WP And Antenna

Telecommunication
Question#01: what is the relation between frequency
and wavelength?
Answer:
wavelength and frequency of light are closely related.
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.
Because all the light waves move through a vacuum at
the same speed, number of wave crest passing by a
given point in one second (which is called frequency)
depends upon the wavelength. Frequency will be higher
for shorter wavelength and vice versa. The relation
between the frequency and wavelength is represented
with the help of following equation.
v=f
where v=c is the speed of light, f is the frequency and
is wavelength.
As v is constant so:
f=1/
which indicates inverse relation between them.
Question# 02:What is the range of different ratio
frequencies?
Answer:

Question#03: What is SMA?

Answer:
SMA Stands for subMiniature Version A.SMA are
semi-prescision coaxial RF connector developed in
1960s as a minimal connector interface for the coaxial
cable with the screw type coupling mechanism. The
connector has a 50 ohm impedence. SMA is designed
for use from DC to 18 GHz, but is most commonly used
for hand-held radio and mobile telephone antenna, and
more recently with WiFi antenna systems and USB
Software Defined Radio dongles.
Question#04: What is front to back Ratio?
Answer:
In telecommunication, the front to back ratio is
important.
It is used to calculate:
1. The ratio of power gain between front and rear of
directional antenna.
2. The ratio of signal strength transmitted in the
forward direction to the ratio transmitted in the
backward direction. For the receiving antennas, the
ratio of received signal strength when antenna is
rotated 180 degree.
It is measured in dB.
In point-to-point microwave antenna, a high performace
antenna usually has a higher front to back ratio than
other antennas. For example, an unshrouded 38 GHz
microwave dish may have a front to back ratio of 64 dB,
while the same size reflector equipped with a shroud
would have a f-t-b ratio of 70 dB. Other factors such as
material and precision also effect the f-t-b ratio.
Question#05: What is front-to-back ratio of ideal
antennas?
Answer:
The front to back ratio of ideal antenna is 1.

Question#06: What is decibel?

Answer:
The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to
express the ratio of two values of a physical quantity.
In the International System of Quantities, the decibel is
defined as a unit of measurement for quantities of type
level or level difference, which are defined as
the logarithm of the ratio of power- or field-type
quantities.
The definition of the decibel is based on the
measurement of power in telephony of the early 20th
century in the Bell System in the United States. One
decibel is one tenth of one bel, named in honor of
Alexander Graham Bell. However, the bel is seldom
used. Today, the decibel is used for a wide variety of
measurements in science and engineering, most
prominently in acoustics, electronics, and control theory.
In electronics, the gains of amplifiers, attenuation of
signals, and signal-to-noise ratios are often expressed in
decibels.
 One of these values is often a standard reference
value, in which case the decibel is used to express
the level of the other value relative to this reference.

The decibel symbol is often qualified with a suffix that

indicates the reference quantity that has been used or
some other property of the quantity being measured.
For example, dBm indicates a reference power of
one milliwatt, while dBV is referenced to 1 volt RMS.
Question#07: What is dBm?
Answer:

The decibel-milliwatts (dBm): an abbreviation for the

power ratio in decibels (dB) of the measured power
referenced to one milliwatt (mW).

It is used in radio, microwave and fiber-optical

networks as a convenient measure of
absolute power because of its capability to express
both very large and very small values in a short
form. Compare dBW, which is referenced to one
watt (1000 mW).

It is referenced to the watt, it is an absolute unit,

used when measuring absolute power. By
comparison, the decibel (dB) is a dimensionless
unit, used for quantifying the ratio between two
values, such as signal-to-noise ratio.
 In audio and telephony, dBm is typically referenced
relative to 600-ohm impedance, while in radio-
frequency work dBm is typically referenced relative
to 50-ohm impedance.

Question#08: What is dB?

Answer:

The decibel-microvolts (dB): electric field

strength relative to 1 microvolt and the decibel
(logarithmic) representation of voltage above or
below one microvolt across a load.
dB(V/m) electric field strength relative to
1 microvolt per meter. Often used to specify the
signal strength from a television broadcast at a
receiving site (the signal measured at the
antenna output will be in dBV).
Microvolts per meter (mV/m) a way of defining
a station's expected (or measured) field
strength at a receiving location.
Field strength can be measured by a device
specifically designed to measure the strength
of the passing wave. Potomac Industries
makes the model 4100, a device which
measures field strength.
Formulas to calculate approximate field
strength can also be used. dBu in reality is
another improper contraction - a shortened
version of dBV/m.
 dBV/m is commonly and usually written
nowadays as dBu, using the lowercase letter
'u'. It is the term used worldwide by engineers
and the FCC for measuring electric field
strength of AM, FM, and TV broadcast stations
at prescribed distances.
dBu is directly related to mV/m (mV/m = 1000
times V/m), and is the logarithmic
representation of mV/m.

Question#09: Why d of dB is small and B is

capital?
Answer:
As dB is a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio of
two values. d of dB is small because it is a prefix used
for fraction values and B of dB is a symbol of unit bel
named in honour of Alexander Graham Bell. So B is
capital due to scientist name and bel is seldom used.
Most of the units of measurement named after scientists
are used in capital.
Question#10: What are lobes?
Answer:
Lobes:
In a radio antenna's radiation pattern, there are two
types of lobe; the main lobe, or main beam is the
lobe containing the maximum power. This is the
lobe that exhibits the greatest field strength. The other
lobe is called side lobe, and usually represent unwanted
radiation in undesired directions.
Main lobe:
This is the lobe that exhibits the greatest field
strength. They are also called major lobe. The radiation
pattern of most antennas shows a pattern of "lobes" at
various angles, directions where the radiated signal
strength reaches a maximum, separated by "nulls",
angles at which the radiation falls to zero.
The beamwidth of the antenna is the width of the main
lobe, usually specified by the half power beam
width(HPBW), the angle encompassed between the
points on the side of the lobe where the power has fallen
to half (-3 dB) of its maximum value.
Side lobe:
Side lobes are the lobes (local maxima) of the far
field radiation pattern that are not the main lobe, usually
represent unwanted radiation in undesired directions.
The side lobe in the opposite direction (180) from the
main lobe is called the back lobe. They are also called
minor lobes. In transmitting antennas, excessive side
lobe radiation wastes energy and may
cause interference to other equipment.
In receiving antennas, side lobes may pick up
interfering signals, and increase the noise level in the
receiver. The power density in the side lobes is generally
much less than that in the main beam. It is generally
desirable to minimize the side lobe level (SLL), which is
measured in decibels.
The main lobe and side lobes occur for both conditions
of transmit, and for receive. The concepts of main and
side lobes, radiation pattern, aperture shapes, and
aperture weighting, apply to optics (another branch of
electromagnetics) and in acoustics fields such
as loudspeaker and sonar design, as well as antenna
design.
Question#11: What is beamWidth?
Answer:
In telecommunication, the term beamwidth means in a
radio antenna pattern, the half power beamwidth is the
angle between the half power (-3dB) points of the main
lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated
power of the main lobe.
Beamwidth in E-Plane:
This is the plane containing the electric field vector and
the direction of maximum radiation. The electric field or
E-Plane determines the polarization or orientation of
the radio wave. For a vertically polarized antenna, the E
plane usually coincides with the vertical/elevation plane.
For a horizontally polarized antenna, the E plane usually
coincides with the horizontal/azimuth plane. E-plane and
H-plane should be 90 degrees apart.
Beamwidth in H-Plane:
This is the plane containing the magnetic field vector
and the direction of maximum radiation. The
magnetizing field or H-Plane lies at a right angle to the
E plane. For a vertically polarized antenna, the H
plane usually coincides with the horizontal/azimuth
plane. For a horizontally polarized antenna, the H plane
usually coincides with the vertical/elevation plane.
Question#12: What is bandwidth?
Answer:
Bandwidth means a range of frequencies with in a given
band, in particular that used for transmitting a signal.
Question#13: What is Gain?
Answer:
A relative measure of an antennas ability to direct or
concentrate radio frequency energy in a particular
direction or pattern. The measurement is typically
measured in dBi (Decibels relative to an isotropic
radiator) or in dBd (Decibels relative to a dipole
radiator).
Question#14: What is polarization?
Answer:
Polarization is a parameter applying to some transverse
waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of
the oscillation.
Electromagnetic waves such as light exhibit polarization,
as do many other types of waves such as gravitational
waves and transverse sound waves in solids.
Polarization is an important parameter in areas of
science dealing with transverse wave propagation, such
as optics, seismology, radio, and microwaves.
Especially impacted are technologies such as lasers,
wireless and optical fibre telecommunications,
and radar.
Question#15: What are the types of polarization?
Answer:
According to the direction of oscillation of electric and
magnetic field in an Electromagnetic wave, polarization
has two types:
Linear polarization
Circular polarization
Elliptical polarization
Question #16: What is Linear Polarization?
Answer:
Linear polarization or plane:
polarization of electromagnetic radiation is a
confinement of the electric field vector or magnetic
field vector to a given plane along the direction of
propagation. If the direction of Electric field remains
fixed as the wave moves forward the light is plane
polarized. As shown in the figure below,
Question #16 :What is circular polarization?
Answer:
Circular polarization of an electromagnetic wave is
a polarization in which the electric field of the passing
wave does not change strength but only changes
direction in a rotary manner.

Question#17: What is Elliptical polarization?

Answer:
Generally Elliptical polarization is partly linear and partly
circular. Elliptical polarization of an electromagnetic
wave is a polarization in which the electric field of the
passing wave not only changes strength but also
changes direction in an elliptical manner.

Question #18: What are Seismic waves?

Answer:
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the
sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
They are the energy that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.
Question #19: What are the types of Seismic waves?
Answer:
There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and
they all move in different ways. The two main types of
waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves
can travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface
waves can only move along the surface of the planet like
ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as
both body and surface waves.
Question #20: Types of body waves:
Answer:
There are two type of Body waves:
Primary waves
Secondary waves
Question #21: What are primary waves?
Answer:
compressional Waves
longitudinal waves
first to arrive at seismic stations
travel at 1.5-8 km/sec in the Earth's crust
shake the ground in the direction they are
propagating
travel through the Earth's core

Question #22: What are secondary waves?

Answer:
shear waves
Second to arrive at seismic stations
1.7 times slower than P waves
 shake the ground perpendicular to the direction in
which they are
propagating
do not travel through liquid (i.e. water, molten rock,
the Earth's outer core)

Question #23: What are the seismic zones of

Pakistan?
Answer:
Seismic zones of Pakistan are the Eurasian
Plate, Arabian Plate and Indian Plate which is part
of Indo-Australian Plate.

Question#24: All Antennas Specifications:

Names Specifications
1) Folded Dipole S11: >10dB
Antenna: Bandwidth: 600+200MHz,
600-200MHz
Gain: 2dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 70
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 180
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 0dB
Connector: SMA

2) Broadside Antenna: S11: >10dB

 Bandwidth: 800+50MHz, 800-
50MHz
Gain: 3dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 60
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 120
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 0dB
Connector: SMA

3) Dipole 3 /2 Antenna: S11: >10dB

Bandwidth: 600+300MHz,
600-300MHz
Gain: 2dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 70
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 180
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 0dB
Connector: SMA

4) Rhombus Antenna: S11: >10dB

Bandwidth: 800+100MHz,
800-100MHz
Gain: 2dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 60
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 100
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 6dB
Connector: SMA
5) Square Loop Antenna: S11: >10dB
Bandwidth: 600+50MHz, 600-
50MHz
Gain: 2dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 80
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 120
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 0dB
Connector: SMA

6) Yagi 3el Antenna: S11: >10dB

Bandwidth: 700+100MHz,
700-100MHz
Gain: 4dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 60
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 80
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: >6dB
Connector: SMA

7) Dipole /2 Antenna: S11: >10dB

Bandwidth: 600+300MHz,
600-300MHz
Gain: 2dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 70
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 180
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 0dB
Connector: SMA
8) Ground Plane with S11: >10dB
reflector and director Bandwidth: 600+200MHz,
Antenna: 600-200MHz
Gain: 3dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 70
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 180
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 4dB
Connector: SMA

9) Dipole /4 Antenna: S11: >10dB

Bandwidth: 600+300MHz,
600-300MHz
Gain: 2dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 70
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 180
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 0dB
Connector: SMA

10) Endfire Antenna: S11: >10dB

Bandwidth: 800+50MHz, 800-
50MHz
Gain: 3dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 60
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 120
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: 0dB
 Connector: SMA

11) Yagi 4el Antenna: S11: >10dB

Bandwidth: 700+50MHz, 700-
50MHz
Gain: 5dBi
Beamwidth: E plane 60
degree
Beamwidth: H plane 80
degree
Polarisation: Linear
Front to Back Ratio: >6dB
Connector: SMA

Review on Radio Waves:

Radio frequency waves or signals are used to transfer
all type of information. About 100 years ago, wireless
transmission was first started, firstly in radio
transmission then in television broadcasting, cellular
phone, remote control and now a days data is being
transmitted through Wi-Fi, 3G and 4G.
What is actually RF? Radio Frequency waves is the
combination of electric and magnetic waves which is
simply called Electromagnetic Waves. Electric and
Magnetic waves are at right angle to each other and to
the medium of propagation. As they have distinct
orientation, they are set to be polarized both in the
vertical and horizontal direction.
As they radiate through the medium, they can be
referred to as electromagnetic radiations, but they are
not as harmful as a nuclear radiation because they lack
the property of ionization of atoms of atmosphere.
Omni Antenna or non-directional Antennas transfer
signal in all the directions. Whereas directional Antennas
can transmit signal in the specified direction to avoide
the signal transmission in undesired areas.
Frequency and Wavelength:
Number of waves passing a complete cycle is called
frequency. And the distance travel along the complete
cycle is called wavelength. Inverse relation is present
between frequency and wavelength given by an
equation.
f=1/
Wavelength and Size of antenna:
Wavelength is important parameter in designing the size
and shape of Antenna. Initially the size of Antenna was
to be equal to the wavelength of the signal in case of AM
transmission which becomes impractical in lower
frequencies because 345m wavelength signal required
1,113 feet antenna which is impractical. Later on, in AM
antenna size is equal to quarter of the wavelength. In
case of higher frequency, wavelength is small so easy to
design the components of antenna.
Mediums:
RF can be transmitted through air, walls and space or
vacuum but it cant through dense medium such as
concrete, mud and water.
Ground Waves:
AM Broadcasting used Ground Waves. They follow the
curvature of the earth to transmit the low to 300MHz
frequency range. AM transmitting Tower near water
provide good conductive ground because of moisture.
As low frequency is transmitted through the earths
curvature so low resistance is required in path of waves
to the ground.
RF and Atmosphere:
The transmitting and receiving antenna should be
aligned for better transmition. The size of receiver
should be matched the wavelength of the signal for
better received signal.
Any hurdle in the path can
reduced the strength of the signal (such as tree,
concrete).
absorb the signal (such as rain absorb the high
frequency signal because of their short
wavelength).
Reflect the signal (such as tall buildings).
Change the polarity of the signal so that receiver
polarity does not match it and signal distortion
occurs.
 Path difference between signals at the receiving
antenna which can cause error in the signal.