REFRAMING AN ICONIC IDEAOLOGY:

THE RHEOTRICAL POWER BEHIND REMBRANDTS HEAD OF CHIRST PORTRAITS

Alex Kollar
COMM 312: Communication Criticism
December 15, 2016
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Abstract

Artistic representations of Jesus Christ have generated controversy for centuries,

triggering numerous debates over how to properly portray Christ. Counter to the dominant

trend of representing Jesus in a highly stylized, unrealistic, European-featured manner,

Rembrandt van Rijns Head of Christ emphasizes Christs authentic Jewish heritage. In this

essay, I consider Rembrandts presentation of Christs holiness through highlighting His inner

humanity. Using ideological criticism, I will present an in-depth analysis of the traditional

representations of Christ during the 1600s (Rembrandts immediate audience and social context)

as well as provide explanation of the rhetorical elements within Rembrandts artistic process and

final productions of his paintings that reveal a counterculture representation of Christ.

For centuries, Christs ethnicity has been the topic of heated debates, and is still disputed

within the church, art community, and political circles around the world. While countless

interpretations exist around the world, there is no definitive physical description of Christ

recorded anywhere in the Bible. Moreover, there are minimal references to His appearance at all,

only the vague words found in Isaiah 53: 2 stating, He had no beauty or majesty to attract us to

Him, nothing in his appearance that we should desire Him,1 the genealogy found in Matthew 1,

and geographical locations mentioned throughout the Gospels offer basis for theorizing Jesus

appearance. Consequently, the lack of any solid description of Christs physical characteristics

has allowed artists, poets, and scholars alike to freely and openly interpret His appearance.

Around 1665, Rembrandt van Rijn completed a series of seven paintings that cast a

realistic vision of what he believed Jesus could have actually looked like shown below in figure

1. They are known as the Heads of Christ. These paintings not only present a tranquil Christ,

they reveal a distinctive shift in the artists approach to religious imagery. George S. Keyes

describes this as a shift toward a quieter, more meditative frame of mind.2 Keyes explains that

Rembrandts entire career was a journey to explore the essential nature of selfwhat it means

to exist and the degree to which outward appearance can be perceived as a tangible measure of

inner being.3 This concept of inner being stands as the driving force of Rembrandts artistic

1. Isa. 53:2.

2. George S. Keyes, Perception and Belief: The Image of Christ and the Meditative Turn in
Rembrandts Religious Art, in Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, ed. Lloyd DeWitt
(Philadelphia: Yale University Press, 2011), 3.

3. Idib.

journey to reveal a true, honest image of Christs character. I argue that ideological criticism

reveals Rembrandts controversial portrayal of a Jewish Jesus in the Head of Christ to be more

than an artists moment of radical creativity, but acts as a powerful shift towards resisting the

hegemonic ideology of a European-featured Christ.

(Fig. 1.)

Source: Rembrandt Harmensz, van Rijn and Studio, Head of Christ. 1656, Oil on oak panel,
141/16 x 125/16 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art, John G Johnson Collection. From:
Rembrandt and the Faces of Jesus. Philadelphia: Lloyd DeWitt. Plate 2.2.

The Power of Ideologies

Nicholas Aiden states that within the Bible is an embedded metaphor of vital

significance for the scriptures as a whole, that of man made in the image of God and of Jesus in

particular as the image of the invisible God.4 The image of God taking on the form of His own

creation is a concept that Aiden claims we can hardly grasp unless we have some fairly

adequate notion of how art sub serves the human search for meaning and truth.5 I consider

Aidens argument, that art exists as a vehicle through which we explore our reality and the

wonders of the unknown, as a basis to launch into an ideological critique of such art, namely,

Rembrandts Head of Christ. Through ideological criticism, I will analyze the elements of

Rembrandts technical creation of this piece, and show how each step intentionally reveals the

Jewish narrative of Christ the artist presents.

Victoria Gallagher and Kenneth Zagacki claim, By examining these visual works of art

from a rhetorical perspective, we are also able to demonstrate how visual images can work both

to articulate and to shape public knowledge.6 Through examining this shaping of a populations

worldview, we can begin to understand the reason as to why so many icons of the past, and those

still prevalent within modern culture, portray a white Christ.

Author Anton Wessels states the fact that Jesus was born Jewish is a simple and self-

evident statement,7 that is backed by historical records and evidence. He goes even further to

4. Nicholas Aiden, The Art of God Incarnate: Theology and Symbol from Genesis to the
Twentieth Century, (New York: Paulist Press, 1980), 5.
5. Idib.
6. Victoria Gallagher and Kenneth S. Zagacki, Visibility and Rhetoric: The Power of Visual
Images in Norman Rockwells Depictions of Civil Rights. Quarterly Journal of Speech 91, (no.
2, 2005) : 178.

say that many Christians have appropriated the figure of Jesus as though they were acquainted

with everything there is to know about Him.8 Wessels arguments reveal a vital piece of the

rhetorical analysis puzzle that I am constructing concerning Rembrandts work. Wessels

continues by claiming that the appropriation of the Jewish Jesus is fueled by an underlining

desire to capture the face of a faceless God that is then interpreted through Western Christian

filters. Thus, Wessels reveals that to explain the ethnic butting-of-heads we are faced with, we

must first look at and understand the hidden ideologies of these images.

I dare say there cannot be an in-depth analysis of an art piece without focusing on the

visual, rhetorical elements that reveal said ideologies. Dr. Susanna Kelly Engbers claims, that

rhetoric and design may be understood and embraced enthusiastically as sister arts, and are

by their very natures interdisciplinary.9 Diving deeper into the rhetoric of design calls for

embracing the subjectivity of the designer. While it seems a logical approach to rhetorical

analysis is an objective one, Peter A. Anderson argues that though this approach does provide

valuable knowledge and insight, its findings are primarily recapitulation, synopsis, and

description10 resulting in a detached, alienated criticism.11 Anderson calls for a deeper look

into texts, claiming, once a critic exposes the covert or overt ideological underpinnings of a

7. Anton Wessels, Images of Jesus: How Jesus is Perceived and Portrayed in Non-European
Cultures. trans. John Vriend. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1990),
22.

8. Idib.

9. Susanna Kelly Engbers, Branded: The Sister Arts of Rhetoric and Design. Art, Design &
Communication in Higher Education 12, no. 2 (2013) : 157.
10. Peter A. Anderson, Beyond Criticism: The Activist Turn in the Ideological Debate.
Western Journal of Communication 57, no. 2 (1993) : 247.

11. Idib.

movement, a speaker, or a policy he/she already has entered the world of the activist,12 or in this

case, Rembrandt. As Edmin Blakc explains, Discourses contain tokens of their authors.

Discourses are, directly or in a transmuted form, the external signs of internal states,13 and

through an ideological exploration of Rembrandts discourse, as presented through his paintings,

I will uncover the underlining narrative of his portrayal of Jesus Christ.

A Push for Stillness Within a Post-Reformation Setting

Above all else, the representation of Christs face has proven most controversial

throughout the history of Christian art. Lloyd DeWitt states, the legality of religious art was a

core issue of the Protestant Reformation14 and sparked the reign of iconoclasm in the sixteenth

century, resulting in the destruction of hundreds of religious images in the Netherlands.

Rembrandts career began less than a century after the political unrest of the Reformation. In the

post-Reformation Dutch Republic, portraying Christ remained a fraught practice.15 The

Netherlandish icons that did exist during this time were heavily influenced by Byzantine art,

mainly, the original Mandylion known as The Holy Face of Laon; shown in figure 2. This piece

focuses on portraying Jesus supernatural being rather than functioning as an accurate or

realistic portrait. Jesus light skin, long, hazelnut hair, and smooth, symmetrical features create

a highly stylized face that reinforced its claim to be a miraculous image not made by human

12. Idib., 248.

13. Edwin Black, The Second Persona, The Quarterly Journal of Speech 56, no. 2 (1970) :
110.

14. Lloyd Dewitt, Testing Tradition Against Nature: Rembrandts Radical New Image of
Jesus, in Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, ed. Lloyd DeWitt (Philadelphia: Yale University
Press, 2011), 113.

15. Idib.

hands.16 The artist was clearly not concerned with the veracity of Jesus facial features or

revealing Christs humanity. Rather, like most traditional art at the time, the pieces depiction

revolves around Christs inhuman godliness and untainted perfection. While many Dutch artists

continued to create these Byzantine-inspired icons, Rembrandt began to construct a different

interpretation entirely.

(Fig. 2)

Source: Unknown Artist, The Holy Face of Loan.1249, Tempera on primed cedar panel, 17 3/8 x
14 in. Treasury, Loan Cathedral, France. From: Rembrandt and the Faces of Jesus.
Philadelphia: Lloyd DeWitt.

16. Idib.,121.

Many pieces of Byzantine art are embellished with layers of gold and bright colors, as

seen in the Mandylion, connecting the image of Christ with the idea of a higher authority and

power. This style reinforced the belief that Christ should always be held at a higher level than

humanity and avoiding distinguishable features or expression maintained such stoic

characteristics. That said, characterizing early Christian art as unemotional or unapproachable

disregards the immense historical impacts of such masterpieces. Art historian, Dr. Matthew

Milliner states, Image veneration developed in intensity in Byzantine history17 and, I argue,

carved a place in human history for future artists, like Rembrandt, to create new icons and

religious imagery. However, we must sill be aware of The "lesson" we see in this case study,

as Elizabeth Walker Mechling and Jay Mechling state, is an enhanced understanding of the

ways a particular metaphor and its "entailments" operate in the public culture,18 in this case, the

idea of subsequently creating a literal gold standard for icons during the mid 1600s. Unlike

images similar to the Mandylion, Rembrandts Head of Christ clearly does not meet such a

standard, but set out to reframe the focal point of icons from an almighty powerful figure, to a

raw depiction of humanity by evoking a calm stillness.

The Head of Christs dark palate creates a still, almost sober tone. Keyes describes, The

hushed atmosphere of [Rembrandts] work underscores a palpable sense of tranquility19 that

17. Matthew Milliner, Everything You Know About Byzantine Art is Wrong, Academia, (nd):
547, url: https://www.academia.edu/12082058/Everything_you_know_about_Byzantine_art_is_
wrong.

18. Elizabeth Walker Mechling and Jay Mechling, The Atom According to Disney. Quarterly
Journal of Speech 81, (1995) : 437.

19. George S. Keyes, Perception and Belief: The Image of Christ and the Meditative Turn in
Rembrandts Religious Art, in Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, ed. Lloyd DeWitt
(Philadelphia: Yale University Press, 2011), 4.

imprints itself onto Christ. The muted color tones allow the lighter features of the face to be the

focal point. Jesus long, wavy hair, dark, shaggy beard, soft, downward gaze, and gentle,

youthful appearance all tell a story of a very human, humble man. Researchers, Mark Tucker,

Lloyd DeWitt, and Ken Sutherland study the details of Christs face and reveal: By using soft,

fin strokes in the cheeks, the artist (or artists) did not seek to conceal his hand but rather aimed

toward a unity between with the character of his paint handling and that of the youthful, gentle,

empathetic figure he was creating through facial expression and pose.20 By focusing so intently

on Christs expression and abstaining form the use of highly embellishing elements, Linda Jones

Gibbs explains that style rather than imagery becomes a metaphor for the life of Christ - a

divine presence in a mortal realm.21 The pieces quiet stillness invites viewers into an intimate

look into the portrayed mans life, a Jewish mans narrative.

Ethnicity Central to Ones Self

An intrinsic part of being human is ones heritage. Family history, cultural practices, and

ethnic origin shape how a person experiences and interprets the world and, on a smaller scale,

visual art. The portrayal of Jesus in Rembrandts time, however, lacked an emphasis on ethnic

heritage. Rachel E. Dubrosfky presents the term whiteness, in referring to a set of largely

undefined characteristics and qualities, not limited to physical traits, as well as political

assumptions, considered normative.22 This concept can be adapted into this analysis and explain

20. Mark Tucker, Lloyd DeWitt, and Ken Sutherland, The Heads of Christ: A Technical
Survey, in Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, ed. Lloyd DeWitt (Philadelphia: Yale University
Press, 2011), 31.

21. Linda Jones Gibbs, Visual Narratives from the Life of Christ. Brigham Young University
Studies 33, no. 3 (1993) : 471.

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why many icons, like the Mandylion, while did not primarily focus on a particular ethnicity, did

display rather apparent European features. These elements reveal the Dutch hegemonic ideology

of the 1600s: a European-featured figure functions as both a preferred and a normalized state of

being.23

On his quest to reveal Christs inner being, Rembrandt challenged this common ideology

of a normalized Christ, believing that focusing on His ethnicity was essential to reveal His

inner being, and achieve a balance of godliness and humanness. DeWitt explains that he gave

a graphically human character to his Christ by referring to Jesuss earthly Jewish parentage, his

realistic and specific appearance.24 Rembrandt expands upon the narrative of God becoming

human by highlighting the fact that being fully human means having a family heritage and native

culture. Gallagher and Zagacki describe this visual representation as pictorial rhetoric the

evocation of humanity by moving beyond abstract or idealistic categories to depictions of social

experience that are recognizable to common audiences.25

To achieve this feat, rather than using existing icons, such as the Mandylion, as a

reference for his work, Rembrandt called upon his Jewish neighbors and clients within

Amsterdam to model for his sketches. This practice set Rembrandts work apart from other

22. Rachel E. Dubrosfky, Jewishness, Whiteness, and Blackness on Glee: Singing to the Tune
of Postracism. Communication, Culture & Critique 6, (2013) : 84.

23. Idib.

24. Lloyd Dewitt, Testing Tradition Against Nature: Rembrandts Radical New Image of
Jesus, in Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, ed. Lloyd DeWitt (Philadelphia: Yale University
Press, 2011), 126.

25. Victoria Gallagher and Kenneth S. Zagacki, Visibility and Rhetoric: The Power of Visual
Images in Norman Rockwells Depictions of Civil Rights. Quarterly Journal of Speech 91, (no.
2, 2005) : 183.

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realistic depictions of Christ of the time, and is the central reason as to why the Head of Christ is

such a groundbreaking piece. DeWitt explains that Rembrandts use of Jewish models caused

him to be repeatedly admonished by artists and critics for associating with people of low

station, which they saw as a negative influence on his work.26 Such an uproar from the majority

further proves that Rembrandts rhetoric holds great power to shake the hegemonic frame of a

society. His use of Jewish models is in direct correlation to his desire to depict an authentic

Jesus, one who offered intimacy to believers rather than demanding veneration.

The Approachable Jesus

Rembrandts unrelenting focus on Christs posture and facial expression exhibit an

intimacy between himself and the piece that make its presentation and message all the more

powerful. Susanna Kelly Engbers describes an intrinsic relationship between maker and

user27 within the creation process that all of those involved with the design dwell together

in the activity of design.28 Engbers suggests that a visual piece is an active invitation for

viewers to come alongside and grapple with an artists presented narrative. Keyes reinforces this

claim by stating Rembrandts meditative images, focused largely on the believers perceptions

of Christ and the meaning associated with his presence in their midst.29 The ideal that the Savior

should not only look human but also evoke human a emotional reaction and connection with

26. Lloyd Dewitt, Testing Tradition Against Nature: Rembrandts Radical New Image of
Jesus, in Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, ed. Lloyd DeWitt (Philadelphia: Yale University
Press, 2011), 129.
27. Susanna Kelly Engbers, Branded: The Sister Arts of Rhetoric and Design. Art, Design &
Communication in Higher Education 12, no. 2 (2013) : 157.

28. Idib.

29. George S. Keyes, Perception and Belief: The Image of Christ and the Meditative Turn in
Rembrandts Religious Art, in Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, ed. Lloyd DeWitt
(Philadelphia: Yale University Press, 2011), 22.

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believers caused Rembrandts portrayal of Christ so shift so drastically throughout his career. By

comparing the visual, rhetorical elements of the Head of Christ to other works by Rembrandt we

can see the great influence the portrait series had in crafting a human-like narrative within these

other pieces; thus, propelling Rembrandts ideology.

Two of Rembrandts most iconic religious works, The Supper at Emmaus, found in figure

3 and The Hundred Guilder Print in figure 4 would not be the masterpieces without the heads of

Christ. The Supper at Emmaus depicts Jesus breaking bread with His disciples who gaze in

wonderment at their gentle teacher. The dark, warm colors and use of empty space evoke the

same atmosphere as the Head of Christ while the intense light that shines around Christs head

from behind calls attention to, not only His innate holiness, but also His clearly Jewish face.

(Fig. 3)

Source: Rembrandt Harmensz, van Rijn, The Supper at Emmaus. 1648, Oil on mahogany panel,
26 x 25 6/16 in. Muse du Louvre, Paris, inv. 1739. From: Rembrandt and the Faces of Jesus.
Philadelphia: Lloyd DeWitt.

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The Hundred Guilder Print follows a similar theme of placing Christ off-center amongst

His followers. Since this print is an etching and not a painting, the rhetorical power lies within

the forms of the figures presented rather than relying on color. Those gathered around Jesus are

visibly moved by His presence. Some are shown leaning in to clearly receive the message while

others are on their knees in worship. Turning to examine Christ, we can clearly see The Head of

Christs influence. With a soft expression and open arms, Jesus radiates His spirit throughout the

atmosphere of the piece; one that is gentle but still all-powerful.

(Fig. 4)

Source: Rembrandt Harmensz, van Rijn, The Hundred Guilder Print (Christ Preaching: Bring
Thy Little Children unto Me). 1649, Etching engraving, and drypoint on paper, 11 x 15 in. The
Metropolitain Museum of Art, New York, Plate 1.2.

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The warm calmness presented in these pieces is a stark contrast to Rembrandts earlier

works, an example being one his most notable pieces, the etched engraving that he completed in

1632 titled The Raising of Lazarus. In this piece, figure 5, Jesus is positioned above Lazarus

tomb with his left hand stretched out and right hand resting on his hip. He is standing with His

back towards viewers, His face hidden from sight. He is depicted as a larger man with many

robes, seeming to reflect the way many kings or figures of wealth and power were portrayed at

the time. Though they may not be in the same style, The Raising of Lazarus shares a similar

message as the Mandylion icons; demonstrating Christs supernatural existence.

(Fig. 5)

Source: Rembrandt van Rijn The Raising of Lazarus: The Larger Plate. 1632, Engraving and
etching on paper, 14 x 10 1/16 in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Henry
Walters, 1917. From: Rembrandt and the Faces of Jesus. Philadelphia: Lloyd DeWitt.

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Conclusion

Our world is a world of symbols and images; we are constantly surrounded by visual

rhetoric. Leff and Sachs state, We are reaching the point where the manner of expression, the

generation and use of symbols, has become the substance of our study [the] basic modes of

articulating a worldview.30 Thus, enters the importance of studying the ideology behind an

image. Through ideological criticism Rembrandts narrative of Jesuss innate humanness is

represented primarily in His identity as a Jewish man. Rembrandts ability to present this

ideology through his work in a time where such deviation was highly controversial shows just

how powerful visual rhetoric really is in shaping our perspectives.

Art is an essential tool to rewrite the hegemonic narrative and bring to light the stories of

the marginalized. Stated in Isaiah 53:3, [Jesus] was despised and rejected by men, a man of

sorrows, and familiar with suffering. Like one from whom men hide their faces he was despised,

and we esteemed him not.31 Though He was the marginalized of the marginalized, He never

damned humanity. Instead He, a forgotten, abandoned, poor Jewish man humbled Himself even

further by dying an agonizing, humiliating death for those who rejected Him. This story is the

one that Rembrandt communicates through his paintings. Though his works may not have been

warmly received during his time, I believe that in this modern era, a time of racial strife and

misunderstanding, Rembrandts Messianic narrative offers an entrance for believers into the

social justice conversation of today.

30. Micheal Leff and Andrew Sachs, Words the Most Like Things: Iconicity and the Rhetorical
Text. Western Journal of Speech Communication 54, (1990) : 253.

31. Isa. 53:3.

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Black, Edwin. The Second Persona. The Quarterly Journal of Speech 56, no. 2 (1970) : 109-
119.

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Postracism. Communication, Culture & Critique 6, (2013) : 82-102.

Engbers, Susanna Kelly. Branded: The Sister Arts of Rhetoric and Design. Art, Design &
Communication in Higher Education 12, no. 2 (2013) : 149-158.

Fig. 1. Rembrandt Harmensz, van Rijn and Studio, Head of Christ. 1656, Oil on oak panel, 141/16
x 125/16 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art, John G Johnson Collection. From: Rembrandt
and the Faces of Jesus. Philadelphia: Lloyd DeWitt. Plate 2.2.

Fig. 2. Unknown Artist, The Holy Face of Loan.1249, Tempera on primed cedar panel, 17 3/8 x
14 in. Treasury, Loan Cathedral, France. From: Rembrandt and the Faces of Jesus.
Philadelphia: Lloyd DeWitt.

Fig. 3. Rembrandt van Rijn The Raising of Lazarus: The Larger Plate. 1632, Engraving and
etching on paper, 14 x 10 1/16 in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift
of Henry Walters, 1917. From: Rembrandt and the Faces of Jesus. Philadelphia: Lloyd
DeWitt.

Fig. 4. Rembrandt Harmensz, van Rijn, The Hundred Guilder Print (Christ Preaching: Bring
Thy Little Children unto Me). 1649, Etching engraving, and drypoint on paper, 11 x 15
in. The Metropolitain Museum of Art, New York, H.O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest
of Mrs. Havemeyer, 1929. Plate 1.2.

Fig. 5. Rembrandt van Rijn The Raising of Lazarus: The Larger Plate. 1632, Engraving and
etching on paper, 14 x 10 1/16 in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift
of Henry Walters, 1917. From: Rembrandt and the Faces of Jesus. Philadelphia: Lloyd
DeWitt.

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Journal of Speech 91, no. 2 (2005) : 175-200.

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Studies 33, no. 3 (1993) : 468-479.

 17

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Journal of Speech 81, (1995) : 436-453.

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