Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
99% of the world's car steering systems are made up of the same three or four
components. The steering wheel, which connects to the steering system, which
connects to the track rod, which connects to the tie rods, which connect to the steering
arms. The steering system can be one of several designs, which we'll go into further
down the page, but all the designs essentially move the track rod left-to-right across
the car. The tie rods connect to the ends of the track rod with ball and socket joints,
and then to the ends of the steering arms, also with ball and socket joints. The purpose
the steering geometry. The tie rod lengths can normally be changed to achieve these
different geometries.
The Ackermann Angle : your wheels don't point the same
direction.
In the simplest form of steering, both the front wheels always point in the same
direction. You turn the wheel, they both point the same way and around the corner you
go. Except that by doing this, you end up with tyres scrubbing, loss of grip and a
vehicle that 'crabs' around the corner. So why is this? Well, it's the same thing you
need to take into consideration when looking at transmissions. When a car goes around
a corner, the outside wheels travel further than the inside wheels. In the case of a
transmission, it's why you need a differential (see the Transmission Bible ), but in the
case of steering, it's why you need the front wheels to actually point in different
directions. On the left is the diagram from the Transmission Bible. You can see the
inside wheels travel around a circle with a smaller radius (r2) than the outside wheels
(r1).
In order for that to happen without causing undue stress to the front wheels and tyres,
they must point at slightly different angles to the centreline of the car. The diagram to
the left shows the same thing only zoomed in to show the relative angles of the tyres to
the car. It's all to do with the geometry of circles. This difference of angle is achieved
geometry (a parallelogram with one of the parallel sides shorter than the other). Once
this is achieved, the wheels point at different angles as the steering geometry is
moved. Most vehicles now don't use 'pure' Ackermann steering geometry because it
doesn't take some of the dynamic and compliant effects of steering and suspension into
account, but some derivative of this is used in almost all steering systems (right).
Why 'Ackermann'?
This particular technology was first introduced in 1758 by Erasmus Darwin, father of
Charles Darwin, in a paper entitled "Erasmus Darwin's improved design for steering
carriages--and cars" . It was never patented though until 1817 when Rudolph
Ackermann patented it in London, and that's the name that stuck. Qwdacke
Akerman geomentry when a vehicle takes a turn.
Steering ratios
Every vehicle has a steering ratio inherent in the design. If it didn't you'd never be able
to turn the wheels. Steering ratio gives mechanical advantage to the driver, allowing
you to turn the tyres with the weight of the whole car sitting on them, but more
importantly, it means you don't have to turn the steering wheel a ridiculous number of
times to get the wheels to move. Steering ratio is the ratio of the number of degrees
turned at the steering wheel vs. the number of degrees the front wheels are deflected.
So for example, if you turn the steering wheel 20 and the front wheels only turn 1,
that gives a steering ratio of 20:1. For most modern cars, the steering ratio is between
12:1 and 20:1. This, coupled with the maximum angle of deflection of the wheels gives
the lock-to-lock turns for the steering wheel. For example, if a car has a steering ratio
of 18:1 and the front wheels have a maximum deflection of 25, then at 25, the
steering wheel has turned 25x18, which is 450. That's only to one side, so the entire
steering goes from -25 to plus 25 giving a lock-to-lock angle at the steering wheel of
900, or 2.5 turns (900 / 360).
This works the other way around too of course. If you know the lock-to-lock turns and
the steering ratio, you can figure out the wheel deflection. For example if a car is
advertised as having a 16:1 steering ratio and 3 turns lock-to-lock, then the steering
wheel can turn 1.5x360 (540) each way. At a ratio of 16:1 that means the front wheels
For racing cars, the steering ratio is normally much smaller than for passenger cars -
ie. closer to 1:1 - as the racing drivers need to get fuller deflection into the steering as
quickly as possible.
Turning circles
The turning circle of a car is the diameter of the circle described by the outside wheels
when turning on full lock. There is no hard and fast forumla to calculate the turning
The numbers required to calculate the turning circle explain why a classic black London
taxi has a tiny 8m turning circle to allow it to do U-turns in the narrow London streets.
In this case, the wheelbase and track aren't radically different to any other car, but the
average steering angle is huge. For comparison, a typical passenger car turning circle
is normally between 11m and 13m with SUV turning circles going out as much as 15m
to 17m.
Like the site? The page you're reading is free, but if you like what you see and feel you've learned something, a small
donation to help pay down my car loan would be appreciated. Thank you.
There really are only two basic categories of steering system today; those that have
pitman arms with a steering 'box' and those that don't. Older cars and some current
trucks use pitman arms, so for the sake of completeness, I've documented some
common types. Newer cars and unibody light-duty trucks typically all use some
Pitman arm mechanisms have a steering 'box' where the shaft from the steering wheel
comes in and a lever arm comes out - the pitman arm. This pitman arm is linked to the
track rod or centre link, which is supported by idler arms. The tie rods connect to the
track rod. There are a large number of variations of the actual mechanical linkage from
direct-link where the pitman arm is connected directly to the track rod, to compound
linkages where it is connected to one end of the steering system or the track rod via
Most of the steering box mechanisms that drive the pitman arm have a 'dead spot' in
the centre of the steering where you can turn the steering wheel a slight amount before
the front wheels start to turn. This slack can normally be adjusted with a screw
mechanism but it can't ever be eliminated. The traditional advantage of these systems
is that they give bigger mechanical advantage and thus work well on heavier vehicles.
With the advent of power steering, that has become a moot point and the steering
system design is now more to do with mechanical design, price and weight. The
following are the four basic types of steering box used in pitman arm systems.
Worm and sector
In this type of steering box, the end of the shaft from the steering wheel has a worm
gear attached to it. It meshes directly with a sector gear (so called because it's a
section of a full gear wheel). When the steering wheel is turned, the shaft turns the
worm gear, and the sector gear pivots around its axis as its teeth are moved along the
worm gear. The sector gear is mounted on the cross shaft which passes through the
steering box and out the bottom where it is splined, and the the pitman arm is attached
to the splines. When the sector gear turns, it turns the cross shaft, which turns the
pitman arm, giving the output motion that is fed into the mechanical linkage on the track
rod. The following diagram shows the active components that are present inside the
worm and sector steering box. The box itself is sealed and filled with grease.
The worm and roller steering box is similar in design to the worm and sector box. The
difference here is that instead of having a sector gear that meshes with the worm gear,
there is a roller instead. The roller is mounted on a roller bearing shaft and is held
captive on the end of the cross shaft. As the worm gear turns, the roller is forced to
move along it but because it is held captive on the cross shaft, it twists the cross shaft.
Typically in these designs, the worm gear is actually an hourglass shape so that it is
wider at the ends. Without the hourglass shape, the roller might disengage from it at
This is by far the most common type of steering box for pitman arm systems. In a
recirculating ball steering box, the worm drive has many more turns on it with a finer
pitch. A box or nut is clamped over the worm drive that contains dozens of ball
bearings. These loop around the worm drive and then out into a recirculating channel
within the nut where they are fed back into the worm drive again. Hence recirculating.
As the steering wheel is turned, the worm drive turns and forces the ball bearings to
press against the channel inside the nut. This forces the nut to move along the worm
drive. The nut itself has a couple of gear teeth cast into the outside of it and these
mesh with the teeth on a sector gear which is attached to the cross shaft just like in the
worm and sector mechanism. This system has much less free play or slack in it than
the other designs, hence why it's used the most. The example below shows a
recirculating ball mechanism with the nut shown in cutaway so you can see the ball
Cam and lever steering boxes are very similar to worm and sector steering boxes. The
worm drive is known as a cam and has a much shallower pitch and the sector gear is
replaced with two studs that sit in the cam channels. As the worm gear is turned, the
studs slide along the cam channels which forces the cross shaft to rotate, turning the
pitman arm. One of the design features of this style is that it turns the cross shaft 90
to the normal so it exits through the side of the steering box instead of the bottom. This
This is by far the most common type of steering you'll find in any car today due to it's
relative simplicity and low cost. Rack and pinion systems give a much better feel for the
driver, and there isn't the slop or slack associated with steering box pitman arm type
systems. The downside is that unlike those systems, rack and pinion designs have no
adjustability in them, so once they wear beyond a certain mechanical tolerance, they
long, toothed bar with the tie rods attached to each end. On the end of the steering
shaft there is a simple pinion gear that meshes with the rack. When you turn the
steering wheel, the pinion gear turns, and moves the rack from left to right. Changing
the size of the pinion gear alters the steering ratio. It really is that simple. The
diagrams here show an example rack and pinion system (left) as well as a close-up
This is a simple variation on the above design. All the components are the same, and it
all works the same except that the spacing of the teeth on the rack varies depending on
how close to the centre of the rack they are. In the middle, the teeth are spaced close
together to give slight steering for the first part of the turn - good for not oversteering at
speed. As the teeth get further away from the centre, they increase in spacing slightly
so that the wheels turn more for the same turn of the steering wheel towards full lock.
Simple.
Generally speaking, when you turn the steering wheel in your car, you typically expect it
to go where you're pointing it. At slow speed, this will almost always be the case but
once you get some momentum behind you, you are at the mercy of the chassis and
suspension designers. In racing, the aerodynamic wings, air splitters and undertrays
help to maintain an even balance of the vehicle in corners along with the position of the
weight in the vehicle and the supension setup. The two most common problems you'll
Understeer is so called because the car steers less than you want it to. Understeer can
be brought on by all manner of chassis, suspension and speed issues but essentially it
means that the car is losing grip on the front wheels. Typically it happens as you brake
and the weight is transferred to the front of the car. At this point the mechanical grip of
the front tyres can simply be overpowered and they start to lose grip (for example on a
wet or greasy road surface). The end result is that the car will start to take the corner
very wide. In racing, that normally involves going off the outside of the corner into a
catch area or on to the grass. In normal you-and-me driving, it means crashing at the
outside of the corner. Getting out of understeer can involve letting off the throttle in
front-wheel-drive vehicles (to try to give the tyres chance to grip) or getting on the
throttle in rear-wheel-drive vehicles (to try to bring the back end around). It's a complex
topic more suited to racing driving forums but suffice to say that if you're trying to get
Oversteer
The bright ones amongst you will probably already have guessed that oversteer is the
opposite of understeer. With oversteer, the car goes where it's pointed far too efficiently
and you end up diving into the corner much more quickly than you had expected.
Oversteer is brought on by the car losing grip on the rear wheels as the weight is
transferred off them under braking, resulting in the rear kicking out in the corner.
Without counter-steering (see below) the end result in racing is that the car will spin
and end up going off the inside of the corner backwards. In normal you-and-me driving,
it means spinning the car and ending up pointing back the way you came.
Counter-steering
Counter-steering is what you need to do when you start to experience oversteer. If you
get into a situation where the back end of the car loses grip and starts to swing out,
steering opposite to the direction of the corner can often 'catch' the oversteer by
directing the nose of the car out of the corner. In drift racing and demonstration driving,
it's how the drivers are able to smoke the rear tyres and power-slide around a corner.
They will use a combination of throttle, weight transfer and handbrake to induce
oversteer into a corner, then flick the steering the opposite dirction, honk on the
accelerator and try to hold a slide all the way around the corner. It's also a widely-used
technique in rally racing. Tiff Needell - a racing driver who also works on some UK
Apart from your car's tyres and seats, the suspension is the prime mechanism that
separates your bum (arse for the American) from the road. It also prevents your car
from shaking itself to pieces. No matter how smooth you think the road is, it's a bad,
bad place to propel over a ton of metal at high speed. So we rely upon suspension.
People who travel on underground trains wish that those vehicles relied on
suspension too, but they don't and that's why the ride is so harsh. Actually it's harsh
because underground trains have no lateral suspension to speak of. So as the rails
deviate side-to-side slightly, so does the entire train, and it's passengers. In a car, the
rubber in your tyre helps with this little problem, while all the other suspension
Springs
These come in three types. They are coil springs , torsion bars and leaf springs. Coil
springs are what most people are familiar with, and are actually coiled torsion bars.
Leaf springs are what you would find on most American cars up to about 1985 and
almost all heavy duty vehicles. They look like layers of metal connected to the axle.
The layers are called leaves, hence leaf-spring. The torsion bar on its own is a bizarre
properties of a steel bar. It's used in the suspension of VW Beetles and Karmann
Ghias, air-cooled Porsches (356 and 911 until 1989 when they went to springs), and
the rear suspension of Peugeot 205s amongst other cars. Instead of having a coiled
spring, the axle is attached to one end of a steel shaft. The other end is slotted into a
tube and held there by splines. As the suspension moves, it twists the shaft along it's
length, which in turn resist. Now image that same shaft but instead of being straight,
it's coiled up. As you press on the top of the coil, you're actually inducing a twisting in
the shaft, all the way down the coil. I know it's hard to visualise, but believe me, that's
what is happening. There's a whole section further down the page specifically
Shock absorbers
These dampen the vertical motion induced by driving your car along a rough surface
and so should technically be referred to by their 'proper' name - dampers. If your car
only had springs, it would boat and wallow along the road until you got physically sick
Shock absorbers (dampers) perform two functions. As mentioned above, they absorb
any larger-than-average bumps in the road so that the upward velocity of the wheel
over the bump isn't transmitted to the car chassis. But secondly, they keep the
suspension at as full a travel as possible for the given road conditions - they keep
You want more technical terms? Technically they are velocity-sensitive hydraulic
damping devices - in other words, the faster they move, the more resistance there is
to that movement. They work in conjunction with the springs. The spring allows
movement of the wheel to allow the energy in the road shock to be transformed into
kinetic energy of the unsprung mass, whereupon it is dissipated by the damper. The
damper does this by forcing gas or oil through a constriction valve (a small hole).
Adjustable shock absorbers allow you to change the size of this constriction, and thus
control the rate of damping. The smaller the constriction, the stiffer the suspension.
that carries both the spring and the shock absorber. The type illustrated here is more
likely to be an aftermarket item - it's unlikely you'd get this level of adjustment on your
regular passenger car. The adjustable spring plate can be used to make the springs
stiffer and looser, whilst the adjustable damping valve can be used to adjust the
compression damping as well as a remote reservoir. Whilst you don't typically get this
and spring tension adjustment. See the section later on in this page about the ins and
These are the rubber grommets which separate most of the parts of your suspension
from each other. They're used at the link of an A-Arm with the subframe. They're used
on anti-roll bar links and mountings. They're used all over the place, and from the
factory, I can almost guarantee they're made of rubber. Rubber doesn't last. It
perishes in the cold and splits in the heat. Perished, split rubber was what brought the
Challenger space shuttle down. This is one of those little parts which hardly anyone
pays any attention to, but it's vitally important for your car's handling, as well as your
own safety, that these little things are in good condition. My advice? Replace them
with polyurethane or polygraphite bushes - they are hard-wearing and last a heck of a
lot longer. And, if you're into presenting your car at shows, they look better than the
naff little black rubber jobs. Like all suspension-related items though, bushes are a
tradeoff between performance and comfort. The harder the bush compound, the less
comfort in the cabin. You pays your money and makes your choice.
If you have an off-road vehicle like a Jeep Wrangler, suspension bushings are an
Suspension Types
In their infinite wisdom, car manufacturers have set out to baffle us with the sheer
number of different types of suspension available for both front and rear axles. The
main groupings are dependent and independent suspension types but this naming
independent systems are typically joined across the car by an anti-roll bar and so are
From about 2006 onwards, the concept of fully independent suspension systems
started to appear on cars where the anti-roll bar was replaced by sophisticated
See the section later on dealing with digital suspension systems for more information.
If you know of any not listed here, e-mail me and let me know - I would like this page
to be as complete as possible.
So-called because the front wheel's suspension systems are physically linked. For
everyday use, they are, in a word, shite. I hate to be offensive, but they are. There is
only one type of dependent system you need to know about. It is basically a solid bar
under the front of the car, kept in place by leaf springs and shock absorbers. It's still
common to find these on trucks, but if you find a car with one of these you should sell
it to a museum. They haven't been used on mainstream cars for years for three main
reasons:
Shimmy - because the wheels are physically linked, the beam can be set into
oscillation if one wheel hits a bump and the other doesn't. It sets up a gyroscopic
torque about the steering axis which starts to turn the axle left-to-right. Because
of the axle's inertia, this in turn feeds back to amplify the original motion.
Weight - or more specifically unsprung weight. Solid front axles weigh a lot and
either need sturdy, heavy leaf springs or heavy suspension linkages to keep their
Alignment - simply put, you can't adjust the alignment of wheels on a rigid axis.
From the factory, they're perfectly set, but if the beam gets even slightly distorted,
solid-axle suspension. They usually send me pictures like this and claim it's the best
suspension system for off-road use. I have to admit, for off-roadstuff, it probably is
pretty good. But let's face it; how many people with these vehicles ever go off-road?
The closest they come to having maximum wheel deflection is when the mother
double-parks the thing with one wheel on the kerb during the school-run.......
Like the site? The page you're reading is free, but if you like what you see and feel you've learned something,
a small donation to help pay down my car loan would be appreciated. Thank you.
So-named because the front wheel's suspension systems are independent of each
other (except where joined by an anti-roll bar ) These came into existence around
1930 and have been in use in one form or another pretty much ever since then.
type spring and shock absorber combo, which pivots on a ball joint on the single,
lower arm. At the top end there is a needle roller bearing on some more sophisticated
systems. The strut itself is the load-bearing member in this assembly, with the spring
and shock absorber merely performing their duty as oppose to actually holding the car
up. In the picture here, you can't see the shock absorber because it is encased in the
The steering gear is either connected directly to the lower shock absorber housing, or
to an arm from the front or back of the spindle (in this case). When you steer, it
physically twists the strut and shock absorber housing (and consequently the spring)
to turn the wheel. Simple. The spring is seated in a special plate at the top of the
assembly which allows this twisting to take place. If the spring or this plate are worn,
you'll get a loud 'clonk' on full lock as the spring frees up and jumps into place. This is
During WWII, the British car maker Rover worked on experimental gas-turbine
engines, and after the war, retained a lot of knowledge about them. The gas-turbine
Rover T4, which looked a lot like the Rover P6, Rover 2000 and Rover 3500, was one
of the prototypes. The chassis was fundamentally the same as the other Rovers and
the net result was the the 2000 and 3500 ended up with a very odd front suspension
layout. The gas turbine wasn't exactly small, and Rover needed as much room as
possible in the engine bay to fit it. The suspension was derived from a normal
MacPherson strut but with an added bellcrank. This allowed the suspension unit to sit
horizontally along the outside of the engine bay rather than protruding into it and
taking up space. The bellcrank transferred the upward forces from the suspension into
rearward forces for the spring / shock combo to deal with. In the end, the gas turbine
never made it into production and the Rover 2000 was fitted with a 2-litre 4-cylinder
engine, whilst the Rover 3500 was fitted with an 'evergreen' 3.5litre V8. Open the
hood of either of these classics and the engine looks a bit lost in there because
there's so much room around it that was never utilised. The image on the left shows
cost too much or wasn't tried and tested, then it didn't get built/used. Major GM
innovations including the MacPherson Strut suspension system sat stifled on the shelf
for years because innovation cannot be proven on a spreadsheet until after the
to work for Ford UK in 1950, where Ford started using his design on the 1950
'English' Ford models straight away. Today the strut type is referred to both with and
without the "a" in the name, so both McPherson Strut and MacPherson Strut can be
Further note: Earle MacPherson should never be confused with Elle McPherson - the
Australian ber-babe. In her case, the McPherson Strut is something she does on a
catwalk, or in your dreams if you like that sort of thing. And if you're a bloke, then you
ought to....
The following three examples are all variations on the same theme.
supported by an upper and lower 'A' shaped arm. In this type, the lower arm carries
most of the load. If you look head-on at this type of system, what you'll find is that it's
a very parallelogram system that allows the spindles to travel vertically up and down.
When they do this, they also have a slight side-to-side motion caused by the arc that
the wishbones describe around their pivot points. This side-to-side motion is known as
scrub. Unless the links are infinitely long the scrub motion is always present. There
are two other types of motion of the wheel relative to the body when the suspension
articulates. The first and most important is a toe angle (steer angle). The second and
least important, but the one which produces most pub talk is the camber angle, or
lean angle. Steer and camber are the ones which wear tyres.
systems can sometimes be replaced with a single solid arm (as in my picture). The
only real difference between this and the previous system mentioned above is that the
spring/shock combo is moved from between the arms to above the upper arm. This
transfers the load-bearing capability of the suspension almost entirely to the upper
arm and the spring mounts. The lower arm in this instance becomes a control arm.
This particular type of system isn't so popular in cars as it takes up a lot room.
Multi-link suspension
This is the latest incarnation of the double wishbone system described above. It's
currently being used in the Audi A8 and A4 amongst other cars. The basic principle of
it is the same, but instead of solid upper and lower wishbones, each 'arm' of the
wishbone is a separate item. These are joined at the top and bottom of the spindle
thus forming the wishbone shape. The super-weird thing about this is that as the
spindle turns for steering, it alters the geometry of the suspension by torquing all four
suspension arms. They have complex pivot systems designed to allow this to happen.
Car manufacturers claim that this system gives even better road-holding properties,
because all the various joints make the suspension almost infinitely adjustable. There
are a lot of variations on this theme appearing at the moment, with huge differences
in the numbers and complexities of joints, numbers of arms, positioning of the parts
etc. but they are all fundamentally the same. Note that in this system the spring (red)
The trailing arm system is literally that - a shaped suspension arm is joined at the
front to the chassis, allowing the rear to swing up and down. Pairs of these become
twin-trailing-arm systems and work on exactly the same principle as the double
wishbones in the systems described above. The difference is that instead of the arms
sticking out from the side of the chassis, they travel back parallel to it. This is an
older system not used so much any more because of the space it takes up, but it
doesn't suffer from the side-to-side scrubbing problem of double wishbone systems. If
you want to know what I mean, find a VW beetle and stick your head in the front
Used almost exclusively by Ford F-series trucks, twin I-beam suspension was
introduced in 1965. This little oddity is a combination of trailing arm suspension and
solid beam axle suspension. Only in this case the beam is split in two and mounted
offset from the centre of the chassis, one section for each side of the suspension. The
trailing arms are actually (technically) leading arms and the steering gear is mounted
in front of the suspension setup. Ford claim this makes for a heavy-duty independent
front suspension setup capable of handling the loads associated with their trucks. In
an empty truck, however, going over a bump with twin I-beam suspension is like
This suspension system is based on the compression of a solid mass of rubber - red
in both these images. The two types are essentially derivatives of the same design. It
is named after Dr. Alex Moulton - one of the original design team on the Mini, and the
engineer who designed its suspension system in 1959. This system is known by a few
different names including cone and trumpet suspension (due to the shape of the
rubber bung shown in the right hand picture). The rear suspension system on the
original Mini also used Moulton's rubber suspension system, but laid out horizontally
rather than vertically, to save space again. The Mini was originally intended to have
Moulton's fluid-filled Hydrolastic suspension, but that remained on the drawing board
for a few more years. Eventually, Hydrolastic was developed into Hydragas (see later
on this page), and revised versions were adopted on the Mini Metro and the current
MGF-sportscar.
For a while, Moulton rubber suspension was used in a lot of bicycles - racing and
mountain bikes. Due to the compact design and the simplicity of its operation and
maintenance, it was an ideal solution, but has since been superceded by more
book out now about Alex Moulton and his original designs. Alex Moulton - a lifetime in
engineering .
Transverse leaf-spring
This system is a bit odd in that it combines independent double wishbone suspension
with a leaf spring like you'd normally find on the rear suspension. Famously used on
the Corvette, it involves one leaf spring mounted across the vehicle, connected at
each end to the lower wishbone. The centre of the spring is connected to the front
subframe in the middle of the car. There are still two shock absorbers, mounted one
to each side on the lower wishbones. Chevy insist that this is the best thing since
sliced bread for a suspension system but there are plenty of other experts,
manufacturers and race drivers who think it's junk. It's never been clear if this was a
performance and design decision or a cost issue, but this type of system is very rare.
Historically, Triumph used transverse leaf spring suspension on their small chassis
cars (Herald, Vitesse, Spitfire & GT6). In the good old British school of thought, they
did this because it was cheap. The spring was bolted to the differential, rather than
the chassis, and under (very) hard cornering you got jacking and tuck-under. If you
got this whilst driving and panicked enough to let off the gas, or worse, step on the
brake, you got massive over-steer, and pirouetted off into the nearest tree. There
were plenty of complaints about this suspension system in the late 60's, so Triumph
changed to a 'swing spring' system on some cars (no longer bolted to the diff), and
what they called 'rotoflex' on the GT6. Again from the good old British school of
thought, the replacement system was unnecessarily complicated and allegedly very
fragile.
There was also a rare Swedish sports car in the 1990's called JC Indigo which had
transverse leaf spring as both front and rear suspension. The composite spring was
derived from the Volvo 760 station wagon but Indigo used it both as rear suspension
and in a modified form in the front. The car had mostly Volvo running gear but the
quickly and I'm not even sure if the Indigo ever reached mass production. Interesting
factoid for you: Sweden has had over 120 car manufacturers. Only three remain, only
two are really mass producers and it is unlikely that more than one of them will
The Corvette was not the first car to combine leaf springs with independent
suspension. As well as the Triumph Herald, Fiat did something similar in the 50s with
steel springs. The recent Volvo 960 Wagon (not sedan) also used fibreglass leaf
springs in the rear with independent suspension. The Corvette is, as far as I know, the
only vehicle that uses this setup both front and rear.
The system is definitely independent, not like a live axle or a twist beam rear end.
With dependent systems, when one wheel moves, the other is forced to move too. The
design of the Corvette suspension is such that even though both sides are linked one
side can move without affecting the other, hence its classification as independent. But
how - what about that leaf spring? Surely if it's attached to both sides, that makes this
the subframe in the centre. That made it act like two separate leaf springs, one for
each side. As two separate leaf springs it, like a torsion bar, was simply an alternative
to coil springs.
forgotten - the two visible coils are considered to be the springing part of the
suspension. Not so - there's the anti-roll bar too. Whilst not technically a spring, it
does act as a transverse torsion bar linking both sides of the suspension together.
So the way GM started using the tranverse leaf spring is actually very clever; it lets
one spring act as both a traditional spring and an anti-roll. Yes - if one wheel moves,
spring forces (not geometric displacements like we see with a live axle) are applied to
the other wheel - however, in a car with an anti-roll bar the same thing happens (see
the section on anti roll bars ). The problem was that it worked well as a spring, but not
so well as an anti-roll bar, so in the end GM had to add anti-roll bars too.
Typically, aftermarket tuners will tear the leaf springs out and replace them with coil
spring systems simply to make life easier. GM left many things on the Corvette with
room for improvement. Leaf springs are not really a fundamental problem - typically
the view is that Corvettes would be no better from the factory with coil springs. A
traditional leaf spring live axle saves money because the cost of leaf springs is less
than coils, trailing arms, pan hard rod etc. The Corvette has all the same suspension
arms as a system with coil springs, so the only difference is the cost of the fibreglass
leaf vs. the cost of the coil spring; leaf springs cost more than a coil so GM didn't do it
to save money. It's not immediately clear then why they did it other than perhaps
To round off this section then, here is an excellent link talking about how this
suspension works - it does a far better job than I can: Fibreglass springs
REAR AXLE SUSPENSION:
Solid-axle, leaf-spring
This system was favoured by the Americans for years because it was dead simple and
cheap to build. The ride quality is decidedly questionable though. The drive axle is
clamped to the leaf springs and the shock absorbers normally bolt directly to the axle.
The ends of the leaf springs are attached directly to the chassis, as are the tops of
the shock absorbers. Simple, not particularly elegant, but cheap. The main drawback
with this arrangement is the lack of lateral location for the axle, meaning it has a lot of
Solid-axle, coil-spring
This is a variation and update on the system described above. The basic idea is the
same, but the leaf springs have been removed in favour of either 'coil-over-oil' spring
and shock combos, or as shown here, separate coil springs and shock absorbers.
Because the leaf springs have been removed, the axle now needs to have lateral
support from a pair control arms. The front ends of these are attached to the chassis,
the rear ends to the axle. The variation shown here is more compact than the coil-
over-oil type, and it means you can have smaller or shorter springs. This in turn
Beam Axle
This system is used in front wheel drive cars, where the rear axle isn't driven. (hence
it's full description as a "dead beam"). Again, it is a relatively simple system. The
beam runs across under the car with the wheels attached to either end of it. Spring /
shock units or struts are bolted to either end and seat up into suspension wells in the
car body or chassis. The beam has two integral trailing arms built in instead of the
separate control arms required by the solid-axle coil-spring system. Variations on this
system can have either separate springs and shocks, or the combined 'coil-over-oil'
variety as shown here. One notable feature of this system is the track bar (or panhard
rod). This is a diagonal bar which runs from one end the beam to a point either just in
front of the opposite control arm (as here) or sometimes diagonally up to the top of
the opposite spring mount (which takes up more room). This is to prevent side-to-side
movement in the beam which would cause all manner of nasty handling problems. A
variation on this them is the twist axle which is identical with the exception of the
panhard rod. In a twist axle, the axle is designed to twist slightly. This gives, in effect,
the springs and replaces them with torsion bars running across the chassis, and
attached to the leading edge of the control arms. These beam types are currently very
4-Bar
4-bar suspension can be used on the front and rear of vehicles - I've chosen to show
it in the "rear" section of this page because that's where it's normally found. 4-bar
suspension comes in two varieties. Triangulated, shown on the right here, and
The design of the 4-bar is such that the rear end housing is always parallel to the
ground, and the pinion angle never changes. This, combined with the lateral stability
of the Panhard Bar, does an excellent job of locating the rear end and keeping it in
proper alignment. If you were to compare this suspension system on a truck with a 4-
link or ladder-bar setup, you'd notice that the rear frame "kick up" of the 4-bar setup is
far less severe. This, combined with the relatively compact installation design means
that it's ideal for cars and trucks where space is at a premium. You'll find this setup
The triangulated design operates on the same principle, but the top two bars are
skewed inwards and joined to the rear end housing much closer to the centre. This
eliminates the need for the separate panhard bar, which in turn means the whole
There are many variations on the 4-bar systems I've illustrated above. For example, if
the four angled bars go from the axle outboard to the chassis near the centreline, this
is called a "Satchell link". (Satchell is a US designer, who used the above linkage on
some of Paul Newmans Datsun road racers some years back.) It has certain
advantages over the above examples. Both of the these angled linkages can be
reversed to have the angled links below the axle and the parallel links above. The roll
centre will be lowered with the angled bars under the axle, a function which is difficult
to accomplish without this design. The other variation on the "four bars" not shown
are the Watts and Jacobs bar linkages to replace the Panhard rod for lateral
positioning. Another linkage is the two parallel bars above the axle and a triangulated
link underneath - a design you will find on the Lotus 7 - where the lower link has its
base on the chassis and the apex under the differential. Then there is the Mallock
Woblink, which could be described as half way between a Jacobs ladder and a Watts
link, and makes it possible to place the rear roll centre quite low without sacrificing
ground clearance.
Watts links are pretty popular with the hydraulic lowrider/truck bed dancer types. The
Jacobs ladder is used almost exclusively on US midget and sprintcar dirt track rear
ends. The Mallock Woblink is used mostly on the Mallock U2 Clubman cars in Great
Britain.
rear suspension system designed to combat the twin evils of unsprung weight and
poor ride quality in live axle systems. de Dion suspension is a weird bastardisation of
neither one, but at the same time it's both. Weird! With this system, the wheels are
the suspension designed to allow the wheel track to vary during suspension
movement. This is necessary because the wheels are always kept parallel to each
other, and thus perpendicular to the road surface regardless of what the car body is
doing. This setup means that when the wheels rebound, there is also no camber
change which is great for traction, and that's the first advantage of a de Dion Tube.
The second advantage is that it contributes to reduced unsprung weight in the vehicle
because the transfer case / differential is attached to the chassis of the car rather
Naturally, the advantages are equalled by disadvantages, and in the case of de Dion
systems, the disadvantages would seem to win out. First off, it needs two CV joints
per axle instead of only one. That adds complexity and weight. Well one of the
weight, so adding more weight back into the system to compensate for the design is a
definite distadvantage. Second, the brakes are mounted inboard with the calipers
attached to the transfer case, which means to change a brake disc, you need to
dismantle the entire suspension system to get the driveshaft out. (Working on the
brake calipers is no walk in the park either.) Finally, de Dion units can be used with a
leaf-spring or coil-spring arrangement. With coil spring (as shown here) it needs extra
lateral location links, such as a panhard rod, wishbones or trailing links. Again - more
de Dion suspension was used mostly used from the mid 60's to the late 70's and could
be found on some Rovers, the Alfa Romeo Alfettas (including the sedans and the
GTV) and the GTV6, one or two Lancias a smattering of exotic racing cars and budget
More recently deDion suspension has had somewhat of a renaissance in the specialist
sports car and kit car market such as those from Caterham, Westfield and Dax. These
all uniformly now use outboard brake setups for ease-of-use, and a non-telescoping
tube, usually with trailing links and an A-bar for lateral location (rather than a Watts
linkage or Panhard rod.) Whilst a properly setup independent suspension system will
always win hands-down on poorly maintained roads, when you get on to the track, the
advantage is not so clear cut and a well set up deDion system can often match it turn-
It follows, that what can be fitted to the front of a car, can be fitted to the rear to
without the complexities of the steering gear. Simplified versions of all the
independent systems described above can be found on the rear axles of cars. The
multi-link system is currently becoming more and more popular. In advertising, it's put
across as '4-wheel independent suspension'. This means all the wheels are
independently mounted and sprung. There are two schools of thought as to whether
this system is better or worse for handling than, for example, Macpherson struts and a
twist axle. The drive towards 4-wheel independent suspension is primarily to improve
A lot of attention and marketing was paid to Ford about their new Control Blade rear
suspension when it first came out. Glossy marketing brochures told us how this
revolution in rear suspension would make our Ford Focus handle better, grip the road
better, and brake better than everything else on the road. What that essentially meant
was "we've got a new suspension system". It actually started out its life sometime
around 1998 in Ford of Australia and I believe Holden had something to do with it too.
So "Control Blade" is the snappy moniker that Ford came up with. It sounds good,
looks good on paper, and has an aura of 21 century-ness about it. "Blade". Ooh.
st
Control Blade suspension is two-fold. First they wanted to separate the various
suspension functions from each other - isolating the handling components from the
ride qualiy components. With the springs and shock absorbers being mounted
separately, Ford have managed to optimise the function of these components. It's
similar in concept to what BMW did with the telelever front suspension on motorbikes
(separating braking from suspension forces) only in the Ford system, it separates the
springing support of the suspension from the shock reducing functions of the shock
absorbers.
Secondly it increases the interior space available in the vehicle. Most suspension
systems used in daily drivers have strut towers in the rear of the vehicle - those
bumps either side of the boot (trunk). Ford wanted to give more space in the back and
needed to find a good way to remove or reduce the size of those towers. With Control
Blade, because the shock absorbers are separated from the springs, it opened up a
lot more design flexibility. Ford used a trailing-arm type suspension so that they didn't
have swingarms up under the wheel arches and the springs were shortened and
moved inboard and underneath. In one variation, the shock absorbers still sit
vertically but the space they take up now is hugely reduced because they no longer
have the coil springs around the outside. In the second variation the shock absorber
is a subminiature unit mounted inboard of the springs underneath the vehicle. The
control blades themselves are basically the trailing arms which give lateral support
and provide the vertical pivot point for the entire unit.
The Ford spiel says this about Control Blade: "It has the key function of promoting
ride and reducing road noise transmission, while providing the freedom to let the
lateral links define toe and camber by absorbing any rearward forces and allowing the
rest of the suspension to do it's job uninterrupted. Effectively isolating the handling
components of the new IRS from the road noise and impact harshness components of
the suspension.". In English? It means better handling and less road noise. Looking at
the basic design it's not difficult to see that this system has a much lower centre of
gravity than a Macpherson strut (for example). Lower C-of-G in a vehicle is always a
good thing. The geometry of the Control Blade system also provides significant
'anti-dive' under braking force, which means a the car body will dive less when you
jump on the brakes which in turn translates into more well-behaved braking response.
Lower C-of-G, less roll and less pitch during braking all add up to better handling.
The images used here are currently from other sources as I've not had the time to
render up my own just yet, but they show the basic layout of each variation of control
There's one thing worth noting about this suspension system. Because the spring and
shock are in different locations, and because of the reduced or removed strut towers,
it makes it very difficult to bolt-on aftermarket suspension kits to these vehicles. For
the daily driver, that's probably not an issue but if you're looking at spiffing up the
suspension on a Ford Focus for track days or racing, it's not going to be quite so
Suspension modifications
Variable-camber suspension for steering
If you've read the wheel and tyre bible , you'll know that camber is the lateral tilt of the
suspension (and hence the wheel and the tyre) to the road surface. Proper camber
(along with toe and caster) make sure that the tyre tread surface is as flat as possible
on the road surface. The problem with regular fixed-geometry suspension is that the
camber is set up to be ideal when driving straight. This means that however much you
dislike the idea, when you corner, less of the tyre's tread is in contact with the road
surface because the tyre has to tilt slightly when the steering is turned. In
2006, OnCamber LLC patented their variable camber steering system which they
launched at SEMA in Las Vegas. Matthew Kim, OnCamber's founder and president
was kind enough to send some pictures of their development system which you can
see here. The idea is simple - as the steering wheel is turned, the steering input shifts
the top mounts of a McPherson strut type suspension system laterally. In other words,
the top of the strut is no longer solidly bolted to the strut tower. When the top mount
point is moved, the camber of the suspension system changes. Turn to the left, and
the mounting points shift to the left tilting the wheels over to the left giving a larger
contact patch whilst cornering. ie. the inside wheel tilts and goes into positive
camber(almost parallel to the outside wheel), which in turn contributes to the overall
testing have shown that the inside, mid, and outside tyre tread temperatures are all
within 2 of each other. With regular fixed-camber steering, the inside of the tyre was
the table for double-wishbone variants of their system too. On the RSX testbed the
camber plates are attached together by linear guides which permits them to move
freely. The top connecting rods are mechanically connected to the steering rack. The
degree of camber applied with steering is adjustable by varying the distance of the
rods from the pivot point. ie: when the rods are mounted closer to pivot point you get
more camber with less steering input. On track, this system has shaved 3 seconds off
the development vehicle's lap times in race conditions. Whether this sytem will trickle
down into consumer level cars is debatable. It's doubtful that a manufacturer would
add this as standard but the racing and aftermarket scenes will undoubtedly welcome
this development with open arms. 3 seconds off your lap time for a change of
suspension components? Why wouldn't you? The images below show a camber plate
Strut Braces
If you're serious about your car's handling performance, you will first be looking at
lowering the suspension. In most cases, unless you're a complete petrolhead, this will
be more than adequate. However, if you are a keen driver, you will be able to get far
better handling out of your car by fitting a couple of other accessories to it. The first
thing you should look at is a strut brace. When you corner, the whole car's chassis is
twisting slightly. In the front (and perhaps at the back, but not so often) the
suspension pillars will be moving relative to each other because there's no direct
physical link between them. They are connected via the car body, which can flex
depending on its stiffness. A strut brace bolts across the top of the engine to the tops
of the two suspension posts and makes that direct physical contact. The result is that
the whole front suspension setup becomes a lot more rigid and there will be virtually
no movement relative to each side. In effect, you're adding the fourth side to the open
No, these aren't the things that are bolted inside the car in case you turn it over -
those are rollover cages. Anti-roll bars do precisely what their name implies - they
combat the roll of a car on it's suspension as it corners. They're also known as sway-
bars or anti-sway-bars. Almost all cars have them fitted as standard, and if you're a
boy-racer, all have scope for improvement. From the factory they are biased towards
ride comfort. Stiffer aftermarket items will increase the road-holding but you'll get
reduced comfort because of it. It's a catch-22 situation. Fiddling with your roll
stiffness distribution can make a car uncomfortable to ride in and extremely hard to
The anti-roll bar is usually connected to the front, lower edge of the bottom
suspension joint. It passes through two pivot points under the chassis, usually on the
subframe and is attached to the same point on the opposite suspension setup.
Effectively, it joins the bottom of the suspension parts together. When you head into a
corner, the car begins to roll out of the corner. For example, if you're cornering to the
left, the car body rolls to the right. In doing this, it's compressing the suspension on
the right hand side. With a good anti-roll bar, as the lower part of the suspension
moves upward relative to the car chassis, it transfers some of that movement to the
same component on the other side. In effect, it tries to lift the left suspension
component by the same amount. Because this isn't physically possible, the left
suspension effectively becomes a fixed point and the anti-roll bar twists along its
length because the other end is effectively anchored in place. It's this twisting that
If you're loaded, you can buy cars with active anti-roll technology now. These sense
the roll of the car into a corner and deflate the relevant suspension leg accordingly by
pumping fluid in and out of the shock absorber. It's a high-tech, super expensive
version of the good old mechanical anti-roll bar. You can buy anti-roll bars as an
aftermarket add-on. They're relatively easy to fit because most cars have anti-roll
bars already. Take the old one off and fit the new one. In the case of rear suspension,
the fittings will probably already be there even if the anti-roll bar isn't.
Typical anti-roll bar (swaybar) kits include the uprated bar, a set of new mounting
clamps with polyurethane bushes, rose joints for the ends which connect to the
suspension components, and all the bolts etc that will be needed.
Note: with the advent of digital suspension systems, anti-roll bars are starting to be
Some sportier vehicles have the capability to stiffen up the suspension for more
aggressive handling by altering how the anti-roll bar behaves. The system itself isn't
especially complex. Instead of simple rubber or urethane bushes to clamp the anti-roll
bar to the frame of the car, these systems use a motor-driven or electromagnetically
clamped bush instead. When the driver decides they want 'sport' mode, the car can
increase the friction in the mounting bushes by clamping them more tightly around the
anti-roll bar. This better resists the anti-roll bar's ability to twist across the width of
the vehicle, which in turn provides more resistance at the ends where it joins the
suspension components. The end result is that the suspension components have to
take on a lot more load to deflect by the same amount. Or conversely, under the same
Generally speaking, this section will be more relevant to you if you ride a motorbike,
but you can get high-end spring / shock combos for cars that have all these features
on them. The thing to realise is that if you're going to start messing with all these
adjustments, for God's sake take a digital photo of the unit first, or somehow mark
where it all started out. It's a slippery slope and you can very quickly bugger up the
ride quality of your vehicle. If you don't know what the "stock" setting was, you'll
Compression damping.
This is the damping that a shock absorber provides as it's being compressed, ie. as
you hit a bump in the road. It's the resistance of the unit to alter from its steady state
to its compressed state. Imagine you're riding along and you hit a bump. If there is too
little compression damping, the wheel will not meet enough resistance as the
suspension compresses. Not enough energy is dissipated by the time you reach the
crest of the bump and because the wheel and other unsprung components have their
own mass, the wheel will continue to move upwards. This unweights or unloads the
tyre and in extreme cases, it can lose contact with the road. Either way, you briefly
The opposite is true if compression damping is too heavy. As the wheel encounters
the bump in the road, the resistance to moving is high and so at the crest of the
bump, the remaining energy from the upward motion through the shock absorber is
transferred into the frame of the bike or the chassis of the car, lifting it up.
Rebound damping.
Go on - have a guess at what this is. Well in case you're not following along, this is
the damping that a shock absorber provides as it returns from its compressed state to
its steady state, ie. after you've crested the bump in the road. Too light, and the
feeling of control in your vehicle is minimised because the wheel will move very
quickly. The feeling is the soft, plush ride you find in a lot of American cars. Or mushy
as we like to call it. Too heavy, and the shock absorber can't return quickly enough.
As the contour of the road drops away after the bump, the wheel has a hard time
"catching up". This can result in reduced traction, and a downward shift in the height
of the vehicle. If that happens, you can overload the tyre when the weight of the
Damping controllers.
High-end kit has controls on the shock absorber for both compression and rebound
damping. Typically the rebound damping will be a screwdriver slot at the top of the
shock absorber, and compression damping will be a knob either on the side or on the
remote reservoir. Ultra-high-end kit has separate controls for high- and low-speed
damping. ie. you can make the shock absorber behave differently over small bumps
(low speed compression and rebound) than it does over large bumps (high speed
compression and rebound). Of course you could buy yourself a nice big TV, a DVD
player, dark curtains, a new couch and a year's supply of popcorn for the same cost
Spring preload.
Some motorbike suspension units, as well as some found on cars, give you the ability
to alter the spring preload or pre-tension. This means that you're artificially
compressing the spring a little which will alter the vehicle's static sag - the amount of
suspension travel the vehicle consumes all by itself. For example, if you ride a
motorbike on your own, the preload might work on the factory setup. But if you put a
passenger on the back, the tendency is for the bike to sag because there's now more
sprung weight. Increasing the preload on the spring plate will help compensate for
this.
Simply put, sprung weight is everything from the springs up, and unsprung weight is
everything from the springs down. Wheels, shock absorbers, springs, knuckle joints
and tyres contribute to the unsprung weight. The car, engine, fluids, you, your
passenger, the kids, the bags of candy and the portable Playstation all contribute to
the sprung weight. Reducing unsprung weight is the key to increasing performance of
the car. If you can make the wheels, tyres and swingarms lighter, then the suspension
will spend more time compensating for bumps in the road, and less time
The greater the unsprung weight, the greater the inertia of the suspension, which will
As an added benefit, putting lighter wheels on the car can increase your engine's
apparent power. Why? Well the engine has to turn the gearbox and driveshafts, and at
the end of that, the wheels and tyres. Heavier wheels and tyres require more torque to
get turning, which saps engine power. Lighter wheels and tyres allow more of the
engine's torque to go into getting you going than spinning the wheels. That's why
sports cars have carbon fibre driveshafts and ultra light alloy wheels.
These are the things to go for when you upgrade your springs. In actual fact, it's
difficult not to get progressive springs when you upgrade - most of the aftermarket
manufacturers make them like this. Most factory-fit car springs are normally wound.
That is to say that their coil pitch stays the same all the way up the spring. If you get
progressively wound springs, the coil pitch gets tighter the closer to the top of the
spring you get. This has the effect of giving the spring increasing resistance, the more
it is compressed.
where D is the wire diameter, G an elastic material property, N the number of coils in
So increasing the number of coils decreases the stiffness of the spring. Thus, a
progressive spring is progressive because the two parts are compressed equally until
the tightly wound part locks up, effectively shortening the spring and reducing its
compliance.
So for normal driving, you'll be using mostly the upper 3 or 4 'tight' winds to soak up
the average bumps and potholes. When you get into harder driving, like cornering at
speed for example, because the springs are being compressed more, they resist
more. The effect is to reduce the suspension travel at the top end resulting in less
body roll, and better road-holding. Invariably, the fact that the springs are
progressively wound is what accounts for the lowering factor. The springs aren't made
shorter - they're just wound differently. Of course the material that aftermarket springs
are made of is usually a higher grade than factory spec simply because it's going to
Note:Make sure you get powder-coated springs! This means they've been treated with
a good anti-corrosion system and then covered in powdered paint. The whole lot is
then baked to make the paint seal and stick and bring out it's polyurethane elastic
properties. It's the best type. If you just get normally painted springs, the paint will
start to flake on the first bump, and surface rust will appear within days of the first
sign of dampness. Not good. Besides - powder coated springs look cool too!
Suspension calculations
I know a fair bit about suspension but when it comes to empirical calculations, not so
much. Because I've been asked this question a great many times, I decided to provide
a link to for those who are interested, to the Suspension Calculator project which aims
at helping people that are building race cars perform suspension related calculations.
The calculations vary from motion ratios, to spring stiffness, to wheel loads.
Remember way back at the top of the page I mentioned that some dampers allowed
you to change the damping rate by altering the size of the constriction hole? That's all
very well and good but you have to stop your car, get out and twiddle a knob or screw
on the top or side of the strut each time you want to make a change. In 2005 the
The premise is really simple. Four servo motors (the four smaller boxes in the picture
here), one for each strut, each one designed to replace the manual screw adjuster. A
control unit mounts inside the car and allows you to change the damping force of the
shocks front and rear without leaving the drivers seat. The way it works is dead
simple. When you first install the system and power it up, all the servos spin
clockwise for a few seconds. This ensures the adjusters are screwed all the way in on
all four struts. From that point, you can dial in any number from 0 to 20 on the control
unit. When you do, the servo motors spin a certain amount - the same as you getting
out of the car and spinning the adjuster with your finely calibrated fingers. The units
currently have three memory settings so you can store motorway, city and track-day
Installing the current-generation EDFCs is pretty simple - about the most difficult thing
you'll face is running the wires from each servo back to the control unit inside the car.
There's a few different companies selling EDFCs right now. This link will take you to a
Torsion bars
Torsion bars (or torsion rods) deserve their own section because they are a type of
spring which can be used in place of coil- or leaf-springs. It's one of the topics I get
the most e-mail on, so instead of continually sending the same answer, I thought I'd
A torsion bar is a solid bar of steel which is connected to the car chassis at one end,
and free to move at the other end. They can be mounted across the car (transverse
like the rear suspension on the Peugeot 205 and Renault 16) or along the car
(longitudinal, like the front suspension on the Morris Minor) - one for each side of the
twisting. To over-simplify, stick your arm out straight and get someone to twist your
wrist. Presuming that your mate doesn't snap your wrist, at a certain point, resistance
in your arm (and pain) will cause you to twist your wrist back the other way. That is
Torsion bars are normally locked to the chassis and the suspension parts with splined
ends. This allows them to be removed, twisted round a few splines and re-inserted,
which can be used to raise or lower a car, or to compensate for the natural 'sag' of a
suspension system over time. They can be connected to just about any type of
The rendering to the right shows an example longitudinal torsion bar. The small lever
at the far end of the torsion bar would be attached solidly to the frame to provide the
fixed end. The torsion bar itself fits into that lever and the suspension arm at the front
through splined holes. As the suspension at the front moves upwards, the bar twists
along its length providing the springing motion. I've left the shock absorber assembly
Because of the mechanical nature of suspension, all sorts of mods are available.
Lifting suspension is a popular mod used to try to increase ground clearance. This is
often a source of misunderstanding. A lift kit doesn't really give you more ground
clearance. What it does is increase the height between the axle and the underside of
the body. Whilst this does give more ground clearance for the bodywork, the lowest
point on the vehicle is still the axles - or on a 4-wheel-drive, the bottom of the transfer
case. For this reason, you'll often see trucks and SUVs with lift kits and larger wheels
and tyres. The lift kit boosts the clearance under the bodywork whilst the larger
wheels and tyres result in the axles being lifted higher off the ground. Technically of
course, in a 4-wheel-drive, you don't really need a lift kit - bigger wheels and tyres
would do it. BUT lift kits typically end up being required because adding on the larger
wheels and tyres can often mean they will no longer fit in the wheel arches. The lift kit
Lift kits come in literally hundreds of shapes and sizes, all dependent on the final
application as well as the design of the vehicle the kit is going to be used on. For
street cars, typically with independent suspension, the kit will basically be longer
struts, longer springs and remounted shocks. For off-roaders with beam axles and
transfer cases, the suspension system is typically leaf-spring, so the kit will be a set
of blocks that fit between the beam axle and the bottom of the leaf spring.
Alternatively, some kits have blocks which lower the spring mounts themselves so that
the spring-to-axle joint isn't changed. The images here show examples of a typical
leaf-spring beam-axle suspension system along with two examples of how it can be
raised.
Fitting a lift kit is pretty basic engineering but it's really difficult to do without access
to a hydraulic lift, so its best to either get a garage to do it, or to find a mechanic
friend who has a decent sized hydraulic lift. Trying to mess with the suspension whilst
Speaking of trouble...
Lifting a vehicle is going to affect its handling. Most obviously, you're going to add
height to the centre of gravity, which in turn is going to make the vehicle more prone
to roll in corners. At the extreme, an already roll-happy SUV or truck will become even
Similarly, just because you've lifted your truck, don't think you can instantly go off-
road with it like a pro. If you're doing it for off-road functionality rather than just pose
value, spend the extra cash and get a one-day off-road course. You'll have a blast
and it will make you infinitely safer when you do take your vehicle off the beaten
track.
It's also worth pointing out that putting larger wheels on simply to increase ground
clearance can come with all its own problems including the legality of it, changes to
the steering and suspension geometry and steering load. It's also a possibility on
some types of 4WD vehicle that larger tyres and steering load can result in tearing the
steering box off the chassis. Other things which tend to fail quicker when this is done
are items like pitman arms, track rods, knuckle and ball joints - all of these get
stressed beyond their normal design limits when you stuff massive tyres and wheels
on a truck.
One other point to consider when doing this: if your speedometer is based on a
mechanical link to the gearbox, your speedo will become so innacurate that it will
Just be warned.
Lowering Kits
The opposite of lift kits - lowering kits. These are designed to (wait for it....) lower
your car. Also at the other end of the scale - lowering kits are almost exclusively used
on cars, whereas lift kits are almost exclusively used on trucks and SUVs. (Having
said that, the number of pimped-out low-rider trucks on the road does seem to be
increasing by the day.) Lowering your car will similarly affect the handling, just like a
lift kit. But again it's the opposite end of the spectrum - a lowered car will typically
handle much better than factory suspension, and it will lower the centre of gravity,
making it less likely to tip or roll in an accident. I'm a European, and as far as I'm
concerned, if you're going for pose value, lowering your car is the quickest way to do
it, hotly pursued by larger wheels and tyres to make the car appear even more
ground-hugging.
Lowering kits typically consist of shorter, stiffer springs and gas shocks - often
nitrogen-filled. Don't do it by halves. Get a matched kit from someone like Spax or
Jamex. Matched kits have springs and shocks designed to work together. If you get
shorter springs, your factory shocks will be under a lot of stress because they'll be
operating a much shorter throw than they were designed for, and ultimately, they'll
normally fail much quicker. Similarly, don't get shorter shocks and cut the springs.
Cutting the springs is the epitome of A Really Bad Idea. You're weakening the spring's
structural integrity and the chances are that when you've finished a ham-fisted
attempt at hacking off all 4 springs with a grinder, the result will be 4 springs all
There's something else worth mentioning here - do not try to disassemble a shock
absorber. Ever. Those things are like little bombs, and unless you have all the right
tools, you could easily loose a hand as the shock explodes into its component parts
when you get that last twist off the collar. Please - just don't. I know your mate Guido
might have told you it's a "sure fire" way to shorten the shock, but he's lying.
Matched lowering kits typically assume you're going for sportier handling, so a lot of
times, you'll get a whole slew of new adjustments which you never had before. Spring
everything as it is to start with. Right out of the box they're normally set up pretty
well.
What if I get shorter springs to lower the car? Will I need to adjust my caster and
Generally the answer would be no for caster/camber angles. Most cars have a
good 10-13cm (4-5 inches) movement in their suspension from the factory. As
most of the lowering springs you can buy only lower by 2-7cm (1-3 inches), your
suspension should still be well within it's designed operating limits. Therefore,
caster and camber angles shouldn't need looking at. As for the shocks, see
What if I get shorter springs to lower the car? Will my tyres rub on my arches?
They shouldn't unless you start messing about with wheel and tyre sizes. Again,
given that most suspension kits lower within the car's normal operating limits,
there shouldn't be a problem. If there was, then every time you went over a big
hump with standard suspension, the tyres would rub. Rubbing against the arches
will almost certainly only occur if you lower the car and widen the wheels. See
Alignment
This is the general term used to gloss over the next three points:
Caster
This is the forward (negative) or backwards (positive) tilt of the spindle steering axis.
positive. Look at a bicycle - the front forks have a quite obvious rearward tilt to the
handlebars, and so are giving positive caster. The whole point of it is to give the car
(or bike) a noticeable centre point of the steering - a point where it's obvious the car
Camber
Camber is the tilt of the top of a wheel inwards or outwards (negative or positive).
Proper camber (along with toe and caster) make sure that the tyre tread surface is as
flat as possible on the road surface. If your camber is out, you'll get tyre wear. Too
much negative camber (wheels tilt inwards) causes tread and tyre wear on the inside
edge of the tyre. Consequently, too much positive camber causes wear on the outside
edge.
Negative camber is what counteracts the tendency of the inside wheel during a turn to
lean out from the centre of the vehicle. 0 or Negative camber is almost always
The technical reason for this is because when the tyres on the inside of the turn have
negative camber, they will tend to go toward 0 camber, using the contact patch more
efficiently during the turn. If the tyres had positive camber, during a turn, the inside
wheels would tend to even more positive camber, compromising the efficiency of the
contact patch because the tyre would effectively only be riding on its outer edge.
'Toe' is the term given to the left-right alignment of the front wheels relative to each
other. Toe-in is where the front edge of the wheels are closer together than the rear,
and toe-out is the opposite. Toe-in counteracts the tendency for the wheels to toe-out
under power, like hard acceleration or at motorway speeds (where toe-in disappears).
Toe-out counteracts the tendency for the front wheels to toe-in when turning at
motorway speeds. It's all a bit bizarre and contradictory, but it does make a
difference. A typical symptom of too much toe-in will be excessive wear and
feathering on the outer edges of the tyre tread section. Similarly, too much toe-out will
cause the same feathering wear patterns on the inner edges of the tread pattern.
A reader of my site emailed me this which is a nice description of toe-in and toe-out.
As a front-wheel-drive car pulls itself forwards, the wheels will tend to pivot arount the
king-pins, and thus towards the center of the car. To ensure they end up straight
A rear-wheel-drive car pushes itself forward, and the front wheels are rotated by
friction... thus they will tend to want to trail the king-pins, and therefor will want to
splay apart. To ensure that they run parallel when rolling, they should be given some
The perfect 4WD car will have neutral pressure on the front wheels, so have neither
toe-in or toe-out... however very few companies make the perfect 4WD, so some will