V) means the power required is [proportional to V" the inference is that, ifthe speed ia to be Goubled, the power required will need to increase eight times, ‘This explains why increasing the thrust by an amount in level flight doesnt provide a corresponding increase in airspeed, oaz Tesue 5 PerformanceLong Range Requirements and ETOPS JAR OPS restricts how far an aircraft may travel from an fadequate aerodrome. The ‘normal’ limit for a trin is 60 ‘minutes but, when operating under Extended Time Operations, (ETOPS) approval the rule can be extended to as much as 180, ‘minutes. These are the rules Long range twins without ETOPS IF operating without RTOPS approval a twin engined aeroplane ‘must not be operated further from an adequate aerodrome than the distances listed below. ‘© Performance Class A Aeroplanes of either 20 or more passenger seats or a MTOM greater than 45360kg a distance equivalent to 60 minutes Might time. + Performance Class B or C aeroplanes the lower of 300nm oF a distance equivalent t0 120 minutes Might Figure 13-6-10 shows typical 60 minute ranges for ajet. Figure 136. For this calculation the times are based on @ one engine inoperative TAS in ISA conditions and level sgh. ¥or Jets the level is assumed to be the lower of FLI70 and the greatest Iheight the gross aircraft can achieve, engine out. For propeller driven aircraft itis the lower of FL8O or the greatest height the ‘goss aircraft can achieve, engine out. Maximum continuous thrust or power is assumed on the remaining operating engine and the aircraft mass is assumed to be the mass calculated from s take-off at max weight ‘Performance Tes0e 5 aafollowed by a climb to height and cruise at long range cruise {or either 60 oF 120 minutes depending on Performance Class. Long range twins with ETOPS TOPS can be authorised in the AOC after extended reliability trials, particularly of engines, and the approval of training ‘systems and operating procedures. The stil air ime, known as the rule time, ean be extended from 60 minutes to 90 minutes to-120 minutes to 138 minutes and even 180 minutes from a ‘suitable alternate. The approval is incremental, each increase in still air time dependant on a track record of successful ‘operation at the shorter time. Figure 13-6-11 shows the typical route coverage obtained by extending the rule time to 188 minutes, ‘Aeroplanes with three or more engines - two engines inoperative A three or four engine aircraft cannot go further than 90 minutes from a suitable aerodrome unless it can sustain a landing ote aes Cerone(naximun range) ‘The FMS ‘The Flight Management System (FMS) is used to control most twansport aireraft Might profiles. The B737 system allows four different speeds to be selected, ECON (economy), LRC, Manual or RTA. RTA means that a Required Time of Arrival at a ‘waypoint has been entered and the speed ia being edjusted t0 make that time. Selected speeds are normally controlled through the autothrottle system ‘The BCON setting i controlled by a covt index that is ctored ae part of a company route but may be modified by the pilots, Figure 13-6-12 shows the cost index set at 000 before the performance information has been entered in the prefight Checks. A cost index of 000 means maximum range, the Upper Timit of 200 for this type gives minimum time. Figure 13.642 1m fight the CRUISE page is accessible by pressing the CRZ. button just visible below the display screen. This page will show the active cruise mode selected and the present altitude. and speeds. Although we won't examine it in detail, it also has the capability to tell the pilots at what position and “ime a step climb He possible and what the fuel savings will be campared to staying at the present height. The display below shows that ECON CRZ is the active prose selected at a height of FL250. The target speed + MO.681 although itis expressed as a Mach number in still ai this will bbe 1.32V if the cost index is set to zero, Performance‘The recommended engine RPM for turbulence penetratos 61,296 NI in this case, is shown below the target speed. The optimum altitude is FLS42, not an ATC level, and the ‘maximum is FL398, “The alternative cruise selections are shown at the bottom of the display. Manual cruise is not shown, if a target speed is manually entered the display switches automatically to a separate MANUAL CRZ page. ‘The FMS Optimum Altitude ‘The optimum altitude will be the altitude where 90% thrust equates to 1.32Viq modified forthe cruise wind entered on the PERF INIT page and for the cost index selected, ‘The FMS optimum level is rarely going to be the correct IFR. semi-circular level and ATC are unlikely to allow continuous ‘operation at the optimum, Most Operations Manuals require pilots to fly, where possible, within 2000 of the optimum faltitide, With the introduction of RVSM (reduced vertical Separation minima) airspace, Might at the optimum altitude hhas become more achievable, Because 1.92Vuo is a lower speed at a lower weight the optimum altitude increases as the aircraft weight reduces. For Ais reason it saute sateligent Wo chuvse ein initial crise level ‘litle above the optimum, and then let the optimum level ‘limb up through your level as time passes. In the case ‘lustrated in figure 13-613 FL350 would be a sensible level to choose Fs optimum the optimum‘The FMS Maximum Altitude ‘The aircraft's maximum altitude ean, in theory, be limited by fone of four things, either the absolute’ celing, the pressurisation ceiling, the Certificate of Airworthiness maximum altitude or the cruise bullet boundary, sometimes called the aerodynamic ceiling. The C of A limit is usually taken from the pressurisation limit so in normal practice there fare three limits ‘Normally for jet the cruise bullet boundary isthe lowest and ‘most limiting of these three, then the C of A limit, then the absolute celling. The eruise buffet boundary limit is only likely to be above the C of A limit when the aircraft is very light. The FMS maximum altitude shows the altitude limited by the 1.34 cruise buffet boundary. ‘The Buffet Boundary Limit ‘The buffet boundary has both low and high speed limits, The low speed buffet boundary marks the onset of the pre-stall Dbumfet at a 10% margin above Vs. The high speed buffet boundary marks the onset of Mach related bufet, normally Myo, but sometimes slightly below that. home ieee | Level En «| age ‘No Turbulence Performance eauesSSOSCS~C~Before the days of FMS the bullet boundary was displayed on a chart, Figure 13-6-14 38 a typical Bullet Boundary Chart for a twansport aircraft. The four curves are for aircraft weights of 60, 70, 80 and 90,000Ib. This chart applies to level Might, which is 1.0g, and implies no extra g induced by turbulence. ‘The right hand limit on the graph shows the maximum. indicated airspeed Vio, and then at high altitude the maximum ‘mach number, Myo. The left hand limit is based on the stall speed, 1.1Vs. At height the two speeds close together. Looking at the 60,000Ib line at 30,0008 there is a safe operating range in smooth level fight between 165kt and 350kt or MO.9. At the same weight at 44,0001 no margin exists, the ‘only sate speed to fy at is 220kt/MO.8. This is “coin core”, the aerodynamic ceiling, you can’ fly faster or slower. At the highest weight, 90,000Ib, coffin comer has come down to 37,0008. At 30,000f at this weight the speed range in level flight is les, limited to a range from 220kt to 348Kt/MO.88, ‘The chart in figure 13-6-14 is for 1g conditions, If the aircraft turns or experiences turbulence the load factor will increase fand the airevaft may stall. Buffet boundary charts are mare ormally published both for 1g and 1.3g, which equates to moderate turbulence or a 40° bank level turn, and even 1.6%, for severe turbulence or a 50° bank level turn, Level Fight 1.09 10 200" 290900" 350400480 Inset Aopen =H Figure 13-6-15 shows the difference between level Aight and 1.3g for an aircraft at 60,000Ib AUW. An aircraft has been 48 0 5 Performance taotor reduces both the buffet margindrawn in at this weight at 35,000 to illustrate the speed range ‘available, in this case between 218 and 304 kt IAS (or KIAS), MO.64 to MD.B, ‘The limiting altitude with a 1.3g buffet boundary is just below 40,0008. It is this which is shown as the FMS maximum altitude in gure 13-6-13, ‘The margins between the aircraft and the low and high speed bullet are affected by aircraft weight, altitude, load factor and CG position, the latter because stall speed is affected by CG. position. ‘The margins reduce at high weights, high alteudes, high load factors and forward CG, You may have noticed that the aircraft CG is an inout on the PERF INIT page of the FMS, figure 19-6-12, The CG entry efaults to IS%MAC on the B737 but, if an actual CG aft of 15% is entered then the maximum alitude indica:ed on the FMS will increase and the eruise bullet margins will open out as the calculated stall speed is reduced. ‘The bullet boundary and the margins between low speed and, high speed buffets are also shawn on the speed tape to the left of the EFIS Primary Flight Display, PFD. Figure 13.646 Performance Tau‘The IAS is shown here as 250kt at an altitude of 39800f, the FMS maximum altitude in the previous examples. The 13g ‘buffet boundary is shown by the onset of the yellow margin just above and below the 250kt marker and the 1.0g limit is ‘shown by the black and red squares at 182K for the low speed stall and 272kt for the IAS that equates to Muo at 1.0g ‘There is another form of buffet boundary chart that you may ‘come across. This is an Airbus type illustrated in figure 13-6- 17 + a 4 5 natant Fat PBR" latent rie 2047 ‘This chart packs all the relevant information on to a single display. and defines buflet boundaries taking into account the ‘effects of weight, load factor and CG position. “The left-hand side is a variant of the charts just described, and {you should recognise the humped shape of the low speed and high-speed boundaries, Instead of IAS and height for the axes, this graph uses Mach number and a series of curves for each fight level. A horizontal line (AB in the chart above) defines the aircraft configuration in terms of CG, load factor and weight. 62 ~*~ SS”S*~*~*~*«S formanceFor any chosen flight level curve, the points where the line intersects the curve give the low speed and high speed bulet limits aa Mach numbers. Notice that the peale of the humps at each flight level is at MO.8, as on the previous charts. Ths i, fas before, where the low speed and high speed buffet boundaries coincide- the aerodynamic ceiling. ‘Take the F1300 curve, This intersects AB at MO.63 at the low speed end, but at the high-speed end all curves have merged at MO.84, which is the Muyo limit. In this aireraftcorfiguration, your operating limits at PL30O are M0.63 to MO.84 Now take the FL340 curve, This intersects AB at MO.7 and 1MO.82. At this altitude, therefore, your range between the low and high-speed buffet limits is M0.7 to MO.82. Finally, note ‘that the FL380 curve only just touches AB at 0.8. This ‘means that in this configuration FL380 at MO8 is your aerodynamic celing, “coffin corner” The next step is to see how to produce a line like AB for any given aircraft configuration. Follow the description through on figure 13-6-18, Performance =~ SSCEnter the graph at the load factor/bank point. Use 40"/1.3g ‘This is above the normal bank limit for high-speed eruise, but the g figure is that used for moderate turbulence in gust cealeulations. Move vertically to the aircraft weight line for 120,000 at point X. Next, the CG factor. For this example a CG at the forward limi 15% MAC is assumed, this is marked by the blue line, Move across horizontally from X to the blue line, and then back up paralleling the CG curve to the CG reference line at point ¥ Now draw a line horizontally across the FL curves to the left axis at point Z. If you choose to fy at FLS00, then for this configuration, forward CG, 120,000kg and either in a 40” bank level turn a in straight and level fight protected against moderate ‘turbulence (1.3g gusts) your operating limits are from M0.62 to Myo at MO.B4, Flying at F340 your limits would be M0.68 to 1M0.83, Your aerodynamic celling, if you choose this configuration, will be a litle above FL380, Range/Payload Diagrams Regional aircraft are designed to carry a maximum passenger for freight load over short distances. They often have the ful capacity to travel greater distances but only at the expense of payload, Jets designed for long range work can usually carry both full feighe and ful fuel loads, performance permitting. ‘The aircraft's range and payload capabilities can be shown diagrammatically. Figure. 13-6-19 represents a regional turboprop. The line AB shows the maximum possible payload that can be carried, regulated by bulk limits or Maximum Zero Fuel Mass, deed Regional Aircraft oe ae ree ange (rm) Figure 13.649 ‘At Point B the range can only be increased by increasing the fuel load at the expense of payload, the line BC represents the om ~S~*~CSaues Performancetwade-off. Once point C is reached the tanks are full and range can only be slightly increased by reducing All Up Mass to improve SAR Peas a Figure 136-20 ‘The second payload /range diagram represents & large jet capable of inter-continental ranges. The payload is optimised for range and only decreases at very long ranges as “he aireral, ‘operates at full tanks but lighter payloads to slightly improve SAR Performance issue 5e2a Intentionally Blank. PerformanceChapter 7- Descent and Landing Descent hhe balance of forces in the descent is very sinilar to the ‘balance of forces in the climb. Thrust is urually very low as the throttles will be closed, Figure 13.74 ‘The forces are so similar, In fact, that the descent can be viewed as a ‘negative climb’, with the smallest descent angle ‘ceurring at Vio. ‘The Glide Descent ‘The normal descent from altitude is flown as a glide, with the throttles at ile. Performance Tsswe 5 TAResolving the forces a8 before we find that the formula for descent angle i Sin 6 = (0-1) + Weight Where thrust, T, is zero in a glide the formula for glide angle becomes: Sino = D+ Weight and, as lift is almost exactly the same as weight it could be expressed as; ‘Sin = Drag + Lit or, using the co-effcienta of drag and lit, Sind =Co+ Cs ‘As in the climb, y (gamma) is sometimes used instead of 0 (theta). ‘This tells us that the glide angle is most shallow, which we refer to as the best glide angle, where Co = Cis a minimum or when G,* Cp is a maximum, Vio. Italso tells us that the glide ‘angle itself Is independent of aircraft weight as C, + Co is ‘unchanged with weight, provided that the aircraft is always aided at Vin. Notice, however, that a heavier aircraft will have ‘higher valle of Vas so it must fy faster to get the same glide langle. The time spent in the glide will be less, as the aircraft is lying faster down the same glidepath, and your rate of descent ‘ill be higher at the higher weight. At lower weights Vu will be Tower, but, again, ifyou fly the correct speed the angle of pide will be the same, Now, however, the rate of descent willbe less ‘The best glide angle occurs at Vun this will give the best range ina glide. Calculating the Glide Angle Ifthe assumption is made that the aircraft is gliding at Vio then the glide angle can be found from the lift/drag ratio, Example: An aircraft with a lit/drag ratio of 20:1 is gliding fat Vu. What ground distance, in nautical miles, will be covered in 5000M of descent in stil air conditions? Solution: The glide angle i Co + C, which ig 1:20. This means that in every SO0OR of descent the aircraft covers 20 x S000 of ground distance in stil air Convert this to nautical miles 72 5Ground distance = 20x00 300,008 = 100,000 + 6¢80 nm = 16.45nm Factors That Affect the Glide Angle The glide angle is effectively Co * C. so an increase ia lit alone will reduce it and an inerease in drag alone High lit devices such as flaps do increa increase the drag and Co * Cy is not improved. Flying at a {aster or slower IAS than Vyo will also lead to steeper glide angles. ‘The effect of wind on gliding for range is exactly as fer ying for ‘ange in level Might, a headwind will reduce gliding range, but by increasing airspeed it wll get you the best overall result. In a tailwind a reduced speed will give the best result. ‘The effect of IAS and flap on descent angle i an Upside down drag curve shown below on cD Figure 13.72 ‘The Driftdown I an engine fails in the cruise the remaining engines are set to ‘maximum continuous thrust in an attempt fo maintain height. At cruise altitudes the attempt to maintain height usually fails ‘because of inadequate thrust on the remaining engine and the aircraft will descend down to a height at which itis able to stabilise. This is called the driftdown. Performance Teowe © 7When thrust is involved the nest idea that glide angle is Independent of weight breaks down as descent angle, not the lide angle, is now (Thrust - Drag) = Weight Or, the closer the thrust isto balancing the drag, the shallower the descent angle, ‘Jet thrust (and propeller thrust) increases at low altitudes, Shown in figure 13-7-3, is the earlier graph fora jet transport: “ew oe set Thrust “spo00" ope 200 mn EAS Figure 137.3 ‘This means that, as the airraft descends, the thrust increases land the driftdown angle becomes progressively more shallow luntil it reaches zero and the aireraft stabilises. The effect of Weight is to make the driftdown angle steeper at heavier ‘weights and to male the stabilising altitude lower, Optimum Driftdown Speed ‘The driftdown is flown at the best angle of climb speed, Vs, which is Vir for a jet and is also the best (least) angle of escent speed. The prop aireraft Vx is about 1.1Vs Toone 5 Performance@ Figure 137-4 ‘The rate of descent can be seen as a negative rate of climb and will increase as speed increases and as drag increases. It can be found from the same formula, Rate of Descent = (gower available - power required) weight except now it will gve a negative value, indicating a descent Gliding for Endurance You will not often be required to glide for endurance but if you do, maximum endurance is found where the rate of descent is 4 minimum. There will be no power available, ons assumes there is nothing you ean do about the weight so all that ia leh to adjust is the power required. Minimum power sequired is found at Vio 0, to glide for endurance, ly at Vip. Note that Vier is less than Varo ‘The Emergency Descent tn an emergency descent because of a decompression one tries to lose altitude as quickly as possible. The fastest rate of descent will occur at max drag and max speed. “his would tend to suggest that drag should be increased by deploying gear, laps and speedbrakes but some or all of these will have limiting maximum speeds for deployment, that may affect the profile own, Performance sae 7sFigure 13-75 Depending on aircraft type the max rate of descent may be either clean, taking advantage of the possible high speeds, or dirty with drag devices deployed and accepting lower speeds. ‘The throttles are usually at idle only because with fall power set all Iimiting speeds will be quickly reached. The Aeroplane Flight Manual will state the optimum procedure. MSW will need to be considered in the descent as well as the reduced range when the procedure is complete. Approach For the final approach and landing the primary aim is to have as low a speed as possible to reduce energy for a shorter landing roll. To achieve this you will deploy all available high lift devices, in general leading edge high lift devices will give a nose high’ attitude, and traling edge devices a nose low attitude, You would prefer a nose low attitude for better Visibility from the cockpit. Bxtra drag, apart from easing the speed control problem, allows you to keep the engines at a higher RPM, for a quicker response on go-round or in ‘emergency. Obstacle clearance on the approach is assured by following the ‘appropriate STAR and not descending below cleared heights or when on the ILS not deviating below half full scale fly up indications, 7. Tse 5‘Tho landing sereen height is SOM at «| speed called Var ‘Missed Approach ‘The missed or discontinued approach is defined as a_go- round from st or above DH with one engine inoperative, This is also called the ‘approach’ climb, the aircraft configuration for the Class A aircraft will be: ‘+ go-around power or thrust on remaining engines + landing gear retracted approach flap set Bautked Landing ‘A baulked or balked landing is a go-around from below DH, possibly in the flare, with all engines available. Tais is also called the Janding climb’, the aircraft configuration for the (Class A airerat will be: ‘+ go-around power all engines + landing gear down © landing flap set (Class B configurations are described in CAPES, Landing CLIMB/WAT limit graphs are valid for both the landing climb and the approach climb. ‘There are minimum control speeds with one or two engines Inoperative Vici: or Vaca, This isthe minimum speed at which it i possible to maintain control of the aeroplane within, defined limits, whilst applying variations in power. Landing ‘The landing begins from the point where the airersft crosses the threshold until it comes 10 rest. As in the take-off case, a een height is assumed at the threshold, this time SOM at the landing reference speed, Vaer. The landing distance required is split-into the Landing Airbome Distance and te Landing Ground Run, The landing airborne distance depends on the descent gradient ‘and weight of the aireraft. In practice the landing airborne distance varies litde and the alrera usually touches, down Shout’ 1000R or 300m fom the threshold” near the fixed distance markings en the runway and ‘nest tothe APIS /VASt. Performance Tesue 8 7‘The landing ground run varies more than the airborne distance. Once the aircraft is on the ground the retarding, forces are drag, braking and reverse thrust, By far the most effective ofthese is braking, ‘All modern aircraft are fited with anti-skid systems, The most ‘efficient braking ovcure with the brakes applied hard on by the pilot whilst letting the anti-skid system work. Failure of the [anti-sidd system can add 50% to the landing distance required, It also incurs) a weight reduction penalty from the Configuration Deviation ‘List (CDL} that will reduce the ‘maximum landing weight, Im reality such aggressive braking is rarely needed and the ‘auto-brake system is used to retard the aircraft. There are Usually three settings for auto-brake, minimum, medium or ‘maximum, minimum o medium is the normal selection. ‘The ‘auto-brake system can be over-ridden by pilot input at any time, “The second most significant retarding force comes from reverse thrust. On a jet the reverse thrust is not_particularly significant, loss of reverse thrust leads typically’ to a 10% inerease in landing distance. Jet reverse thrust is most ‘significant at speed and is often cancelled at low speeds 0 prevent ingestion of debris into the engines. Some operators prefer the use of auto-brake to reverse thrust in order to ‘minimise stresses on the engines and prolong engine life. The Clleciveness uf reverse. (rust is nl allected Uy runway Cconcition so it can be invaluable on icy or contaminated runways. 78 Tesue Fattre of verse thrust on aot ‘typically leads to 10% increase inUnlike the jet, propeller reverse thrust is a powerful retarding, force and significantly affects the landing distance, Propeller driven aireraft will not be despatched with unserviceable reverse pitch as it indicates a potentially disastrous failure of the whole propeller control system. Ifit failed in the air itis, likely an emergency oF precautionary Innding would 9e made at fan airfield with an adequately long runway and good crash facilities, Drag isthe least significant of these forces. Selection of full ap and spoilers wil slow the aircraft, but not much. CS 25.1587 does not consider the use of reverse thrust when scheduling LDR, Factors Affecting Landing Ground Run Speed When the retardation starts the aircraft kinetic eneray must be issipated by one or all of the above means. Kinetis eneray is found from the formula, Kinetic Energy = MV? Where M is mass and V is speed. The point to note is that it depends on the square of the speed and a rise ir threshold Speed, Vier oF Vac, means a significant increase in Kinetic energy and a consequent increase in LDR. ‘The speed at touchdown that concems us is a true sroundepeed and is affected in turn by air density, wind and aircraft weight. The maximum increase in Varr_when applying Performance Teewe 5corrections for wind will be typically limited to 15-20kts, above this brake energy capability wil be exceeded Mass ‘The touchdown speed results from the threshold speed, Vier ‘This ie based on a function of the stall speed of the alreraf, 1.23Vino for Class A or 1.3Vs» for Class B, and not less than ‘the minimum control speed in the landing configuration, Vac ‘The threshold speed increases as mass increases. This means ‘that an increase in mass inereases both Mand V in the kinetic energy formula and increases the landing distance ‘considerably ‘Structural overweight landings are permitted in an emergency Dbut it is stil essential to check that the landing distance required does not exceed the landing distance available. Air Density ‘The target threshold speed is an IAS and will be the same for all combinations of presstre and temperature. The true ground Speed is based on the TAS, plus or minus wind component. If the air density is low, because of high pressure altitudes or ‘high temperatures, the TAS will be higher for a given IAS and the true groundspeed, V in the formula, wil be higher. ‘The true groundapeed is the TAS plus or minus wind A. hheadwind ‘will reduce the landing distance required by reducing the true groundspeed and will also shorten the Landing Airborne Distance, A tailwind will increase the LDR In all calculations relating to landing the regulations require us to use only half ofthe headwind component and one and a half times the talwind component to give an extra margin of safety. Because of this, 10k of tailwind is more significant than 1Okt of headin, Runway Surface ‘The effectiveness of the brakes depends on the fiction berween the tyres and the runway. Runway braking action is expressed in terms of braking co-efficient of friction (y) or in words, Poor braking ection leads to a greater Landing Distance Required, Water on the runway surface may lead to aquaplaning, sometimes called hydroplaning, Hydroplaning will increase the LDR, 730 Tes00 5 Performance ner 4.23Ven for for Claas 8 Clase Aorcontaminated ames ts 115% Slopes of eas than 2itare ignored for Safety factors are JAR OPS requires an additional 15% factor to be imposed on the landing ‘distance required when the runway is wet or contaminated unless Flight Manual information allows @ reduction below this. Slope Runway slope will affect landing distance. A down sloping runway will increase it and an up sloping runway will decrease LDR. The effect of small runway slopes is s0 insignificant that CS require slopes of less than 2% to be ignored in landing performance calculations. Safety Factors on Landing Class A jet sircraft must land and stop within 60% of the LDA, turboprops and Class B in 70%. This is in additon to any factors for wet and runways. Contaminated runway data does rot include these safety factors, There is no distinction in safety factors between destination and alternate aerodromes, ‘These percentage factors can also be expressed as multiplication and division factors. forjets LDA x 60% ~ Gross LDR is the same as EDA" 1.67 = Gross LDR and LDAx70% = Gross LDR is the same as EDA® 1.43. = Gross LDR for turbopreps Performance tssue 74PROPARCRAFT igure 137.9 or, for a jet on a wet runway, the minimum LDA that can be Used is Gross LORx 1.67% 115 = Gross dry LDR x 1:92 Se EEN ST RTT JETAIRCRAFT Figure 137-40 or, on a turboprop, the minimum LDA on a wet runway is Gross LDR x 1.49 x 1.15 = Gross dry LDR x 1.64 Figure 137-44the sylabus but Is tet curently testes. Example: The destination runway for a Class A je: ie 3000m, Jong, The runway is expected to be wet on arrival ‘The landing mass of the aireralt must be adjusted to ensure that the aireraft stops within’ Solution: Regulation factor = 1.67 Wet runway factor = 115 ‘Total factor 167 x1.15= 3000m= 1.92 = 1562m Scheduled Landings JAR OPS contains some intricate requirements for scheduling, landings. A scheduled landing weight is a weight worked out ‘well in advance of the flight to determine how much payload fan be put on board and is distinet from a landing weight or distance planned once aizbame Scheduled landings do not allow temperature to be taken into faccount when determining the Field Length Limit but require it to be used for the climb limit (WAT). This is interpreted as a requirement to use ISA deviation zero for scheduled 2r planned Tandings, JAR OPS also requires that the most limiting of stil air and Torecast wind conditions be considered at both destination and alternate aerodromes. Although this can be complex calculation for airfields with multiple runways, fer a. single runway with no slope the most limiting case is always the still Exam questions should clearly state when a calculation ie for a ‘scheduled or planned landing. When the full information is to be used they should either state this clearly using a ahrase like taking account of the advisory effects of wind and temperature” or, possibly, make it clear that the situation has gone beyond the planning stage by using words like ‘airborne’, in Might, “overhead” or "diverted" It is unlikely this will be an issue in Class B, where the requirement to take account of slope complicates even a scheduled landing on an aerodrome with a single runway. Im Class A, however, slopes of less than 2% are ignored so the maximum scheduled landing weight on a single runway would be worked out still air, ISA deviation zero and ignoring the slope. The Field Length Limit graph at figure 4.28 in CAP 698, thas no temperature input, ISA deviation 2ero is assumed. For Class A scheduled landings with multiple runways the scheduled landing weight should be obtained for each runway Performance Teswe 5 73ignoring temperature and slopes of less than 2% in both forecast wind and still air cases. The best (greatest) landing. ‘weight in still air should be chosen as should the best landing ‘weight in forecast wind, The maximum scheduled Feld Length Limiting Landing Weight is then the more restritive of the two, Don’ forget to check the WAT limit Bxample Solution: A Class A sircraft i to make a scheduled landing, at an airport which has two runways, A and B. The maximum landing weights have been caleulated to find the following information: FLL weight runway A stil air 174,000kg FLL weight runway B stil air 162,000 FLL weight runway A with wind 186,000 FLL weight runway B with wind 177,000kg WAT limited landing weight 192,000kg, Determine the maximum scheduled landing weight, (=) 178,000Kg {b) 162,000Kg (6) 186,000K (a) 192,000K§ ‘The best landing weight in still air is 174,000, ‘The best Ianding weight in forecast wind 186,000ke, The more restrictive of the two is 174,000kg, the Field Length Limit ‘The WAT limit is greater at 192,000kg so the Field Length Limit of 174,000kg is the max scheduled landing weight. Answer (a) z ‘eo 5~~S~*~*« arformanes 744Class 8 aircratt ‘betacis by Sort ‘hetactes by 35% Using met performance, Soft Chapter 8 - Obstacle Clearance here should be adequate obstacle clearance for the ‘aircraft in all phases of fight from take-off to touchdown. The different performance classes achieve this in different ways. Take-Off ‘Single Engine Class B Single engine Class B aircraft have no formal requirement for ‘obstacle clearance on take-off but achieve a broad margin of safety as they may not be operated (for public transport) at ‘night or in IMC and must be able to make a forced landing in the event of engine failure. There is no minimum climb ‘gradient requirement specified in JAR-OPS I. Graphs ate Available to calculate climb gradient and from that calculations can be made to ensure obstacles are cleared, Although not tlearly stated these restrictions add up to an obstacle clearance philosophy that is a mixture of common sense and ‘see and avoid’ ‘Multiingine Class B and Class A Multi-engine Class B aircraft have a more formal requirement to clear obstacles by SOM from the end of the TODA up to 1500f after which the aircraft is considered to be en-route. ‘The gradient used is the net climb gradient, caleulated by taking 0.77 ofthe gross. Class A aircraft must clear obstacles by 35ft from the end of TODA to. 150008 ifn atenight Tight ane! hy S00 i in 3 ten with more than 15° angle of bank. The gradient used is the net fgradient, found by reducing the gross gradient by 0.8% for a twin, 0.9% for @ three engine aircraft and 1.0% for a four engine airerat. Obstacles are considered if they lie in an area, called the obstacle domain, defined in Section & paragraph 3.1.1 of CAP Performance TauesSSOSCS~S698, Although this is in the MEPI section it also applies to Class A aircraft and MRITI “The definition of the obstacle domain is complex if read in fal, For aircraft with @ wing span of less than 60m the domain starts with a half width of 60m plus half the wing span at the end of TODA or TODR, if there is a turn before the end of TODA, and expands to a normal maximum of 300m half width (Ggure 13-8°1) Figure 13:84 ‘The obstacle domain half width can be found st any point whilst it is expanding by taking one eighth of the distance Along the line of fight and adding it co 60m plus half the wing span. Calculations can be made to determine whether obstacles should be considered or not. Example: A twin engine aircraft in Performance Class B with a wing span of 18m is to conduct a take-off An obstacle is located 342m from the end of ‘TODA and displaced 119m from the centreline. ‘Should the obstacle be considered? Solution: Find the half width of the domain at 242m. It is (042+ 8)+ 60 +9 = 111,75 [As the obstacle is outside the domain it need not be considered,@ ‘The formulae are If the aircraft wingspan is greater than 60m then the obstacle ‘domain starts ata flat igure of 90m and expands ai the same rate as before, see figure 13-8-2 Figure 13:82 ‘The maximum width, or more accurately half width, can also vary. Ifthe fight path is straight, or at least varies by no more than 15° from straight, the maximum half width is 300m only if the aircraft is able to either navigate visually or maintain the ‘same level of accuracy on instruments. If this level of ‘navigational accuracy is not available the maximum half width is 600m, For fight paths that involve changes of direction of mare than, 15° the equivalent values are 600m and 900m, Graphs in CAP 698 enable the net climb gradient or rate of climb to be extracted for the particular segment of climb and the aircraft height can be determined from formulae in the ‘manual. The formula in the general notes section, sage 2 can Dereon tome eight gain = gradient x distance waved in eet Example: An aircraft has a climb gradient of 5.2%. What will be the aircraft height assuming the climb Starts at 400M and the distance traveled during ‘the climb is 4500m? Solution; Height gain ~ gradient x distance in feet 100 = 32x4500x3.28 100 - 7688 Performance Tosues‘And, as the climb started at 400R, the aircraft height is 768+400 = 11688 Performance Manuals may refer to a point called ‘reference zero’. This is the point on the ground just below where the ‘Sireraft passes the sereen height atthe end of TODR. ‘An engine failure after take-off may reduce the aircraft performance so much that the normal departure procedure Cannot be followed and an emergency turn is required 10 maintain terrain clearance. This requirement will be specific to aircraft type and be detailed in the performance data produced, by the company for specific airfields. ‘The Net Take-Off Flight Path Multi-engine aircraft plan to fy a flight path divided into segments, An engine failure is assumed at Ver, the ‘undercarriage is raised once a postive rate of climb has been ‘established and then the aircraft is climbed with aps at the take-off setting toa sale flap retraction height. Once at a safe height the aireraft is leveled off, accelerated and the flaps are selected up before the climb is continued to 15008. ‘The fight paths, called the Net Take-Off Flight Paths, differ from Clase to Class 20 we will deal with them Inter when considering the specimen aireraft in the manual EnRoute ‘Once the aircraft is at 1500R itis assumed to be en-route from ‘that point tintil # is 1500R above the landing aerodrome for Class A or 1000f above for Class B, During this phase obstacle clearance stil has to be considered. ‘The amount of obstacle clearance depends on Performance Class and, in Class A, on the number of engines. Obstacle clearance is worked out assuming the aircraft has lost an engine and using met performance data. In. certain ‘creumstances Class A aireraft assume a double engine failure. ‘The aircraft can either be planned to clear the obstacles in level fight or clearance can be caleulated in the driftdown. If the sireraft haa to clear a large range of hills the driftdown will not help, the only option is to establish terrain clearance when level. The minimum height clearance en-route to the diversion ‘of destination aerodrome is 1000R with a positive gradient, ‘Sim/9.3km either side of track aa Tau) [tthe ond of FOR ‘Bie mountain ft the stabiiaing height |“The detdown, procedure can be {teed to clear If the hills to be cleared are isolated or are a narrow ridge of ‘mountains then it is acceptable t0 use the dritdown to clear them provided the aireraft never descends below the minimum altitude that gives 20008 clearance Snm/9.3km either side of trace ‘The altitude that the aircraft is assumed to start the drifdown from is important in this calculation, the higher the better. To Performanceprevent unrealistic assumptions being made the regulations ‘will usually impose a performance ceiling, the greatest height fan aireraft can be asstimed to be at for this calculation. This does not prevent the aircraft from operating above this height, itis ust the greatest height that can be used for the driftdown calculation, ‘The driftdown is flown at the optimum drftdown speed with the remaining engines at Maximum Continuous Power or Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT). Fuel Jettison may be used in the driftdown calculation in order to establish terrain Clearance but there must always be a prudent minimum famount of fuel retained, Landing Landing obstacle clearance is assured by following the published approach procedures and not descending below Clesred heights or, on an ILS, deviating below half full scale fly up indications, Tooue 5 Performance Fuel jetticon can be planned but only ‘down to a prudent ‘minimumChapter 9 - Advanced Take-Off Techniques ving dicuneed the basic nicraf performance we now H seed to ln st ways of optimising prance for portcult siadons and copmg wih {inervisables and estrcone, We wil kat two sdranced techies, the incense V, procedure ard reduced thrust takeoff Soeider contaminated ranvay tle and the eet fete ane-kid or thrunt reverse being inoperative, ‘The Increased V, Procedure We have already noted that, on a jet aircraft, the normal initial climb speed with an engine out, which we called Vs,lies on the ‘wrong side of the drag curve and does not represent the speed. for the best angle of climb. The justification for this was that it was easier for the manufacturers to sell aircraft that comply with the FAR and CS minimum standards and are able 0 operate from 8,000 to 10,000 runways than aiferaft that exceed the standards but need longer runways. (As the prop aircraft has a Vs at around 1-1Vs this procedure dees not apply ‘as it will already be at its best angle of climb epeed,) ‘Whilst this may well be the cage it does not prevent :he aircraft being operated diferently to obtain better climb gradients if the extra runway length is available. There are two cases where this may be of benef, either to improve the TOM where the sircraft is WAT/Climb limited or to improve the climb gradient Mobstacte limited, Increased V, to Overcome a WATICimb Limit A WAT/Climb limit is a climb gradient limit. Ifthe aircraft is WAT/Climb limited but not field length limited then there is runway to spare but the aircraft is just achieving the limiting gradients using the normal climb speed Va, Performance ese 4 ASome of the extra runway is used to accelerate to a faster Ve fand a Vo closer to Vi. This produces an intermediate Situation where the climb gradient is better than the minimum land some but not all of the runway has been used, the aircraft fs neither Feld Length nor WAT/Climb limited. 01394 ‘But the purpose of this was to improve the TOM beyond the old WAT/Climb limit, which we have yet to do. Now payload is added and, as the lit induced drag increases, the climb gradient decreases. Extra mass also requires extra field length fand the take-off moves towards a situation where the aircraft is ack on the WAT/Climb limiting gradient but faster and heavier than before and is using more runway than before. Figure 13.92 ‘The field length may, or may not, be used up. I'there was only 4 small amount of extra runway the optimum climb speed will rot be reached before the runway is used up, if there is Performance “The increased Ve Improve TOM it ‘but not FL limited saireraft aster,20,0008 available Vx will be reached before all the runway is ‘used. ‘The Tyre Speed Limit must also be considered here as Vs will ‘have increased in line With the increased V Because the tyre ‘speed limit js shown as a masa limit for the normal speeds, ‘and now the normal relationship between mass and rotate Speed has been changed, some adjustment or check will have ta be made. How this is done varies and will be described in the Performance Manual for the type. Vs will have been, Increased and Vs will have to be e-checked Increased V, to Improve Climb Gradient ‘The previous technique ended up with the aireraft back on the limiting gradients, the primary advantage was that it was heavier than before. There is another option, the speeds can be increased to improve the elimb gradient if obstacle limited, Figure 13.9.3 “The improved climb gradient here gives more or lees the same result as before in that the aireraf can now be cperated at Weights that were impossible before. There ic a small Giference, where the WAT/Climb limit was the protlem all the Improved gradient was traded for improved weight, in this case ‘only some of the improved gradient is traded off and the aircraft ends up faster and heavier than before and with an Improved gradient. ‘Once again the Tyre Limit must be considered in seme way as the normal relationship between TOM and rotate speed has Performance —weuea SSCS‘The B737 data presented a MRJTI in CAP 698 has a technique to improve the TOM when WAT/Climb limited but does not use the second technique that improves climb gradients for obstacle clearance. Reduced Thrust Take-Offs When an aircraft is nelther WAT/Climb limited nor Pield Length Limited on take-off there is essentially performance to the aircraft is at oF close to its performance limits, (On the face of it this seems rather odd but the benefit is an economic one, reducing the thrust even by a litte reduces the ‘thermal stresses inside the engine and significantly adds to the engine lie. Reduced thrust take-offe do not save fuel, they can increase fel burn because of the increased time fo height. They can even give a bigger noise footprint as the aircraft is lower and Closer to the noise monitoring site than it would be under Fall power. Reduced thrust take-offs are also used asa noise restriction method because of local environmental issues, Night time take-off are a prime example of this. Maximum take-of ‘mass may be restrieted to comply with the aircraft noise certificate Because the reduced thrust procedure leaves the aircraft at or close tos performance limit. the procedure is legally ‘theoretically optional, at the pilo’s diseretion, Most companies recommend reduced thrust takeofls asa Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) whenever possible. When the thrust is reduced the amount of reduction carefully considered so that, if an engine fails, there is still adequate power to make the WAT/Climb limiting gradient and the 25ft screen height of the field length limit. These twa major Considerations create the first limit to the amount of thrust reduetion that is allowed, ‘There are other considerations, the regulators will restrict the amount of thrust reduction, called the derate or the flex, $0 that it may not, under any circumstances, be greater than a fixed amount. ‘Sometimes this is expressed as an BPR, icrmetionen Yen a oncoesinens | Te) 27a7 erodes 2 ‘maximum thrust reduetion, Manufacturers may also require the obstacle climb limit or tyre speed limits to be considered. Both of these are questionable, the first because if there was an obstacle problem one is most likely to take-off with full power set and the second because Teas S Performance Reduced thrust ‘extond engine tite‘The max assumed temperature higher than reduced thrust the relationship between Vx and aircraft weight is unaffected by reducing the thrust. The B737 considers both parameters, Restrictions on Use Regulators will also restrict when the procedure may be used ‘on grounds of safety and common sense. CAP 688 lists the restrictions for the MRJTI, section 4 in paragraph 23.1 as: A reduced thrust take-off is not permitted with: ley or very slippery runways. contaminated runseays anti-skid unserviceable reverse thrust unserviceable the increased Vs procedure the PMC (Power Management Computer) off ‘The PMC maintains the required Ni automatically. ‘The Configuration Deviation List (CDL} wil also restrict the use of this procedure if one of the primary thrust setting instruments fs unserviceable, ‘cause the reduced thrust will remain set for the early stages ofthe climb the procedure is not recommended if windshear is possible after take-of Method In order to understand the method used to calculate the reduced thrust we must first remember that jel thrust is Sensitive to temperature. Higher ambient temperatures mean that less thrust ean be set before the TGT limit is reached. This ‘means that a thrust calculated for 10° or 20° higher than the factual ambient temperature will be lower than the maximum thrust for the day. The amount of derate will depend on the temperature we use, the higher the false or assumed temperature the greater the derate, ‘Temperature is used as ‘common ground’ between the four parameters that are considered. For the MRJT1 these are the WAT/Climb Limit, the Field Length Limit, the Obstacle Limit and the Tyre Speed Limit Im each case we determine how high the temperature can get before that parameter becomes limiting at our actual take-of weight. What we end up with is four temperatures higher than the ambient. We then consider the maximum temperature we ‘can operate at limited by the environmental envelope and the temperature that corresponds to a 25% thrust redustion to get six assumed temperatures. The lowest of these represents the first limiting case and is called the maximum assumed Performance = odtemperature, meaning the maximum assumed temperature that can be tised without exceeding any limits For instance, Ambient temperature asc WAT limiting temperature anc Field Length limiting temperature 49°C Obstacle imiting temperature 62°C ‘Tyre Speed limiting temperature 68°C 25% derate limiting temperature 45°C Environmental Envelope limit 52°C ‘The lowest of the assumed temperatures comes from the WAT/Climb limit, 44°C. The reduced thrust is determined at this false temperature and it wil just be adequate, if an engine fails, to make the WAT/Climb limiting gradient without increasing the thrust ‘The reduced thrust procedure may be called the Assumed ‘Temperature Procedure, the Variable Thrust Procedure or FLEX take-off Contaminated Runways A contaminated runway is defined by JAR OPS as a runway ‘where more than 25% of the surface area is covered in either 1a] More than 3mm of water or its equivalent in wet snow or slush b) —Compacted snow which will resist farther compression fand either hold together or break into lumps when pleked up. kee Slush is a mixture of water and snow, wet snow is made up of large sot fakes ‘The equivalent water depth can be found either by melting the snow or by multiplying the contaminant depth by the specific gravity of he comtuminnt. Example: The runway is covered in snow with a specific gravity of 0.6 to a depth of 2 em. Find the equivalent water depth in millimetres Solution: 2 em 20 mm, 20 x 0.6 = 12 mm equivalent. More than 25% of‘counts ae wat JAR OPS permits ‘contaminated Wet, Damp and Dry Runways ‘The JAA modify the earlier ICAO definitions slightly. Wet A wet runway has water, slush or snow less than ‘mim or the equivalent depth or there is enough ‘moisture present to make the surface reflective ‘but without significant areas of standing water. Damp damp runway has moisture on it butit does not Dry A dry runway is neither wet nor contaminated and includes special grooved or porous surfaces Which maintain dry braking action even when ‘moisture is present. Regulations. JAR OPS does not preclude contaminated runway operations provided that the Operator has approval and tas clearly described procedures in the Operations Manual, Where they fare approved the procedures must still allow for an engine failure on take-off Figure 139-4 ‘Some National Authorities advise that contaminated runvway ‘operations should be avoided whenever possible and prohibit ‘takeoffs with more than 1Smm of water, wet snow 3r slush or ‘more than 80mm of powder snow. 7National Authorities recommend @ maximum10kt crosswind limit for take-off and landing and prohibit contaminated runway take-ofis in tailwinds.. From an operating point of view consideration should be given to the possibilty of ingesting contaminant into the engines in such conditions and continuous ignition should be selected t0 reduce the risk of flame-out. This also applies in heavy rain, ‘The Effect on Aircraft Performance i contaminants make the braking action less effective and all, except ice, act to resist acceleration on the take-off run. Assessing how much the contaminant affects the aircraft performance is difficult even when the precise depth, type and Coverage of the contaminant is known, which it rarely is ‘The effect on performance is to reduce acceleration and 10 make stopping more difficult, these reduce the TOM. The stopping part is usually the hardest and decision speed, Vs, is, also reduced If we consider the effect of a contaminated runway on the ‘graphs we met earlier the ‘stop’ line moves down a lot because fof the reduced stop speed and the igo’ line moves up because of te yceingement rag acting "against. acceleration. yee Oi rte oat Figure 13-05 Many Flight Manuals contain contaminated runway data extrapolated from tests carried out in the USA in the 1960s lusing a Caravelle aircraft. Some, more modern, aircraft have contaminated runway data that Is more appropriate to thelr ‘ype. Dynamic Hydroplaning ‘The American tests on the Caravelle revealed that, in the early stages of the take-off run, slush and water builds up as a bow ‘wave in front of the wheel adding to the drag. Once a certain Speed was reached the bow wave disappeared, wheel rotation oa Performance Perticulaty check ‘he intakes of have a lower TOM, tower Vi and Veslowed or stopped and the tyre slithered or planed on @ layer of Contaminant. From that point on the resistance to asceleration ‘was minimal ‘Tests conducted by NASA have shown that this phenomenon, called dynamic hydroplaning, can happen in water depths of less than a tenth of an ineh, 3mm. ‘The point at which the aircraft starts to plane is called the hydroplaning speed (Vp or Vp) and it can be approximated from the formula, Hydroplening Speed (kts) = 9V(P +p) fora rotating wheel Where P is the tyre pressure in psi and pis the specific gravity (86) of the contaminant. Ifthe contaminant is water where the specific gravity has a value of 1 then it might be described as the aquaplaning speed and the formula given as 9Y P ‘There is a second formula for @ non-rotating wheel: Hydroplaning Speed (kts) = 7.7¥(P * p) An obvious difficulty here is finding the specific gravity or slush density of the contaminant, this is never included in information given to pilots. Some authorities publish tables lowing the conversion of the pilot's assessment of the type of Contaminant to an equivalent SG. Where dynamic hydroplaning is a possibility on landing the correct technique mould be to touchdown positively apply full reverse thrust and start braking as soon as possible. There are two other forms of hydroplaning that should be considered: Viscous Hydroplaning A thin film of fluid on a smooth runway surface prevents the tyre making contact with the runway. Viscous hydroplaning ‘can occur at much lower speeds that dynamic hydreplaning Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning Reverted rubber hydroplaning occurs after a skid, often on the nosewheel which has neither braking nor anti-skid protection. ‘The high temperatures created by friction boil a thin layer of water and vaporised rubber to steam to support the tyre. This Js Hkely if nosewheel steering is used indiscriminately on a slippery runway. |Braking Co-efficients IF the takeoff is rejected the contaminant which resisted Braking ation ‘acceleration before now drastically reduces braking action. ‘peor ls SOWTAM Braking action is usually described as a co-efficient of fiction, cade 4, braking co- ‘where perfect friction has a co-efficient of one and less than eflclent 0.25 or perfect is less than one. Braking action can also be verbally less ‘deseribed as good, medium or poor or described numerically a part of the SNOWTAM or SNOTAM code, It is possible to relate these three reporting systems, Figure 13.9.6 Runways that are wet or contaminated assume braking action poor with a co-elficient of 0.25 or less, SNOWTAM code 1 ‘The MOTNE SNOWTAM Code ‘The SNOWTAM code describes runway contaminant and braking action at specific airfields. They are valid for 24 hours. ‘You would not attempt to decode a SNOWTAM from memory Here is an example of a SNOWTAM with the meaning below: (Batt (B) 12290420 (C) 291 (8) 6/6/6 16) 05/05/05 1H) 1/1/1031 6(R) 6 (7) TWYS. AND APRON SLIPPERY (A) London Heathrow () 29 December at 04202, (¢) Runway 29 ‘Slush over the whole sunway (G) Depth Smm in the touchdown, middle and stop ends (3) Runway braking action poor throughout (0) Taxyways covered in slush (R) Ramp covered in slush (7) Taxyways and apron slippery e109 ~~S~S~SCSSCS*~*«S rman‘The Configuration Deviation List Any unserviceabilities are checked against the aircraft ‘Minimum Equipment List (MBL) to find out if they can or cannot be accepted. If there is a performance implication the MEL will refer the pilots to the Configuration Deviation List (CDI) whieh lists the actions tobe taken. ‘The two significant unserviceabilites which affect teke-off and landing performance are failures of the anti-skid system and, on a jet, the thruot reverse oyster. The MEL will net permit a propeller driven aircrait to be despatched with unserviceable Feverse pitch ‘The effect of inoperative anti-skid or reverse thrust is to make stopping more difficult and reduce the maximum abandon speed, Veron. It modifies the take-off solution to produce lower MTOM and a lower V Figure 13.0.7 ‘The MEL would not normally allow either of these unserviceabiltes to be carried on a reduced thrust take-off oF ifthe runway was either contaminated or very slippe7y. Performance eae aPavement Loading ICAO requires all member states to promulgate airfield pavement strengths in their respective AIP. Pavement strength will not affect take-off or landing performance but may restrict that aeroplane weight or even prevent an aeroplane from operating on a particular runway. Pavements will be given @ classification number based on rigidity, flexibility and sub-grade strength, The maximum tyre presstie that @ pavement can withstand is also calculated. Aeroplanes are classified by ICAO with a number which describes the effect of the mass of that aeroplane and its single Wheel loading on the pavement strength. A single wheel supporting a mass of 500 kg at a tyre pressure of 181.25 psi hhas a load rating of 1 ACN, Tables are produced that compares the aeroplane classification number (ACN) fo the pavement classification number (PCN) to ‘assess if operations are allowed on that runway. The ACN must be less than or equal to the PCN. Overload operations up to 50% may be permitted at the diseretion of the authority and ‘above 50% in an emergency only. Information is reported using the following code. PCN number zero upwards Pavement type R Rigid F Flexible Pavement sub-grade category A High B Medium, C Low D Ultra-low ‘Maximum authorised tyre pressure W High, no imit X Medium, max 217.5 psi Y¥ Low, max 145psi Z very low, max 72.5psi Pavement evaluation ‘T Technical eoniation U Experience of aircraft ‘The report $0/R/B/X/U would decode as: Pavement classification number 50 Rid pavement ‘Medium strength sub-grade Medium tyre pressure, limited to 217.Spsi Pavement evaluated by aircraft experience oa OSCSC”C”CSSSCS*S rma “This section ein the syllabus but not currently tested.Most of he Inmportant regulations are in Chapter 10 - JAR Performance Class A and B Regulations he exam syllabus does not require an understanding of ’ | Nine fall DAR regulations but questions ae occasionally ‘asked about some aspects ofthe rules. Where questions fe asked the sections of the rules that are tested are nearly always available in the Performance Manual provided in the examination. ‘The JAR/EASA regulations for Class A and B are listed here for reference, the full regulations are on the internet at bitp:/wiw.jaa.nl listed under CS 23, CS 25 and JAR OPS, Where the niles are duplicated in CAP 698 they are aighlighted herein red with a page reference at the side. Cross refer a8 you. read through this chapter so you know where they are. General Class A {An operator shall ensure that, for determining comgllance with the requirements of this Subpart, the approved performance data in the Aeroplane Flight Manual is supplemented as necessary with other data acceptable to the Authority if the ‘approved performance Data in the Aeroplane Flight Manual is Insulicient in respect of items such as: 8} Accounting for reasonably expected adverse oxerating ‘conditions such as take-off ané landing on fontaminated runwaye; and b) Consideration of engine failure in all figxt phases. ‘An operator shall ensure that, for the wet and contaminated runway case, performance data determined in accordance with (€8 25X1591 or equivalent acceptable to the Authoriy is used Performance Teaue § 404Class B ‘An operator shall not operate a single-engine aeroplane: ‘Section 2.871 page + (a) Atnight; oF {2} In Instrument Meteorological Conditions ‘except under Special Visual Flight Rules. 1Note: Limitations on the operation of single-engine aeroplanes are covered by JAR-OPS 1.240126) ‘An operator shall treat two-engine aeroplanes which do not feet the lim requirements of Appendix Ito JAR-OPS 1.525(b) ae single-engine aeroplanes. Take-off Class A, 8} An operator shall ensure that the take-off mass does not ‘exceed the maximum take-off _mass specified in the ‘Aeroplane Flight Manual for the pressure altitude and the ‘ambient temperature at the aerodrome at which the take- offi to be made b) An operator must meet the following requirements when ‘determining the maximum permitted take-off mass: +The accelerate-stop distance must not exceed the accelerate-stop distance available; + The take-off distance must not exceed the take-off The Maximum distance available, with a clearway distance not TODAS‘. times exceeding half of the take-off run available; ‘TORA. This isnot the same as the +The take-off run must not exceed the take-off run manufacturer's available; ‘alowabh + Compliance with this paragraph must be shown TOBAtm#t using a. single value of Vi for the rejected and continued take-off and + Ona.wet or contaminated runway, the take-off mass ‘must not exceed that permitted for a take-off on a dry runway under the same conditions ©) When showing compliance with the above, an operator rust take account of the falowing +The pressure altitude atthe aerodrome; 702 eae aaeasis oie aie tay restormancal+The ambient temperature atthe aerodrom; and + The runway surface condition and the type of runway surface, ‘+The runway slope in the direction of take-off + Not more than 50% of the reported head-wind component or not less than 150% of the reported tailwind component; and + The loss, if any, of runway length due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to take-off Class A Take-Off Flight Path (CS 25.111) 4) The take-off path extends from a standing star-to a point in the take-off at which the aeroplane is 1500 f above the take-off surface, or at which the transition from the take ‘off to the en-route configuration is completed and Vero is reached, whichever point is higher. In addition +The aeroplane must be accelerated on the ground to Ver, at which point the eritical engine mist be made Inoperative and remain inoperative forthe rest of the take-off; and + After reaching Vas, the aeroplane must be accelerated to Vs 1) During the acceleration to speed Vs, the nose gear may be raised off the ground at a speed not less than Vj However, landing gear retraction may not be begun until the aeroplane is airborne. ©} During the take-off path determination in accordance with sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) ofthis paragrash +The slope of the airborne part of the take-off path mist be positive at each point + The aeroplane must reach Vs before it is 35 f above the take-off surface and must continue ata speed a lose as practical to, but not less than Vs until itis 00 N above the (ake-ol sunlaces + Bxcept for gear retraction and automatic propeller feathering, the aeroplane configuration may not be ‘changed, and no change in power or thrust that requires action by the pilot may be made, until the feroplane is 400 ft above the take-off suriace. Performance = 703Class A Take-Off Distance ‘Take-of distance on a dry runway isthe greater of ‘The horizontal distance along the take-off path from the start of the take-off to the point at which the ‘aeroplane is 35 ft above the take-off surface, ‘determined tinder CS 25.111 for a dry runway: oF 115% of the horizontal distance along the take-off path, with all engines operating, fram the atart-of the take-off to the point at which the aeroplane is 35 ft above the take-off surface, as determined by a procedure consistent with CS 25.111 “Take-off distance on a wet runway isthe greater of ‘The take-off distance on a dry runway determined in accordance with sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph; or ‘The horizontal distance along the take-off path from the start of the take-off to the point at which the aeroplane is 15 M above the take-off surface, fichieved in manner consistent with the ‘achievement of V2 before reaching 35 f above the take-off surface, determined under CS 25.111 for a ‘wet runviay Class A Take-Off Run Ifthe take-off distance does not include a clearway, the take-o run is equal to the take-off distance. Ifthe take-off distance includes a clearway the take-off run on a dry runway is the greater of yo ‘The horizontal distance along the take-off path from the start of the take-off to a. point equidistant between the point at which Viop is reached and the point at which the aeroplane is 35 ft abave the take ff surface, as determined under CS 25.11] for a dry runway; or 115% of the horizontal distance along the take-off path, with all engines operating, from the start of the take-off to a point equidistant between the point ‘at which Vior is reached and the point at which the aeroplane is 35 ft above the take-off surface, determined by @ procedure consistent with CS 25.111, Tesue 5 Performance Section 4 MRITY page?” pase 7pose Section amar page 7 described ‘onder wet raneay regulations ‘The take-off run on a wet runway ie the greater of ‘The horizontal distance along the take-off path from the start ofthe take-off to the point at which 15ft is reached, a8 determined under CS 25.111 and suming the critical engine fails at Ver ‘corresponding to Veo, oF 115% of the horizontal distance along the take-off path, with all engines operating, from the start of the take-off to @ point equidistant between the point ‘at whieh Vior t reached and the point at which the aeroplane is 35 ft above the take-off surface, determined by a procedure consistent with CS 25.111. Class A Accelerate Stop Distance The ASDR on a dry runway is the greater of the following distances: a “The sum ofthe distances necessary to Accelerate the aeroplane from a standing start with all engines operating to Ver for take-off from a dry runway; Allow the aeroplane to accelerate from Var to the Ihighest speed reached during the rejected take-off, suming the critical engine fails at Vey and the plot takes the first action to reject the take-off at the V; fom a dry runway; and Come to a full stop on a dry runway from the speed reached above plus AA distance equivalent to 2 seconds at the V; for take-off from a dry runway. ‘The sum ofthe distances necessary to Accelerate the aeroplane from a standing start with. fall engines operating to the highest speed reached uring the rejected take-off, assuming the pilot lakes ie Gest wets Lo seject he lake-olf at the Vp {or take-off rom a dry runway; and With all engines still operating, come to a full stop fon a dry runway from the highest speed reached as prescribed above plus A distance equivalent to 2 seconds at the Vi; for take-off from a dry runway. Perormance ==~S~S~*Cmw SSCS 5 705‘The accelerate-stop distance on a wet runway is the greater of the following distances: a) The accelerate-stop distance on a dry runway determined in accordance with the regulations above or b) The accelerate-stop distance determined in accordance with the regulations above, except that the runsay is wet ‘and the corresponding wet runway values of Ver and V; are used. Except as provided below, means other than wheel brakes may bbe used to determine the accelerate-stop distance if that means + Is safe and reliable: + Is used so that consistent results can be expected ‘under normal operating conditions; and + Is such that exceptional skill is not required to control the aeroplane ‘The effets of available reverse thrust + Shall not be included as an additional means of deceleration when determining the accelerate-stop distance on a dry runway; and + May be included as an additional means of deceleration using recommended reverse thrust procedures when determining the accelerate-siop distance on a wet runway, provided the requirements above are met. I the accelerate-stop distance includes a stopway with surface characteristics substantially diferent from those of the runway, the take-off data must include operational correction actors for the accelerate-stop distance. The correction factors ‘must account for the particular surface characteristics of the Stopway and the variations in these characteristics with ‘seasonal weather conditions (such as temperature, rain, snow ‘and ice) within the established operational limits ‘A flight test demonstration of the maximum brake kinetic ‘energy accelerate stop distance must be conducted with not nove than 10% of the allowable brake wear range remaining on each of the aeroplane wheel brakes. 108 ces” erformance (page? and referring {othe dry runwaySection 2-SEP1 page? Class B ‘8} An operator shall ensure that the take-off mass does not exceed the maximum take-off mast specified inthe ‘Aeroplane Fight Manual forthe pressure altitude and the ambient temperature at the aerodrome at which the take- off is to be made. b) An operator shall ensure that the unfactored take distance, as specified in the Aeroplane Flight Manual does not exceed: ‘+ When mulplied by a factor of 1.25, the take-off run available; of ‘+ When stopway and/or clearway following: vailable, the +The take-off run available; When multiplied by a factor of 1.15, the take off distance available; and + When multiplied by a factor of 1.3, the accelerate-stop distance available. When showing compliance with subparagraph (b) above, fan operator shal take account ofthe following: + The mass of the aeroplane at the commencement of the take-off run; + The pressure altitude at the aerodrome: + The ambient temperature at the aerodroms + The runway surface condition and the type of runway surface ‘+The runway slope in the direction of take-off and + Not more than 50% of the reported head-wind ‘component or not less than 150% of the reported tail-wind component Performance 3 707Class B climb Gradients 8) Take-off Climb [There are no obstacle clearance limits or ‘minimum acceptable climb gradient required for the SEP by JAR-OPS 1, the following requirements apply to the (MBP aircraft only) All Engines Operating ‘The steady gradient of climb after take-off must be at least 4% with: ‘Take-off power on each engine; ‘The landing gear extended except that if the landing gear can be retracted in not ‘more than 7 seconds, it may be assumed to be retracted; The wing aps in the take-off position(s}; and ‘A climb speed not less than the grester of 1.1 Vyo and 1.2 Ves, One Engine Inoperative ‘The steady gradient of climb at an altitude of 400 f above the take-off surface must be measurably positive with: ‘The critical engine inoperative and ita propeller in the minimum drag position; ‘The remaining engine at take-off power; ‘The landing gear retracted; ‘The wing flaps in the take-off position(s; and ‘Aclimb speed equal to that achieved at Sor. ‘The steady gradient of climb must be not less than 0.75% at an altitude of 1500 fe above the take-off surface with ‘The critical engine inoperative and ite propeller in the minimtim drag position; ‘The remaining engine at not more than ‘maximum continuous poser; ‘The landing gear retracted Performance Section MEPS paves pages pages+The wing flaps retracted; and + Aclimb speed not less than 1.2 Vs. Db) Landing Ctimb All Engines Operating Section 2.4EP4 page 17 ‘The steady gradient of climb must be atleast 2.5% with: + Not more than the power or thrust that is available 8 seconds after initiation of ‘movement of the power controls from the ‘minimum flight idle position; ‘+The landing gear extended; ‘+The wing faps in the landing position; and + Aclimb speed equal to Viar- (One engine Inoperative ‘Section Smet ‘The steady gradient of climb must be not less than 0.75% page 18 at an altitude of 1500 ft above the landing surface with: + The critical engine inoperative and its ‘propeller in the minimum drag position; + The remaining engine at not more than ‘maximum continuous poster; + The landing gear retracted; +The wing Naps retracted; and + Aclimb speed not ess than 1.2 Vsy ‘Performance SSCS SSS~«SODClass A, 8) An operator shall ensure that the net take-off fight path Clears all obstacles by a vertical distance of at least 35 ft fr by a horizontal distance of atleast 90 m plus 0.125 x D, where D is the horizontal distance the aeroplane ha travelled from the end of the take-off distance available or the end of the take-off distance if a turn is scheduled before the end of the take-off distance available. For aeroplanes with a wingspan of less than 60 m a Horizontal obstacle clearance of half the aeroplane ‘wingspan plus 60 m, plus 0.125 x D may be used. 4) When showing compliance with subparagraph (a) above, fan operator must take account of the following: +The mase of the aeroplane at the commencement of the talte-off ran +The pressure altitude atthe aerodrome: ‘+The ambient temperature at the aerodrome; and + Not more than 50% of the reported head-wind ‘component or not less than 150% of the reported tailwind component, b) When showing compliance with subparagraph (a) above: height equal to one half the wingspan but not les than 50 ft above the elevation of the end of the take offrun available + Thereafter, up to a height of 400 ft it is assumed that the seroplane is banked by no more than 15 ‘Above 400 ft height bank angles greater than 15° bbut not more than 25° may be scheduled) + Any part of the net take-off fight path in which the Setuplanie is bausked Uy snore saat 19" ust lew all ‘obstacles within the horizontal distances specified in ‘sub:paragraphs (a), (d) and (e) ofthis paragraph by a vertical distance of atleast 50 ft; and + An operator must use special procedures, subject to the approval of the Authority, to apply increased Danke angles of not more than 20° between 200 f and 400 ft, or not more than 30° above 400 f. too cues Performance pape Sexcopt the lonrance is 35H+ Adequate allowance must be made for the effect of bank angle on operating speeds and fight path including the distance increments resulting from Increased operating speeds. When showing compliance with subparagraph (a) above for those cases where the intended fight path does not require track changes of more than 15°, an operator need hot consider those obstacles which have a lateral distance ‘greater than: 300 m, ifthe pilot ia able to maintain the Fequired ‘navigational accuracy through the obstacie accountability area or 600 m, for lights under all other conditions 4d) When showing compliance with subparagraph (a) above for those cases where the intended flight path does require track changes of more than 15°, an operator need not consider those abstacies which have a lateral distance greater than: 600 m, if the pilot is able to maintain the Fequired navigational accuracy through the obstacle ‘accountability area or 900 m for flights under all other conditions. ‘e) An operator shall establish contingency procedures to satisfy the requirements of JAR-OPS 1.495 and to provide f safe route, avoiding obstacles, to enable the aeroplane to either comply with the en-route requirements of JAR- (OPS 1.500, oF land at either the aerodrome of departure for ata take-off alternate aerodrome Class B 8) An operator shall ensure that the take-off Might path of fseroplanes ‘with two or more engines, determined. in faccordance with this sub-paragraph, clears al obstacles by a vertical margin of at least 50 ft, or by a horizontal distance of at least 90 m plus 0.125 x D, where D is the horizontal distance travelled by the aeroplane from the fend of the take-off distance available or the 2nd of the take-off distance if @ turn is scheduled before the end of the take-off distance available except as provided in [oub- paragraphs (b) and_(c) below. For aeroplanes with a Wingspan of less than 60 m a. horizontal obstacle Clenranen of half the aeeoplane wingspan pis 50m, pis 0.125 D may be used. When showing comphance with this sub-paragraph it must be assumed that: ‘+The take-off flight path begins at a heigat of 50 f above the surface at the end ofthe take- a 4 q048 ‘An operator shall ensure that at no point along the intended track will an aeroplane having three or more engines be more than 90 minutes, at the all-engines Jong range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing mage are met unless st complies with sub: paragraphs b) to below. ‘The two engines inoperative en-route net Might path data must permit the aeroplane to continue the fight, in the expected meteorological conditions, from the point where two engines are assumed to fail simultaneously, to an aerodrome at which itis possible to land and come to a complete stop when using the prescribed procedure for a landing with two engines inoperative, ‘The net fight path must clear vertically, by at least 2000 ft, all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km {5 nm on either side of the intended tack, At altitudes land in meteorological conditions requiring ice protection systems to be operable, the effect of their use on the net fight path data must be taken into account. If the navigational accuracy does not meet the 95% containment level, an operator must increase the width ‘margin given above to 18,5 km (10 nm). ‘The two engines are assumed to fail at the most critical point of that portion of the route where the aeroplane ‘more than 90 minutes, at the all engines long range cruising speed at standard temperature in stl aif, away from an’ aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing mass ‘The net Might path must have positive gradient at 1800 ® above the aerodrome where the landing Is assumed to be made after the failure of two engines Tes 5 Performance cng alreratt cannot go more ‘than 90 minutos tiloes oan ‘engine falure and ‘mane a tanding Sm of track must be cleared by the worst pointFuel jttisoning ie to be fying higher performance coling A worse than average gradient is tired Section 2 page ® ‘A multtongine Class Baiveratt must be MSA an engine 1s lost, Section SMEPA ©) Fuel jettisoning is permitted to an extent cons:stent with reaching the aerodrome with the required fue reserves, ita safe procedure is used. ‘The expected mass of the aeroplane at the paint where the two engines are assumed to fail must ‘not be lees than that which would include suficient fuel to proceed to-an aerodrome where the landing Is assumed to be ‘made, and to arrive there at least 1500 ft directly over the landing area and thereafter to fly level for 15 Class B Aircraft En-Route - Single-Engine Aeroplanes 4) An operator shall ensure that the aeroplane, in the meteorological conditions expected for the fight, and in the event of engine failure, is capable of reaching a place fat which a safe forced’ landing can be made. For Tandplanes, a place on land. is required, unless otherwise approved by the Authority ) When showing compliance with sub-paragraph (a) above: ‘The aeroplane must not be assumed to be flying, + with the engine operating within the maximum ‘continuous power conditions specified, at an altitude exceeding that at which the rate of climb ‘equals 300 ft per minute; and + The assumed en-route gradient shall be the gross ‘gradient of descent increased by a gradient of 05% Enroute ~ Multi Engined Aeroplanes: 8} An operator shall ensure that the aeroplane, in the ‘meteorological conditions expected for the flight, and in the event of the falure of one engine, with the remaining, engines operating within the maximum continous power conditions specified, is capable of continuing fight at or Shove the selevant! minimum altitudes for safe Aight ‘tated in the Operations Manual to a point 1000 ft above lan aerodrome at which the performance requirements can be met. ) When showing compliance with sub:paragraph (a) above + The aeroplane must not be assumed to be fying at fan altitude exceeding that at which the rate of limb Performance ues SSO‘equals 300 ft per minute with all engines operating ‘within the maximum continuous power conditions Specified; and +The assumed en-route gradient with one engine inoperative shall be the gross gradient of descent or climb, as appropriate, respectively increased by a fradient of 0.5%, or decreased by a gradient of 0.5% Landing Class A Landing WAT Limit 4) An operator shall ensure that the landing mass of the The minimum ‘aeroplane does not exceed the maximum landing mass gradients of the Specified for the altitude and the ambient temperature _ mermal landing expected for the estimated time of landing at the WAT Umi apply ‘destination and alternate aerodrome. b) Forinstrument approaches with decision heights below 200 ft, an operator must verily that the approach mass fof the aeroplane, taking into account the take-off mass land the fel expected to be consumed in fight, allows 8 missed approach gradient of climb, with the critical Considered. Wt wil fengine failed and with the speed and configuration used he ming for 2 for go-around of at least 2.5%, or the published and 3 engine gradient, whichever is the greater. The use of an alreraf! ‘lternative method must be approved by the Authority. Landing climb all engines In the landing configuration the steady gradient of climb ‘may not be less than 3.2% with- 8) The engines at the power or thrust that is fvailable 8 seconds after initiation of movement of the power of thrust controls from minimum fight ide to the ge-around power or thrust setting (see ACJ25.119(a)}; and 1b) Ata-climb speed which is- i Notless than- ()_1.08Ver for seroplanes with four engines on which pplication of power results in a significant reduction in stall speeds; or (i) (2) 1.23Ve for all other aeroplanes (2) Not less than Vue. (@) Not greater than Vser 70.46Landing Fiold Length Limits Jet arcratt musta) An operator shall ensure that the landing mass of the be able to land in facroplane for the estimated time of landing at the {60% ofthe LDA, destination aerodrome and at any alternate aerodrome turboprops 70% ‘allows a full stop landing from 50 ft above the threshold: + For turbo-jet powered aeroplanes, within 60% of the landing distance available; or ‘Same for Class 8, == + For turbo-propeller powered aeroplanes, within 70% of the landing distance available; + For Steep Approach procedures the Authority may ‘approve the tse of a sereen height of less than 50 ft, ‘but not less than 35 ft +The Authority may exceptionally approve, when satisfied that there is a need, the use of Short Landing Operations. Winds are b) When showing compliance with sub-paragraph (a) above, factored and an operator must take account of the following slopes of loss ‘than 2% are + Thealtitude at the aerodrome; Ignored 4+ Not more than 50% of the head-wind component oF rot [ess than 150% of the tailwind component; +The runway slope in the direction of landing if greater than +/-25. ‘Te landing weight must be 6) When showing compliance with sub-paragraph (a) above, planned so the it must be assumed that: ‘lroraft oan land 1) The aeroplane will land on the most favourable ‘and forecast wind runway, in stil air; and 2) The aeroplane will land on the runway mest likely to be assigned considering the probable wind speed and direction and. the ground handling Sharacteriation of the arcoplane, and considering. ‘other conditions such as landing aide and terrain, Performance se 40474) [fan operator is unable to comply with sub-paragraph (oli) above for a destination aerodrome having a single runway where a landing depends upon a specified wind ‘component, an aeroplane. may be despatched if 2 alternate aerodromes are designated which permit full ‘compliance with sub-paragraphs (a), (b) and (¢, Before commencing an approach to land at the destination aerodrome the commander must satisfy himself that a landing can be made in full compliance with JAR‘OPS 1.510 and sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) ssbove! (¢)_Ifan operator is unable to comply with sub-paragraph [c)@2) above for the destination aerodrome, the aeroplane may be despatched if an. alternate aerodrome ‘designated which permits Tall compliance with sub paragraphs (a) () and (c Contaminated and Wet Runway Landings A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface area whether in isolated areas or not within the required length and width being used is covered by the following: + Surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 in) deep, or by hush, of loose snow, equivalent to more than 3 mm of © Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further compression and will hold together br break into lumps if picked up (compacted snow); or © Tee, including wet ice. A nunway is considered wet when the runway surface is ‘covered with water, of equivalent, less than 3 mm deep or ‘when there is sufficient molature on the runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water. (2) An operator shall ensure that when the appropriate ‘weather reports of forecasts, or a combination thereof, Indicate that the runway at the estimated time of arrival 115% of the required landing distance qos SSCS Performance ional 118%Contaminated runways now the te the greater of ‘tho manuals Wt runways ean lure lower factor f ‘he Fight Manuat ‘Specialy prepared ‘contaminated Packed snow, can ‘he manual allows (6) Am operator shall ensure that when the appropriate ‘weather reports or forecasts, or a combination thereof, indicate that the runway at the estimated tims of arrival may be contaminated, the landing distance available must be at least the landing distance determined in saccordance with sub-paragraph (a) above, ot at least 115% of the landing distance determined in accordance with approved contaminated landing distance data or equivalent, accepted by the Authority, whichever is preater. ‘afeulations do not include the 60% or 70% faciorisation OF LDA for jets and turboprops. UAR-OPS 1.520) (e) Alanding distance on a wet runway shorter than that required by sub-paragraph (a) above, but no: less than normal, may be used if the Aeroplane Flignt Manual includes specific additional information about landing, distances on wet runways, (¢)Alanding distance on a specially prepared contaminated runway shorter than that required by sub-paragraph (b) fsbove, but not lesa than normal, may be used if the ‘Acropiane Flight Manual includes specific additional information about landing distances on contaminated runways, Class B Aircraft Performance Class B landing rules are the same as those for lass A except the factor of landing is a uniform 70%, slope is taken account of and the exemption which allows a Class A aircraft to launch even if it cannot land in still air at its ‘estination does not exis. ‘The extra WAT limit for Cat Ml and I landings does not exis, presumably because small piston twins don’ operate to these limits. ‘The factors for landing on wet runways are the same, 115%, but for contaminated runways the landing distance required determined by data acceptable to the Authority must not ‘exceed LDA. The 115% factor for wet runways may be reduced ifthe Flight Manual includes specite data, (Pattorancell egies lesue ete carn)4020 Intentionally Blank‘The wind factors ‘re built into the graph Chapter 11 - SEP1 he CAA performance Manual CAP 698 contains data for I ‘a single engine Class B aircraft called SEP1. The SEP data ip in Section 2 of the manual. There are graphs for take-off distance, climb and landing distance. Page 1 lists some general considerations, most of which have already been noted, Turn to them now. Finding the Take-Off Distance. Paragraph 2.1.1 lists the take-off requirements, including data to factor the distance for ranway surface, slope and regulation. ‘There is a requirement in JAR OPS to factor winds by 0.5 for headwinds and 1.5 for tallwinds but this Tactor, common to all counties, is built into the graphs. Paragraph 2.2.1. gives Instructions to calculate the Take-Off Distance Follow through this example then ty the example in the manual Example: Given the following information which applies to SEPI determine the Take-Off Distance for a flaps ‘up take-off. ‘Aerodrome Pressure Altitude 30001, Ambient Temperature orc ‘Take-Off Weight 3400 b Wind Component 2okt head Runway Slope 1% dewnhll Runway Surface Short, dry grass ‘Solution: Find the correct graph, figure 2.1, page 3. Enter from the bottom left with OAT, run up to the pressure altitude, go right to the reference line, follow the guidelines down to the weight, go ght to the reference line, fallow the guidelines to 2Okt headwind, go right to the reference line the follow the guidelines to the right of the graph, Read out 1800f Figure 13-11-1 Performance ——eauesSSCSCS~«Sai acece| eezeas| ita rdeae Figure 1 Tao Dison Ppp Figure 13444 ‘The 1800ft needs to be factored for slope and surface. Short dry grass 18 a tactor of 1-2 (para 2.1-16) and downhill siope Is not compensated for. (para 2.1.14) 1800% 1.2 = 2160. Tesue 5 PerformanceFinding the Field Length Limited TOM ‘The graph can also be used in reverse to find the Field Length Limited TOM for given runway distances, Now life is more complicated as we must strip out the regulatory safety factors in para 2.1.1b before the distances can be used. Example: Solution: Performance Given the following information determine the FLL TOM for a flaps up take-off in SEPI Acrodrome Pressure Altitude 6000ft ‘Ambient Temperature sive Wind Component 15kt head Runway Slope 1% uphill Runway Surface Short, dry grass TORA 38008 TODA & ASDA ‘0008 ‘The frst thing to do is to take out the factors from the distances to determine which one to use. Rather than use percentages it is better to use a factor to multiply or divide. The slope, for instance, would increase the value from the graph ty 5% or a {actor of 1.05, we will divide the distances by 1.05 to enter the graph rather than trying to work percentages backwards. Do not tuy to remember the factors, use the book, they are on pages 2 and 4, ‘The TORA divided by 1.05 for slope then by 1.2 for the grass ‘and 1.0 for the regulation = 3800+ 1.05+1.2 +10 = a016R ‘The ASDA divided by 1.05 forthe slope, by 1.2 for the grass and 1.3 for the regulation 4000 = 1.08 + 1.2+1.3, 2 bear ‘The TODA divided by 1.05 forthe slope, by 1.2 forthe gra 1.15 forthe regulation 4000 + 1.05 +1.2 +1.18 = 27608 And the shortest of these is 24428, which we will use, Now see need to enter the graph from both sides to meetin the ‘weight grid. First enter with the OAT from the lef, go up to the pressure alidtude, go right to the reference line then draw a line in pencil along the weight guidelines Now enter with the distance, 2442! from the right, follow the guidelines to the reference line, left to the wind, follow the fuidelines to the reference line then left to cross ike line you ‘Grew in the weight grid, TasueS cryEAS 888) Figs) TaeOfTOcre Fees Up Plgure 13.442 ‘Read out the weight, 3260Ibs, at the intersection. Careful of the ‘weight scale, it increases from right to lef ‘Be careful also ofthe way you move through the grash. Coming from left to right we hit the reference lines first then follow the guidelines to the variable, going backwards we must go to the Yarlable first then to the reference line, Tasue 5 PerformanceFinding the Climb Gradient and Rate of Climb ‘The climb graph is figure 2.3 and the instructions for use are on page 6 of Section 2. The gear is up and the flaps are up. Example: Use Figure 2.3 to determine the climb gradient and rate of climb for the specimen aircraft SEPI in the following conditions Pressure Altitude 50008 Ambient Temperature 25°C Aevatt weight S5uus @ Figure 13:44.3 Solution: Before entering the graph we must convert the IAS to TAS for the relevant altitude and temperature. 100kis IAS = 112kts TAS ROC = 820 ft/min, Climb gradient = 7.2% ‘Performance nSFinding the Aircraft Ceiling ‘The aeroplane cannot be assumed to be fying above an altitude where it can ‘make 300R/min the performance ceiling) when considering its ablity to glide lear to a safe forced landing, We can find that altitude by entering from the ‘ight hand side of the graph to end up in the alutude grid, Bxample: Determine the performance ceiling for SEP1 at 3840Ibs in ISA conditions. Solution; Enter with 300f/min from the right, fignoring the gradient section of the graph) let to 3540Ibs, down the guidelines to the reference line, left tothe ISA line. Read the altitude, 15,800ft ues PerformanceFinding the Landing Distance Required Landing Distance is at figure 2.4, the instructions are on the previous page. Note the requirement to land in 70% of the LDA equates to a factor of 1.43, fand that all the factors are cumulative. Example: Given the following information determine the minimum Landing Distance Required for the specimen aircraft SEPL taking account ofthe effects of wind and temperature. Acrodrome Pressure Altitude 760K Ambient Temperature 29°C Landing Weight 325016 Wind Component 10kt head Runway Slope 1% down, Runway Surface Grass Runway Condition Wet Solution: Move through the graph as before to read 13608. Figure 1344.5 Now we need to apply the factors, 1.05 for the slope, 1.15 for the grass, 1.15 for the wet surface and 1.43 forthe regulations. LDR = 1360% 1.05% 1,15 x 1.153143 = 27008