Green Careers - Sci

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Science
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F e r g u s o n
reen
Careers
Science
Pamela Fehl
Green Careers: Science
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Contents
Introduction vii
Biochemists 1
Biologists 13
Botanists 26
Chemists 35
Climatologists 46
Ecologists 55
Environmental Scientists 64
Geologists 72
Geophysicists 81
Marine Biologists 90
Meteorologists 101
Oceanographers 111
Soil Scientists 122
Wetland Scientists 130
Wildlife Scientists 139
Further Reading 150

Index 154
Introduction
Scientists are the professionals that government agencies, businesses,
private consulting groups, and colleges and universities call upon to
help get to the bottom of environmental, economic, and social prob-
lems. Many occupations in the scientific field have been around for
hundreds, if not thousands, of years, such as botanists and chemists.
However, greater focus on environmental problems has expanded
the role for many scientists. In addition, environmental laws and
regulations have proliferated since the 1970s to improve the health
of the planet and quality of life for all inhabitants. Scientists work
correlates to this mission of identifying sources of problems, devis-
ing ways to solve and prevent future occurrences, and preparing for
the future by being armed with knowledge based on the past.
Scientists help address concerns about air, water, and land pol-
lution, and greenhouse gas emissions. They help identify, create,
protect, and preserve fragile, sensitive, and beneficial ecosystems
such as wetlands and wildlife habitats. They study animals and ani-
mal behavior and populations to identify if species are endangered
or threatened, and to determine if their habitats need protection.
Scientists study water temperatures, climate trends, and historic
natural events to track changes in the atmosphere (such as ozone
depletion) and forecast long-term changes in the climate. Their
work helps resolve soil erosion dilemmas and nutrient-deficient soils,
enabling healthy food production and healthy plants and animals.
People who are curious minded, have adventurous spirits, strong
math and science skills, and who dont mind getting frustrated in
the lab, or muddy, wet, bruised, or possibly even bitten in the course
of a workday thrive in this type of work.
The jobs highlighted in this science volume include biochem-
ists, biologists, botanists, chemists, climatologists, ecologists, envi-
ronmental scientists, geologists, geophysicists, marine biologists,
meteorologists, oceanographers, soil scientists, wetland scientists,
and wildlife scientists. Each job profile is divided into 12 sections, to
help you learn more about different aspects of the job, and to allow
you to determine if your background, interests, and skills match the
requirements.
b Quick Facts is a snapshot of job basics, including salary

range and outlook.
vii
viii SCIENCe
b Overview summarizes in just a few sentences the overall
job responsibilities.
b History tells you how and why the job began and high-
lights past events that affected the industry.
b The Job explains the daily work responsibilities. In some
profiles you will see comments and insights from people
working in the field.
b Requirements helps you map out your educational plan,
from high school to postgraduate and beyond. Other
Requirements explains character traits and skills needed
to succeed in and enjoy the job.
b Exploring gives you ideas about the ways you can learn
more about the job and industry. You will find sugges-
tions for reading materials, professional associations, and
other resources here.
b Employers tells you the types of companies and business
sectors that employ the featured worker. This section
often includes statistics about the number of professionals
employed in the United States, and top paying states and/
or cities. Data is derived from the U.S. Department of
Labor (DoL), the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the National
Association of Colleges and Employers, and professional
industry-related associations.
b Starting Out helps you figure out how to get your foot
in the door. Here you will find suggestions about intern-
ships, volunteer programs, and other methods that may
lead to entry-level jobs.
b Advancement shows the ways in which scientists can
move up in their careers.
b Earnings gives you salary ranges based on information
provided by the DoL and other employment specialists.
b T he Work Environment section describes the typical sur-
roundings and conditions of employment. Also discussed
are typical hours worked, any seasonal fluctuations, and
the stresses and strains of the job.
b Outlook is a look into the future of the career based on
current trends. Predictions are usually derived from DoL
surveys, professional associations studies, or experts
insights on the field.
b For More Information ends each profile with further
resources you can use to explore the job, such as listings
and contact information of professional associations you
may want to join.
Biochemists
quick facts
School Subjects Minimum Education Level
Biology Bachelors degree
Chemistry
Salary Range
Personal Skills $44,320 to $82,840 to
$139,440+
Mechanical/manipulative
Technical/scientific Certification or Licensing
Required for certain positions
Work Environment
Primarily indoors Outlook
Primarily one location About as fast as the average
Overview
Biochemists study living organisms to help determine how ill-
nesses develop, identify diseases, and develop medicines for cures.
They examine the chemical combinations and reactions involved
in growth, metabolism, reproduction, and heredity. They also
study the effect of the environment on living tissue. Many bio-
chemists work on environmental remediation programs, helping
to address global climate change and protecting the environment
from pollution.
History
Biochemistry is a fairly new science, although the concept of bio-
chemistry is said to have its roots in the discovery of the fermenta-
tion process thousands of years ago. In fact, the basic steps used to
make wine from grapes were the same in ancient times as they are
today. However, the rather unchanging methods used for alcohol
fermentation do not nearly reflect the revolutionary changes that
have occurred throughout recent history in our knowledge of cell
composition, growth, and function.
1
2 SCIENCe
English scientist Robert Hooke first described and named cells
in 1665, upon examining a slice of bark from an oak tree under a
microscope with a magnifying power of 30x. Hooke never real-
ized the significance of his discovery, however, because he thought
the tiny boxes, or cells, he saw were unique to the bark. Around
the same time, Dutchman Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovered the
existence of single-celled organisms by observing them in pond water
and in animal blood and sperm. He used grains of sand that he
had polished into magnifying glasses as powerful as 300x to see
this invisible world. In 1839, nearly two centuries after Hookes
and Leeuwenhoeks discoveries, two German biologists, Matthias
Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, correctly concluded that all living
things consisted of cells. Later, this theory was expanded to include
the idea that all cells come from other cells, and that the ability of
cells to divide to form new cells is the basis for all reproduction,
growth, and repair of many-celled organisms, like humans.
Starting in the mid-1800s a powerful instrument called the
electron microscope revealed the complex structure of cells. Every
cell, at some state in its life, contains DNA, the genetic material
that directs the cells many activities. The field of biochemistry
has expanded, due to the revelation of all the cells intricate parts,
to include the study of protein molecules and chromosomes, the
building blocks of life itself. Biology and chemistry have always
been allied sciences, and the exploration of cells and their molecu-
lar components, carried out by biochemists and other biological
scientists, has revealed much about life. In 1953 the breakthrough
discovery by scientists James D. Watson and Francis Crick of the
structure of DNA sparked a flurry of scientific activity that led to
a better understanding of DNA chemistry and the genetic code.
These discoveries eventually made it possible to manipulate DNA,
enabling genetic engineers to transplant foreign genes into micro-
organisms to produce valuable products such as human insulin,
which occurred in 1982.
The field of biochemistry now involves many other sciences, such
as environmental sciences, genetics, nutrition, psychology, fertility,
agriculture, and more. A growing number of biochemists are direct-
ing their work to environmental pollution control and prevention
projects.
The Job
Biochemists job responsibilities vary based on their educational
level and specialty. They may conduct basic research for a federal
Biochemists 3
government agency or for individual states with laboratories that

employ skilled persons to analyze food, drug, air, water, waste, or
animal tissue samples. They may work for a drug company as part
of a basic research team that aims to find the cause of diseases or
conduct applied research to develop drugs to cure disease. Another
area in which they may work is biotechnology, focusing on the envi-
ronment, energy, human health care, agriculture, or animal health.
Here they may conduct research or quality control, or work on
manufacturing, production, or information systems. Other special-
izations are law, business, or journalism, in which biochemists draw
upon their science background for positions in regulatory affairs,
management, writing, or teaching.
Biochemists with doctoral degrees who work in academia usually
teach and conduct research. They teach in university classrooms and
laboratories, and do basic research. They may also work for industry
or government labs doing basic research or research and develop-
ment (R&D), focusing on problems and using research styles in
accordance with the mission of that particular laboratory. Ph.D.
scientists may lead a research group or be part of a small team of
researchers. Others might opt for administrative positions. In gov-
ernment, for example, biochemists might lead programs concerned
with the safety of new devices, food, drugs, or pesticides and other
chemicals. They might also influence which projects get federal
funding.
Biochemists may work in such fields as medicine, nutrition, agri-
culture, and environmental remediation and control. In medicine,
for instance, biochemists mass-produce life-saving chemicals usu-
ally found only in minuscule amounts in the body. Some of these
chemicals have been helping diabetics and heart attack victims for
years. Biochemists employed in the field of medicine might work to
identify chemical changes in organs or cells that signal the develop-
ment of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, or schizophrenia. Or they
may look for chemical explanations for why certain people develop
muscular dystrophy or become obese. Nutrition biochemists exam-
ine the effects of food on the body. They also look at vitamin and
mineral deficiencies and how they affect the human body. Biochem-
ists examine these deficiencies in relation to body performance, and
they may study anything from how the liver is affected by a lack
of vitamin B to the effects of poor nutrition on the ability to learn.
Biochemists involved in agriculture undertake studies to discover
more efficient methods of crop cultivation, storage, and pest control.
For example, they might create genetically engineered crops that are
more resistant to frost, drought, spoilage, disease, and pests. They
4 SCIENCe
A biochemist studies autoradiographs of bacterial phage viruses. Hank

Morgan/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Biochemists 5
might focus on helping to create fruit trees that produce more fruit
by studying the biochemical composition of the plant and determin-
ing how to alter or select for this desirable trait. Biochemists may
study the chemical composition of insects to determine better and
more efficient methods of controlling the pest population and the
damage pests do to crops. Or they could work on programming
bacteria to clean up the environment by eating toxic chemicals.
Biochemists who work in the field of environmental remediation
and control are tasked with researching and conducting studies on
ways to create environmentally friendly energy as well as to help
prevent and control pollution. A biochemist working for the U.S.
Department of Energy might work on projects concerning bioreme-
diation, carbon sequestration, and sustainable energy production.
About seven out of 10 biochemists are engaged in basic research,
often for a university medical school or nonprofit organization, such
as a foundation or research institute. The remaining 30 percent do
applied research, using the discoveries of basic research to solve
practical problems or develop products.
Biochemistry requires skillful use of a wide range of sophisticated
analytical equipment and application of newly discovered techniques
requiring special instruments or new chemical reagents. Sometimes,
biochemists themselves must invent and test new instruments if
existing methods and equipment do not meet their needs. Biochem-
ists must also be patient, methodical, and careful in their laboratory
procedures.
Requirements
Although they usually specialize in one of many areas in the field,
biochemists should also be familiar with several scientific disci-
plines, including chemistry, physics, mathematics, and computer
science. High school can provide the foundation for getting this
knowledge, while four years of college expands it, and postgraduate
work directs students to explore specific areas more deeply.
High School
If you are interested in biochemistry, while in high school take
biology, chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.
Introductory calculus is also a good idea. Scientists must clearly and
accurately communicate their results verbally and in writing; Eng-
lish courses that emphasize writing skills will help you in this arena.
6 SCIENCe
Wakame to the Rescue:

Brown Seaweed Could Lead to
Cleaner Oceans
Science researchers in China and Japan recently discovered that
bacteria that feed on seaweed could help clean up pollutants in the
worlds oceans. In a May 2008 report in the International Journal
of Biotechnology, Shinichi Nagata of the Environmental Biochem-
istry Group at Kobe University, Japan, working with colleagues at
Shimane University and at Nankai University, China, pointed out
that scientists and researchers are placing more emphasis on
exploring novel ways to remove toxic contaminants because of
the rise in marine pollution. They explained that various seaweed
species are capable of extracting toxic compounds from seaweed,
and that research has focused, in particular, on brown seaweed
(Undaria pinnatifida), known as wakame in Japan.
Wakame is heartyit thrives in nearly all conditions, even
when carbon, ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate are present in
otherwise lifeless seawater. But despite its durability, the chal-
lenge has been in how to dispose of planted wakame that has
already ingested organic and inorganic pollutants in seawater.
Once wakame absorbs toxic pollutants, it too must be treated like
a toxic waste, as opposed to a byproduct of marine bioremedia-
tion that is still useful. Shinichi Nagata and colleagues suggest a
simple, as well as traditional, solution to the disposal problem:
composting the wakame. Since ancient times wakame has been
used as a fertilizer for crops. Composting wakame could be effec-
tive in degrading and recycling the organic substances containing
carbon, nitrate, and phosphate from coastal waters.
The research team tested and discovered a novel marine
bacteriuma Halomonas species found in Awaji Island, Japan,
labeled as AW4that accelerates the composting process in a
highly efficient way. They identified this active species by con-
ducting partial DNA analysis. Through their studies, researchers
saw that this AW4 strain grows well even at high salt concentra-
tions, and that it can significantly reduce the total organic compo-
nents, including pollutant content, within one week.
Source: Interscience Publishers

Biochemists 7
Many colleges and universities also require several years of a foreign

language, which is especially useful because scientists frequently
exchange information with researchers from other countries.
Postsecondary Training
To best prepare for a career in biochemistry, start by earning a bach-
elors degree in either biology or chemistry. If your college does not
offer a specific program in biochemistry, you can get comparable
training by doing one of two things: working toward a bachelors
degree in chemistry and taking courses in biology, molecular genet-
ics, and biochemistry, including a biochemistry laboratory class; or
earning a bachelors degree in biology, but taking additional chemis-
try, mathematics, and physics courses and also choosing a biochem-
istry course that includes lab work.
A masters degree or Ph.D. degree is required in many biochem-
istry careers, particularly for positions as college professors and for
scientific research jobs at universities, government laboratories, or
commercial companies. Most students enter graduate programs with
a bachelors degree in biochemistry, or in chemistry or biology with
supplementary courses. Because biochemistry is such a broad-based
field, you can enter a graduate program from such diverse fields as
environmental studies, physics, psychology, nutrition, microbiology,
or engineering. Graduate schools prefer students with laboratory or
research experience.
For a Ph.D. degree, full-time course work can last up to two
years, followed by one or more special test exams. The most impor-
tant part of Ph.D. training is the requirement for all students to
conduct an extensive research project leading to significant new
scientific findings. Most students work under a faculty members
direction. This training is vital, as it will help you develop the skills
to frame scientific questions and discover ways to answer them. It
will also teach you important laboratory skills useful in tackling
other biochemical problems. Most students complete a Ph.D. pro-
gram in four or five years.
Certification or Licensing
Biochemists who wish to work in a hospital may need certification
by a national certifying board such as the American Board of Clini-
cal Chemistry.
Other Requirements
Scientists continue learning throughout their careersthis
is intrinsic to their work, especially for biochemists. Constant
8 SCIENCe
breakthroughs and technological advances make for a constantly
changing work environment. That is why most Ph.D.s pursue even
further research experience (postdoctoral research) before they
enter the workplace. As a postdoctoral (postdoc), you are more
likely to work full time on high-level research project in the lab
of an established scientist; you would not take course work, earn a
degree, or teach. The postdoc period lasts two to three years, during
which time you receive a salary or are supported by a fellowship.
Though not essential for many industry research jobs, postdoctoral
research is generally expected of those wishing to become university
professors. Also, because biochemistry and medicine are such allies,
some Ph.D. recipients also earn medical degrees in order to get the
broadest possible base for a career in medical research.
Exploring
The best way to delve further into this field is by taking full advan-
tage of your high school chemistry and biology classes and exploring
the laboratory tools and techniques youve been shown. While in
high school, you might also be able to take biochemistry courses at
a community college or during a summer program at a local college
or university. Another way to gain a better understanding of what
it takes to be a biochemist is to speak with people in the field. Con-
tact local colleges, universities, or laboratories to set up information
interviews with biochemists to learn as much as you can about the
field. Reading science and medical magazines will also help you to
stay current with recent breakthroughs in the biochemistry field.
Also check out online science sites, including Action Bioscience
(http://www.actionbioscience.org) and Cool Science (http://www.
hhmi.org/coolscience).
Employers
About 87,000 biological scientists were employed in the United
States, according to the Department of Labor. Government agen-
cies at the federal, state, and local levels employ approximately 39
percent of all biological scientists. At such agencies these scientists
may do basic research and analyze air, water, waste, food, drug, or
animal tissue samples. Biochemists also work for university medical
schools or nonprofit organizations, such as a foundation or research
institute, doing basic research. Drug companies employ biochemists
to search for the causes of diseases or develop drugs to cure them.
Biochemists work in quality control, research, manufacturing/
Biochemists 9
production, or information systems at biotechnology companies

that concentrate on the environment, energy, human health care,
agriculture, or animal health. Universities hire biochemists to teach
in combination with doing research.
Starting Out
Biochemists often start out as laboratory assistants or technicians;
after proving their competence, they can acquire more responsibili-
ties and advance to higher level positions. College career services
offices can point you in the right direction, and professors can often
provide valuable connections. Internships and summer jobs in high
school or college provide the experience that potential employ-
ers find attractive in job candidates. Professional associations offer
resources you can start using right now to learn more about the
biochemistry field. For example, visit the Careers and Education
section of the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular
Biologys Web site (http://www.asbmb.org/) to read about bio-
chemistry projects and find recommended books about biochemis-
try and molecular science.
Advancement
Biochemists with higher educational degrees and more research
projects under their belts have better opportunities to advance and
to earn higher incomes. To climb the career ladder in this field,
biochemists usually go back to school to earn advanced degrees.
College graduates pursue graduate degrees. After working for a
year or more, those with masters degrees may pursue doctoral
degrees, and they often pursue these degrees while continuing
to work at their jobs. Some graduate students become research
or teaching assistants in colleges and universities, qualifying for
professorships when they receive their advanced degrees. Having a
Ph.D. allows you to design research initiatives and direct others in
carrying out experiments. Experienced biochemists with doctor-
ates can move up to high-level administrative positions and super-
vise entire research programs. Other highly qualified biochemists
that prefer to devote themselves to research often become leaders
in a particular aspect of their profession. Advancement in private
companies can mean moving up to administrative positions such
as supervisor, manager, or director, in which responsibilities might
include overseeing and guiding the work of staff members and
creating budgets.
10 SCIENCe
Earnings
The U.S. Department of Labor reports that biochemists and bio-
physicists had average annual incomes of $82,840 in 2008. Salaries
ranged from less than $44,320 to more than $139,440 per year.
Those who worked for general medical and surgical hospitals had
average annual incomes of $100,380. Biochemists working in sci-
entific research and development averaged $90,950 per year; while
those employed by colleges, universities, and professional schools
earned about $51,000 per year. Starting salaries in 2007 for gradu-
ates with bachelors degrees in biological science averaged $34,953
per year, according to a report by the National Association of Col-
leges and Employers.
Biochemists who work for universities, the government, or indus-
try all tend to receive good benefits packages, such as health and life
insurance, pension plans, and paid vacation and sick leave. Those
employed as university faculty operate on the academic calendar,
which means that they can get summer and winter breaks from
teaching classes.
Work Environment
Biochemists generally work 40 hours per week, with schedules vary-
ing depending upon the area and industry in which they focus.
Those who teach may work weekdays, weeknights, and weekends,
but they will have summers and holidays off. Biochemists who work
in research, whether for public or private sectors, generally work
40-hour workweeks, but often put in longer hours to read articles,
books, and reports to keep up with trends and discoveries. They
also spend time traveling to attend meetings and conferences, and
writing papers for presentations at meetings or for publication in
scientific journals.
Biochemists who work in laboratories spend their days in clean,
quiet, and well-lighted spaces. They take proper precautions in han-
dling chemicals and organic substances that could be dangerous or
cause illness. They may work with plants and animals; plant and
animal tissues, cells, and products; and with yeast and bacteria.
Outlook
The U.S. Department of Labor (DoL) forecasts that biological scien-
tists, including biochemists, will have average employment growth
through 2016. Competition is expected to be keen as the number of
Biochemists 11
trained scientists outranks available funding for projects and positions.

Competition will be especially strong for basic research positions; can-
didates with advanced education and relevant work experience will
have better odds of finding work that interests them most.
In addition to continued need for biochemists in medicine
and agriculture, the DoL predicts that more biological scientists
will be needed to help in the areas of environmental cleanup and
environmental protection. Environmental biochemists will be
needed to help determine the impact that government and busi-
ness activities have made on the environment, and to develop
and improve the methods and techniques for preventing and cor-
recting environmental problems, such as damaging effects from
pesticide use. Environmental regulatory agencies will also need
biological scientists to conduct research and assess data. Legisla-
tive lawmakers will also continue to hire biochemists and other
biological scientists to advise them on environmentally sensitive
areas. And as more attention and funding is invested in exploring
the production of clean and renewable energy, such as biofuels and
ethanol for transportation fuel, demand will also rise for biological
scientists.
For More Information

To learn more about biochemistry and biological science careers, educa-
tion, and scholarships, contact the following organizations:
American Association for Clinical Chemistry
1850 K Street, NW, Suite 625
Washington, DC 20006-2215
Tel: 800-892-1400
Email: custserv@aacc.org
http://www.aacc.org
American Chemical Society

1155 16th Street, NW
Tel: 800-227-5558
Email: help@acs.org
http://www.acs.org
American Institute of Biological Sciences

1444 I Street, NW, Suite 200
12 SCIENCe
Tel: 202-628-1500
http://www.aibs.org
American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

9650 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD 20814-3996
Tel: 301-530-7145
http://www.asbmb.org
American Society for Investigative Pathology

9650 Rockville Pike
Tel: 301-634-7130
http://www.asip.org
Association of Environmental Engineering and Science

Professors
2303 Naples Court
Champaign, IL 61822-3510
Tel: 217-398-6969
http://www.aeesp.org
Biologists
quick facts
Physiology
Salary Range
$101,030
Required for certain positions
Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors Outlook
Primarily multiple locations About as fast as the average
Overview
Biologists study the origin, development, anatomy, function, dis-
tribution, and other basic principles of living organisms. They are
concerned with the nature of life itself in humans, microorganisms,
plants, and animals, and with the relationship of each organism to
its environment. Biologists perform research in many specialties
that help protect animals and the environment, and to advance the
fields of medicine, agriculture, and industry. Approximately 87,000
biological scientists are employed in the United States.
History
The biological sciences developed slowly over the course of human
history. Early humans practiced an inexact form of biology when
they established agriculture. They observed the environment around
them to determine what types of seeds yielded consumable food,
when to plant, when to water, and when to harvest the seeds for
planting in the next season. Early humans improved their way of life
as a result of their primitive forays into science.
It wasnt until modern times that biology developed into an
exact science. Our ancestors learned to differentiate between
13
14 SCIENCe
desirable and undesirable plants (taxonomy), to seek out and live
in more habitable environments (ecology), to domesticate plants
(agronomy and horticulture) and animals (animal husbandry), and
to eat a suitable diet (nutrition). Eventually, plants and animals
were classified; later they were studied to see how they func-
tioned and how they related to other organisms around them. This
was the beginning of zoology (animal science) and botany (plant
science).
The Greek philosopher Aristotle created one of the first docu-
mented taxonomic systems for animals. He divided animals into two
types: blooded (mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fishes)
and bloodless (insects, crustaceans, and other lower animals). He
also studied reproduction and theorized, incorrectly, how embryos
developed in animals.
From the second century to the 11th century, the Arabs made
important advances in biological understanding. Unlike the Europe-
ans, they continued to study from the base of knowledge established
by the Greeks. Avicenna, a Persian philosopher and physician, wrote
the Canon of Medicine, one of the most influential and important
publications on medical knowledge in the world at its timeand for
the next seven centuries.
The field of biology has expanded rapidly in the last two centuries.
The French physician Louis Pasteur developed the field of immunol-
ogy, and his studies of fermentation led to modern microbiology.
Many other achievements became possible because of improve-
ments in the microscope. Scientists could isolate much smaller
structures than ever before possible. Matthias Schleiden and The-
odor Schwann formulated the idea that the cell is the fundamental
unit of all organisms. Gregor Mendel discovered the principles of
heredity through crossbreeding pea plants.
While the 19th century can be considered the age of cellular
biology, the 20th and early 21st centuries have been dominated by
studies and breakthroughs in biochemistry and molecular biology.
The discovery of the atomic structure allowed the fundamental
building blocks of nature to be studied. Living tissues were found
to be composed of fats, sugars, and proteins. Proteins were found to
be composed of amino acids. Discoveries in cell biology established
the manner in which information was transmitted from one organ-
ism to its progeny. Chromosomes were recognized as the carriers
of this information. In 1944 Oswald Avery and a team of scientists
were able to isolate and identify DNA as the transmitter of genetic
information. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick deciphered
Biologists 15
the complex structure of DNA and hypothesized that it carried the

genetic code for all living matter.
Biological science is the foundation for most of the discoveries
that affect peoples everyday lives. Biologists break new ground to
improve our health and quality of life and help us to better under-
stand the world around us.
The Job
Biology can be divided into many specialties. The biologist, who
studies a wide variety of living organisms, has interests that
differ from those of the chemist, physicist, and geologist, who
are concerned with nonliving matter. Biologists, or life scien-
tists, may be identified by their specialties. Following is a break-
down of the many kinds of biologists and their specific fields of
study:
Anatomists study animal bodies from basic cell structure to com-
plex tissues and organs. They determine the ability of body parts
to regenerate and investigate the possibility of transplanting organs
and skin. Their research is applied to human medicine.
Aquatic biologists study animals and plants that live in water and
how they are affected by their environmental conditions, such as the
salt, acid, and oxygen content of the water and temperature, light,
and other factors.
Biochemists study the chemical composition of living organisms.
They attempt to understand the complex reactions involved in
reproduction, growth, metabolism, and heredity.
Biophysicists apply physical principles to biological problems.
They study the mechanics, heat, light, radiation, sound, electricity,
and energetics of living cells and organisms and do research in the
areas of vision, hearing, brain function, nerve conduction, muscle
reflex, and damaged cells and tissues.
Bio-technicians, or biological technicians, assist the various types of
biological scientists in their endeavors.
Botanists study plant life. Some specialize in plant biochemistry,
the structure and function of plant parts, and identification and
classification, among other topics.
Cytologists, sometimes called cell biologists, examine the cells of
plants and animals, including those cells involved in reproduction.
They use microscopes and other instruments to observe the growth
and division of cells and to study the influences of physical and
chemical factors on both normal and malignant cells.
16 SCIENCe
Ecologists examine such factors as pollutants, rainfall, alti-
tude, temperature, and population size in order to study the dis-
tribution and abundance of organisms and their relation to their
environment.
Entomologists study insects and their relationship to other life
forms.
Geneticists study heredity in various forms of life. They are con-
cerned with how biological traits such as color, size, and resistance
to disease originate and are transmitted from one generation to
another. They also try to develop ways to alter or produce new
traits, using chemicals, heat, light, or other means.
Histopathologists investigate diseased tissue in humans and
animals.
Immunologists study the manner in which the human body resists
disease.
Limnologists study freshwater organisms and their environment.
Marine biologists specialize in the study of marine species and
their environment. They gather specimens at different times, tak-
ing into account tidal cycles, seasons, and exposure to atmospheric
elements, in order to answer questions concerning the overall health
of sea organisms and their environment.
Microbiologists study bacteria, viruses, molds, algae, yeasts,
and other organisms of microscopic or submicroscopic size. Some
microorganisms are useful to humans; they are studied and used
in the production of food, such as cheese, bread, and tofu. Other
microorganisms have been used to preserve food and tenderize
meat. Some microbiologists work with microorganisms that cause
disease. They work to diagnose, treat, and prevent disease. Micro-
biologists have helped prevent typhoid fever, influenza, measles,
polio, whooping cough, and smallpox. Today, they work on cures
for AIDS, cancer, cystic fibrosis, and Alzheimers disease, among
others.
Molecular biologists apply their research on animal and bacterial
systems toward the goal of improving and better understanding
human health.
Mycologists study edible, poisonous, and parasitic fungi, such
as mushrooms, molds, yeasts, and mildews, to determine which
are useful to medicine, agriculture, and industry. Their research
has resulted in benefits such as the development of antibiotics,
the propagation of mushrooms, and methods of retarding fabric
deterioration.
Nematologists study nematodes (roundworms), which are parasitic
in animals and plants. Nematodes transmit diseases, attack insects,
Biologists 17
or attack other nematodes that exist in soil or water. Nematologists

investigate and develop methods of controlling these organisms.
Parasitologists study animal parasites and their effects on humans
and other animals.
Pharmacologists research the effects of various drugs and medi-
cal compounds on mice or rabbits. They typically work in labs for
pharmaceutical companies. Working within controlled environ-
ments, pharmacologists precisely note the types, quantities, and
timing of medicines administered as a part of their experiments.
Periodically, they make blood smears or perform autopsies to study
different reactions. They usually work with a team of researchers,
headed by one with a doctorate and consisting of several biolo-
gists with masters and bachelors degrees and some laboratory
technicians.
Physiologists study plant or animal life stages. Some special-
ize in a particular body system or a particular function, such as
respiration.
Wildlife biologists study the habitats and the conditions neces-
sary for the survival of birds and other wildlife. Their goal is to
find ways to ensure the continuation of healthy wildlife popula-
tions, while lessening the impact and growth of civilization around
them.
Zoologists study all types of animals to learn their origin, inter-
relationships, classifications, life histories, habits, diseases, relation
to the environment, growth, genetics, and distribution. Zoologists
are usually identified by the animals they study: ichthyologists (fish),
mammalogists (mammals), ornithologists (birds), and herpetologists
(reptiles and amphibians).
Biologists may also work for government agencies concerned with
public health. Toxicologists, for example, study the effects of toxic
substances on humans, animals, and plants. The data they gather are
used in consumer protection and industrial safety programs to reduce
the hazards of accidental exposure or ingestion. Public-health microbi-
ologists conduct experiments on water, foods, and the general environ-
ment of a community to detect the presence of harmful bacteria so
pollution and contagious diseases can be controlled or eliminated.
Requirements
High School
High school students interested in a career in biology should take
English, biology, physics, chemistry, environmental studies, com-
puter science, Latin, geometry, and algebra.
18 SCIENCe
A solid foundation for future work as a biologist includes not only
courses in all phases of biology, but also organic and inorganic chem-
istry, physics, and mathematics classes. Modern languages, English,
biometrics (the use of mathematics in biological measurements), and
statistics are also useful. Courses in computers will be extremely
beneficial. Students should take advantage of courses that require
laboratory, field, or collecting work.
Nearly all institutions offer undergraduate training in one or
more of the biological sciences. These vary from liberal arts schools
that offer basic majors in botany and zoology to large universities
that permit specialization in areas such as entomology, bacteriology,
and physiology at the undergraduate level.
The best way to become a biologist is to earn a bachelors degree
in biology or one of its specialized fields, such as anatomy, bacte-
riology, botany, ecology, or microbiology. For the highest profes-
sional status, a doctorate is required. This is particularly true of top
research positions and most higher-level college teaching openings.
Many colleges and universities offer courses leading to a masters
degree and a doctorate.
Candidates for a doctorate specialize in one of the subdivisions of
biology. A number of sources of financial assistance are available to
finance graduate work. Most major universities have a highly devel-
oped fellowship (scholarship) or assistantship (part-time teaching
or research) program.
Organizations, such as the U.S. Public Health Service and the
National Science Foundation, make awards of fellowships and train-
ing grants to support graduate students. In addition, major universi-
ties often hold research contracts or have their own projects that
provide part-time and summer employment for undergraduate and
graduate students.
A state license may be required for biologists who are employed as
technicians in general service health organizations, such as hospitals
or clinics. To qualify for this license, proof of suitable educational
background is necessary.
Other Requirements
Biologists must be systematic in their approach to solving the prob-
lems that they face. They should have probing, inquisitive minds
and an aptitude for biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Patience
Biologists 19
Profile: Carolus Linnaeus (17071778)

Swedish Naturalist Carolus Linnaeus developed systematic meth-
ods for classifying and naming plants and animals. He devised
the classifications of class, order, genus, and species, and estab-
lished as standard the binomial (two-name) system for giving
scientific names to plants and animals. Linnaeus placed human
beings in the order of primates, giving our species the scientific
name Homo sapiens. Linnaeus classified thousands of plant spe-
cies, assigning plants to 24 classes according to the number and
position of their stamens and pistils. Although later botanical
knowledge revealed that this system was inadequate, it did lay
the foundation for the science of plant taxonomy, as well as for
Charles Darwins theory of evolution.
Here, for instance, is the classification of the domestic dog, Canis

familiaris:
Kingdom: Animalia (animals)
Phylum: Chordata (animals with a spinal cord)
Subphylum: Vertebrata (vertebrate)
Class: Mammalia (mammals)
Subclass: Theria (mammals that give birth to live young)
Order: Carnivora (carnivores)
Family: Canidae (related animals, such as coyotes, dogs, foxes,
jackals, and wolves, some of which can crossbreed)
Genus: Canis (dog)
Species: familiaris (domesticated dog)
Classification of the cork oak tree, Quercus suber:

Kingdom: Plantae (plants)
Subkingdom: Tracheophyta (plants with a vascular system)
Division: Anthophyta (flowering plants)
Class: Dicotyledonae (seed plants that produce embryos with
paired cotyledons and net-veined leaves)
Order: Fagales (a collection of similar families of trees)
Family: Fagaceae (beeches and other trees, chiefly having uni-
sexual flowers)
Genus: Quercus (Latin for the oak tree)
Species: suber (Latin for to be in season)
20 SCIENCe
and imagination are also required since they may spend much time
in observation and analysis. Biologists must also have good commu-
nication skills in order to effectively gather and exchange data and
solve problems that arise in their work.
Exploring
Students can measure their aptitude and interest in the work of
the biologist by taking courses in the field. Laboratory assignments,
for example, provide information on techniques used by working
biologists. Many schools hire students as laboratory assistants to
work directly under a teacher and help administer the laboratory
sections of courses.
Field trips to federal and private laboratories and research centers,
and career conferences provide additional insight into career oppor-
tunities. Advanced students often are able to attend professional
meetings and seminars.
Part-time and summer positions in biology or related areas are
particularly helpful. Advanced high school and beginning college
students may be able to find employment as laboratory aides or
hospital orderlies or attendants. Despite the menial nature of these
positions, they afford a useful insight into careers in biology. High
school students often have the opportunity to join volunteer ser-
vice groups at local hospitals. Student science training programs
(SSTPs) allow qualified high school students to spend a summer
doing research under the supervision of a scientist.
Employers
There were about 87,000 biological scientists employed in the
United States in 2006. About 39 percent of all biological scientists
work for the government at the federal, state, or local level. Most
of the remaining biological scientists work in scientific research and
testing laboratories, the pharmaceutical and medicine manufactur-
ing industry, or colleges and universities.
Biologists specialties determine for whom they work. Marine
biologists, for example, can find employment with the U.S.
Department of Interior, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. They may
also find employment in nongovernmental agencies, such as the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California and the Marine
Biological Laboratory in Massachusetts. Microbiologists can find
employment with the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Biologists 21
Services, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Depart-

ment of Agriculture, among others. They may also work for pharma-
ceutical, food, agricultural, geological, environmental, and pollution
control companies. Wildlife biologists can find employment for the
U.S. Public Health Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
the Forest Service, among many others.
Starting Out
Many biologists get their start in the field through internships and
jobs while studying in undergraduate and graduate school. Those
who work for private industry and nonprofit organizations apply for
positions through employment Web sites and through the organiza-
tions human resources departments. You can get a foot in the door
by visiting the Web sites of the organizations that interest you most
and see if there are volunteer programs, internships, or part-time
jobs listed. If you are interested in teaching biology, speak with your
high school science teachers to find out what they studied in school,
what magazines and books they read, and see if they have any rec-
ommendations that will help you explore the field further.
Special application procedures are required for positions with
government agencies. Civil service applications for federal, state,
and municipal positions may be obtained by writing to the agency
involved and from high school and college guidance and placement
bureaus, public employment agencies, and post offices.
Advancement
In a field as broad as biology, numerous opportunities for advance-
ment exist. To a great extent, however, advancement depends on the
individuals level of education. A doctorate is generally required for
college teaching, independent research, and top-level administrative
and management jobs. A masters degree is sufficient for some jobs
in applied research, and a bachelors degree may qualify for some
entry-level jobs.
With the right qualifications, biologists may advance to project
chief positions and direct teams of other biologists. Many use their
knowledge and experience as background for administrative and
management positions. Often, as they develop professional exper-
tise, biologists move from strictly technical assignments into posi-
tions in which they interpret biological knowledge.
The usual path of advancement in biology, as in other sciences,
comes from specialization and the development of the status of an
22 SCIENCe
expert in a given field. Biologists may collaborate with professionals
in other major fieldssuch as biochemistry, biophysics, and biosta-
tistics (or biometrics)to explore problems that require an inter-
disciplinary approach. Biochemistry, for example, uses the methods
of chemistry to study the composition of biological materials and
the molecular mechanisms of biological processes.
Earnings
Earnings for biological scientists vary extensively based on their
level of education and experience, their science specialty, and the
type and size of their employer. In 2008 the median annual salary
for all biological scientists was $65,080, as reported by the U.S.
Department of Labor. Salaries ranged from less than $35,620 to
more than $101,030. General biological scientists working for the
federal government earned an average annual salary of $70,270.
Those specializing in certain areas tended to have slightly higher
annual incomes. Biochemists, for example, had an average salary of
$82,840 per year; microbiologists reported an average of $64,350;
and wildlife biologists averaged $55,290.
According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ-
ers, those with bachelors degrees in the biological sciences had
beginning salaries averaging $34,953 per year in 2007. In gen-
eral, the highest salaries were earned by biologists in business and
industry (such as for pharmaceutical companies and scientific and
research development service companies), followed by those self-
employed, working for nonprofit organizations, in military service,
and working for the U.S. Public Health Service or other positions
in the federal government. The lowest salaries were earned by
teachers, and by those working for hospitals and state and local
governments.
Biologists are usually eligible for health and dental insurance,
paid vacations and sick days, and retirement plans. Some employers
may offer reimbursement for continuing education, seminars, and
travel.
Work Environment
The biologists work environment varies greatly depending upon the
position and type of employer. One biologist may work outdoors
or travel much of the time. Another may spend years working in a
laboratory. Some work with toxic substances and disease cultures;
strict safety measures must be observed.
Biologists 23
Biologists frequently work under pressure and must be able to

focus and make decisions under stressful conditions. In addition,
their work is very detail oriented, requiring great care and patience
to successfully conduct tests and analyze results. Some biologists,
including botanists, ecologists, and zoologists, may undertake
strenuous, sometimes dangerous, fieldwork in primitive conditions.
Marine biologists and wildlife biologists travel to conduct field stud-
ies. Marine biologists may divide their days between working in a
laboratory, on board a research ship, and diving underwater to study
and collect specimens. Wildlife biologists also work in all types of
weather and in all types of terrain and ecosystems. They may work
alone or with a group in inhospitable surroundings in order to gather
information.
Outlook
Employment growth for biological scientists is expected to be about
as fast as the average for all occupations through 2016, according
to the U.S. Department of Labor (DoL). Competition for some
positions will be stiff, however. For example, Ph.D.s looking for
research positions will find strong competition for a limited number
of openingsonly one in four applications for research grants are
approved. Although government funding is currently somewhat
plentiful, a recession or shift in political power can cause the loss
of funding for grants and the decline of research and development
endeavors.
Tighter environmental regulations and growing concern about
cleaning up and preserving the environment are creating greater
need for biological scientists, who will be hired to study and deter-
mine environmental problems and solutions, such as the negative
effects of pesticide use. According to the DoL, environmental
regulatory agencies, as well as environmental lawmakers them-
selves, will need biological scientists to advise them in creating
and amending current environmental policies as well as in iden-
tifying and saving environmentally sensitive areas. Advancements
in biotechnology, such as new methods for producing ethanol
for transportation fuel, will also add to job growth for biological
scientists.
Biologists with advanced degrees will be best qualified for the
most challenging, higher paying jobs, although this varies by spe-
cialty, with genetic, cellular, and biochemical research showing the
most promise. Scientists with bachelors degrees may find openings
as science or engineering technicians or as health technologists and
24 SCIENCe
technicians. Many colleges and universities are cutting back on their
faculties, but high schools and two-year colleges may have teaching
positions available.

For information on careers in biology, contact
Tel: 202-628-1500
Email: admin@aibs.org
http://www.aibs.org
For a career brochure, career-related articles, and a list of institutions

that award academic degrees with a major in physiology, contact
American Physiological Society
9650 Rockville Pike
Tel: 301-634-7164
http://www.the-aps.org
For information on careers, educational resources, and fellowships,

contact
American Society for Microbiology
1752 N Street, NW
Tel: 202-737-3600
http://www.asm.org
For career information, including articles and books, contact

Biotechnology Industry Organization
1201 Maryland Avenue, SW, Suite 900
Tel: 202-962-9200
Email: info@bio.org
http://www.bio.org
For information on specific careers in biology, contact

National Institutes of Health
9000 Rockville Pike
Biologists 25
Tel: 301-496-4000
Email: NIHinfo@od.nih.gov
http://www.nih.gov
To learn more about employment opportunities as a biologist in envi-

ronmental protection, contact
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
http://www.epa.gov
Botanists
quick facts
Environmental studies
Salary Range
$101,030+
Helping/teaching
Voluntary
Work Environment
One or more locations About as fast as the average
Overview
Botanists study a variety of aspects of plant life, from cellular struc-
ture to reproduction, to how plants are distributed, to how rainfall
or other conditions affect them, and more. Botany is an extremely
diverse field with many specialties, and is an integral part of mod-
ern science and industry, with diverse applications in conservation,
forestry, horticulture, agronomy (soil and crop science), agriculture,
manufacturing, and other areas. Botanists work for the government,
in research and teaching institutions, and for private industry. They
also work in nonresearch jobs in testing and inspection, or as lab
technicians/technical assistants.
History
Plant science is hundreds of years old. The invention of microscopes
in the 1600s was very important to the development of modern
botany. Microscopes allowed minute study of plant anatomy and
cells and led to considerable research in the field. During this time,
the professions of botanographist or botanologist developed, which
focused on describing plants.
26
Botanists 27
In the 1700s Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist and taxono-

mist (one who identifies, names, and classifies plants) created the
two-name (genus and species) system for describing plants that is
still used today. Linnaeus wrote more than 180 works on plants,
plant diseases, and related subjects.
In Austria during the 19th century, monk Gregor Johann Medel
did the first experiments in hybridization. He experimented on
garden peas and other plants to figure out why organisms inherit the
traits they do. His work is the basis for 20th- and 21st-century work
in plant and animal genetics. As interest in botany grew, botanical
gardens became popular in Europe and North America.
Botany is a major branch of biology; the other is zoology. Environ-
mental laws that were enacted in the 1970s created greater interest
in and demand for professional botanists. Legislation such as the
National Environmental Policy Act and the Endangered Species Act
(which took into consideration and listed plants that were threat-
ened or endangered) expanded the field of botany. Current stud-
ies in botany reach into many areas of biology, including genetics,
biophysics, and other specialized studies. It has taken on particular
urgency as a potential source of help for creating new drugs to fight
disease, meeting food needs of developing countries, and battling
environmental problems.
The Job
Botanists focus primarily on research and applied research in their
work. They study literally every aspect of plant life: cell structure,
anatomy, heredity, reproduction, and growth; how plants are dis-
tributed on the earth; how rainfall, climate, soil, elevation, and
other conditions affect plants; and how humans can put plants to
better use. In most cases, botanists work on a specific problem or
set of problems in their research, such as developing new varieties
of crops that will better resist disease. Some botanists focus on a
specific type of plant species, such as fungi (mycology), or plants
that are native to a specific area, such as a forest or prairie. A bota-
nist working in private industry, for example, for a food or drug
company, may focus on the development of new products, testing
and inspection, regulatory compliance, or other areas.
Research takes place in laboratories, experiment stations (research
sites found at many universities), botanical gardens, and other facili-
ties. Powerful microscopes and special mounting, staining, and pre-
serving techniques may be used in this sort of research.
28 SCIENCe
A botanist looks through strawberry plants while conducting research on

tritium, a pollutant produced by nuclear power stations and nuclear research
centers. Health Protection Agency/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Botanists 29
Some botanists, particularly those working in conservation or

ecological areas, also go out into the field. They inventory spe-
cies, help re-create lost or damaged ecosystems, or direct pollution
cleanup efforts.
Nonresearch jobs in testing and inspection or as lab technicians/
technical assistants for universities, museums, government agen-
cies, parks, manufacturing companies, botanical gardens, and other
facilities also are available.
Botanists may specialize in any number of areas. Ethnobotanists
study the use of plant life by a particular culture, people, or ethnic
group to find medicinal uses of certain plants. Study of traditional
Native American medicinal uses of plants is an example.
Forest ecologists focus on forest species and their habitats, such as
forest wetlands. Related studies include forest genetics and forest
economics. Jobs in forestry include work in managing, maintaining,
and improving forest species and environments.
Mycologists study fungi and apply their findings in agriculture,
medicine, and industry for development of drugs, medicines, molds,
and yeasts. They may specialize in research and development in a
field such as antibiotics.
Toxicologists study the effect of toxic substances on organisms,
including plants. Results of their work may be used in regulatory
action, product labeling, and other areas. Other botanical special-
ists include pteridologists, who study ferns and other related plants,
bryologists, who study mosses and similar plants, and lichenologists,
who study lichens, which are dual organisms made of both alga and
fungus.
Requirements
High School
While in high school, take biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics,
English, and foreign language classes.
Nonresearch jobs, such as test and inspection professionals, lab tech-
nicians, and technical assistants, require at least a bachelors degree
in a biological science or botany. Research and teaching positions
usually require at least a masters degree or even a doctorate.
At the undergraduate level, there are numerous programs for
degrees in botany or biology (which includes studies in both botany
and zoology). The masters level and above usually involves a spe-
cialized degree. One newer degree is conservation biology, which
30 SCIENCe
Profile: John Bartram (16991777)

John Bartram was the first native-born American botanist. Born
at Marple, near Philadelphia, he became interested in botany as
a child and studied the subject on his own. In 1728 he founded
the first botanical gardens in North America at Kingsessing. The
27-acre tract is now a part of the Philadelphia park system.
Bartram was the first American botanist to experiment
with breeding and improving plants. In search of new plants, he
explored the Allegheny and Catskill mountains and made trips to
Florida and the Carolinas. Famous in Europe as well as in America,
he was appointed botanist to King George III of England in 1765.
Bartram exchanged plants with many European botanists. The
Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus called him the greatest natu-
ral botanist of his time.
focuses on the conservation of specific plant and animal communi-

ties. The University of Wisconsin has one of the biggest programs in
this area. Another key school is Yales forestry school, which offers
degrees in areas such as natural resource management.
While not required, certification displays achievement of a level of
knowledge and skill within the field. Some professional associations
and colleges and universities may offer certification programs to
professional botanists. Requirements will vary based on educational
level and prior work experience. Visit the Web sites of the organiza-
tions listed at the end of this profile to see if they offer certification
in botany.
Other Requirements
Botanists work in this profession because of their love for plants,
gardening, and nature. They need patience, curiosity and an open
mind, the ability to work well alone or with other people, good writ-
ing and other communication skills, and tenacity.
Exploring
To prepare for a career in botany, high school students can explore
their interests by doing science projects involving plants, and
Botanists 31
working during summers or school holidays for a nursery, park,

farm, or laboratory. The Botanical Society of America (BSA) also
suggests hobbies such as camping, photography, and computers as
useful in this field. Tour a botanical garden in your area and talk
to the staff. You can also learn more about botany by contacting
national associations, such as the BSA, for career and internship or
volunteer information.
Employers
Government, research and teaching institutions, and private-sector
companies hire botanists. They work for local, state, and federal
agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Environmen-
tal Protection Agency, Public Health Service, National Biological
Service, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Countless colleges and universities have botany departments and
conduct botanical research. In private industry, botanists work for
agribusiness, biotechnology, biological supply, chemical, environ-
mental, food, lumber and paper, pharmaceutical, and petrochemi-
cal companies. Botanists also work for greenhouses, arboretums,
herbariums, seed and nursery companies, and fruit growers.
Starting Out
Many botanists start their careers as technical assistants or lab tech-
nicians. Those with a masters degree might get work on a uni-
versity research project. Someone with a doctorate might get into
research and development with a drug, pharmaceutical, or other
manufacturer.
For some positions, contract work might be necessary before the
botanist gains a full-time position. Contract work is work done on
a per-project, or freelance, basis: You sign on for that one project,
and then you move on. Conservation groups like The Nature Con-
servancy (TNC) hire hundreds of contract workers, including ecolo-
gists and botanists, each year to do certain work. Contract workers
are especially in demand in the summer when theres a lot of biology
inventory work to be done.
High school students may be able to find internships with local
chapters of TNC. Volunteer opportunities might also be available
with the Student Conservation Association. (Contact information
can be found at the end of this article.) Land trusts are also good
places to look into for volunteer work.
32 SCIENCe
Advancement
Federal employees generally move up the ranks after gaining a cer-
tain number of hours of experience and obtaining advanced degrees.
The Botanical Society of America, whose membership derives pri-
marily from universities, notes that key steps for advancing in uni-
versity positions include producing quality research, publishing a
great deal of material (and frequently), and obtaining advanced
degrees. Advancement in the private sector depends on the indi-
vidual employer. Whatever the botanist can do to contribute to
the bottom line, such as making breakthroughs in new product
development, improving growing methods, and creating better test
and inspection methods, will probably help the botanist advance in
the company.
Earnings
The U.S. Department of Labor reports that in 2008, biological
scientists earned median annual salaries of about $65,080, with
the lowest paid 10 percent bringing home $35,620 annually and
the highest paid 10 percent earning $101,030 or more per year.
According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers,
in 2007 graduates with a bachelors degree in biological sciences
received average starting salary offers of $34,953 a year. Biological
scientists working for the federal government earned average salaries
of $70,270 a year in 2008, while those who worked for scientific
research and development services earned $79,490 annually.
In addition to salaries, full-time botanists may receive other ben-
efits, such as paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, and
retirement plans.
Work Environment
Botanists work in a wide variety of settings, some of them very pleas-
ant: greenhouses, botanical gardens, and herbariums, for example.
A botanist working for an environmental consultant or conserva-
tion organization may spend a lot of time outdoors, rain or shine.
Some botanists interact with the public, such as in a public park or
greenhouse, sharing their enthusiasm for the field. Other botanists
spend their days in a lab, poring over specimens and writing up the
results of their research. They work in cities, suburban areas, the
countryside, and in wilderness areas.
Research botanists deeply involved with a project may put in
more than the typical 40-hour workweek. In exchange, they may
Botanists 33
be able to work fewer hours other weeks, depending on the specific

employer. Botanists performing fieldwork also might have some
flexibility of hours. In private industry, the workweek is likely to be
a standard 35 to 40 hours.
As scientists, botanists need to be focused, patient, and deter-
mined. Some research spans many hours and even years of work.
A botanist needs to believe in what he or she is doing and keep at
a project until its completed satisfactorily. The ability to work on
ones own is important, but few scientists work in a vacuum. They
cooperate with others, share the results of their work orally and in
writing, and, particularly in private industry, may need to explain
what theyre doing in laymans terms.
Educational requirements for botanists are high and much of the
work involves research. Botanists need to be good scholars and enjoy
digging for answers.
Outlook
Biological scientists, including botanists, are expected to have
average employment growth through 2016, according to the U.S.
Department of Labor. Botanists will be needed to help meet growing
environmental, conservation, pharmaceutical, and similar demands.
Government employment opportunities should stay strong, but will
depend in part on the continued health of the national economy.
Federal budget cuts may jeopardize some projects and positions.
Experts say the outlook is best for those with an advanced degree.

Find the booklets Careers in Botany and Botany for the Next Millen-
nium and other publications on BSAs Web site.
Botanical Society of America (BSA)
PO Box 299
St. Louis, MO 63166-0299
Tel: 314-577-9566
Email: bsa-manager@botany.org
http://www.botany.org
Learn more about school and internship programs, news on endangered

species, and membership information by visiting
National Wildlife Federation
11100 Wildlife Center Drive
Reston, VA 20190-5362
34 SCIENCe
Tel: 800-822-9919
http://www.nwf.org
For information about internships with state chapters or at TNC head-

quarters, contact
The Nature Conservancy (TNC)
4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 100
Arlington, VA 22203-1606
Tel: 800-628-6860
Email: comment@tnc.org
http://nature.org
Learn more about educational opportunities and volunteer programs in

natural resource management by visiting
Student Conservation Association
689 River Road
PO Box 550
Charlestown, NH 03603-0550
Tel: 603-543-1700
http://www.thesca.org
Find volunteer and career information, as well as other resources at the

FWSs Web site.
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (FWS)
U.S. Department of the Interior
1849 C Street, NW
Email: contact@fws.gov
http://www.fws.gov
Chemists
quick facts
Chemistry Bachelors degree
Mathematics
Salary Range
$113,080+
Communication/ideas
None available
Work Environment
Overview
Chemists are scientists who study the composition, changes, reac-
tions, and transformations of matter. They may specialize in
analytical, biological, inorganic, organic, or physical chemistry.
Depending on their specialty, they may develop processes that
save energy and reduce pollution. They may work in laboratories,
hospitals, private companies, government agencies, or colleges and
universities. Approximately 93,000 chemists are employed in the
United States.
History
The ancient Egyptians began gathering knowledge about matter
and organizing it into systems, developing what is now known as
alchemy, which mixed science with metaphysics. This was the
beginning of chemistry. Alchemists concentrated their efforts on
trying to convert lead and other common metals into gold. Alchemy
dominated the European chemical scene until modern chemistry
started to replace it in the 18th century.
In the late 1700s Antoine Lavoisier discovered that the weight of
the products of a chemical reaction always equaled the combined
35
36 SCIENCe
Pierre and Marie Curie

Serendipity (the ability to recognize the importance of an acciden-
tal occurrence) is a valuable asset for a scientist. In the summer
of 1896, in the laboratories of Dr. Henri Becquerel, radioactivity
was accidentally discovered. One of Dr. Becquerels assistants
placed an unexposed photographic plate on a lab desk for him
to use. Another assistant put his laboratory key on top of the
photographic plate. Finally, a third person placed a piece of ura-
nium ore on top of the key. After Dr. Becquerel used the plate, he
discovered that it had been exposed and that there was an image
of a key on the film. He then assigned the task of finding out the
source of this unusual phenomenon to one of his graduate stu-
dents, Marie Curie. After several years of tedious, laborious work,
she isolated a tiny amount of two naturally occurring radioactive
elements, radium and polonium, from tons of uranium ore. Dr.
Pierre Curie, Marie Curies husband, assisted her in this work.
In 1903 they and Dr. Becquerel received the Nobel Prize for the
discovery of radioactivity. In 1911 Madam Curie received another
Nobel Prize for the isolation of radium and polonium.
weight of the original reactants. This discovery became known as

the law of the conservation of matter. In the 1800s the work of sci-
entists such as Amadeo Avogadro, John Dalton, Humphrey Davy,
Michael Faraday, Dmitri Mendeleyev, and Julius Meyer laid the
foundations for modern chemistry. Mendeleyev and Meyer indepen-
dently established the periodic law and periodic table of elements,
making chemistry a rational, predictable science. The technological
advances of the industrial revolution provided both the necessity
and the incentive to get rid of alchemy and make chemistry the
science it is today.
The Job
Chemists work in research and development laboratories, or spend
most of their time in offices or libraries, where they conduct aca-
demic research on new developments and write reports on research
results. Often these chemists determine the need for certain prod-
ucts and instruct researchers on which experiments or studies to
pursue in the laboratory.
Chemists 37
Chemists who work in research are usually focused on either

basic or applied research. Basic research entails searching for new
knowledge about chemicals and chemical properties. This helps
scientists broaden their understanding of the chemical world, and
often these new discoveries appear later as applied research. Chem-
ists who do applied research use the knowledge obtained from basic
research to create new and/or better products that may be used
by consumers or in manufacturing processes, such as the develop-
ment of new pharmaceuticals for the treatment of a specific dis-
ease or superior plastics for space travel. In addition, they may hold
marketing or sales positions, advising customers about how to use
certain products. These jobs are especially important in the field
of agriculture, where customers need to know the safe and effec-
tive doses of pesticides to use to protect workers, consumers, and
the environment. Chemists who work in marketing and sales must
understand the scientific terminology involved so they can translate
it into nontechnical terms for the customer.
Some chemists work in quality control and production in manu-
facturing plants. They work with plant engineers to establish manu-
facturing processes for specific products and to ensure that the
chemicals are safely and effectively handled within the plant.
Chemists also work as instructors in high schools, colleges, and
universities. Many at the university level are also involved in basic
or applied research. In fact, most of Americas basic research is con-
ducted in a university setting.
There are many branches of chemistry, each with a different set
of requirements. A chemist may go into basic or applied research,
marketing, teaching, or a variety of other related positions. Analyti-
cal chemists study the composition and nature of rocks, soils, and
other substances and develop procedures for analyzing them. They
also identify the presence of pollutants in soil, water, and air. Biologi-
cal chemists, also known as biochemists, study the composition and
actions of complex chemicals in living organisms. They identify and
analyze the chemical processes related to biological functions, such
as metabolism or reproduction, and they are often involved directly
in genetics studies. They are also employed in the pharmaceutical
and food industries.
Environmental chemists study chemical and biochemical phenom-
ena in air, soil, and water environments and the impact human
activity has on these. Environmental chemistry draws heavily
on atmospheric, aquatic, and soil chemistry, as well as analytical
chemistry.
38 SCIENCe
The distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry is based
on carbon-hydrogen compounds. Ninety-nine percent of all chemi-
cals that occur naturally contain carbon. Organic chemists study the
chemical compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen, while inor-
ganic chemists study all other substances. Physical chemists study the
physical characteristics of atoms and molecules. A physical chem-
ist working in a nuclear power plant, for example, may study the
properties of the radioactive materials involved in the production
of electricity derived from nuclear fission reactions. Macromolecular
chemists study atom and molecular behaviors. Medicinal chemists
study the properties of compounds that are meant to be used for
human medicine applications.
Materials chemists aim to improve on existing products or develop
new ones, as well as strengthen or combine materials to create new
materials, through research and experimentation. Materials science
focuses on natural and synthetic materials used for a variety of
products and structures, such as airplanes, cars, and bridges, as
well as clothing and household goods. Types of projects materials
scientists may work on include developing improved oil refining or
petrochemical processing techniques that save energy and reduce
pollution. They may also study superconducting and graphite mate-
rials, integrated circuit chips, and fuel cells.
Because chemistry is such a diverse field, central to every reac-
tion and the transformation of all matter, it is necessary for chemists
to specialize in specific areas. For instance, materials chemists
might specialize in ceramics or metals. Each field covers a wide
range of work and presents almost limitless possibilities for experi-
mentation and study. Opportunities also exist for collaboration on
projects. Chemists often team up with colleagues in other special-
ties and other fields, such as biologist, chemists, engineers, and
computer scientists, to seek solutions to common problems.
Requirements
High School
While in high school, you can prepare for a future career in chem-
istry by taking advanced-level courses in the physical sciences, envi-
ronmental studies, mathematics, and English. A year each of physics,
chemistry, and biology is essential. The ability to read graphs and
charts, perform difficult mathematical calculations, and write scien-
tific reports is also intrinsic to a chemists work. Computer science
courses are also important to take, since much of your documenta-
tion and other work will involve using computers.
Chemists 39
Wearing protective gloves and a facemask, a chemist performs tests in a

laboratory to determine the chemical composition of liquids found at a power
plant. BSIP/Photo Researchers, Inc.
40 SCIENCe
The minimum educational requirement for a chemist is a bach-
elors degree in science. Masters and doctoral degrees are generally
required for upper level basic and applied research positions, par-
ticularly within university settings.
More than 640 bachelors, 310 masters, and 200 doctoral degree
programs are accredited by the American Chemical Society (ACS).
Many colleges and universities also offer advanced degree programs
in chemistry. Upon entering college, students majoring in chemistry
should expect to take classes in several branches of the field, such as
organic, inorganic, analytical, physical chemistry, and biochemistry.
Chemistry majors must advance their skills in mathematics, physics,
and biology and be proficient with computers. Environmental chem-
istry students take classes in environmental studies, environmental
policy and legislation, and atmospheric, water, and soil chemistry.
Computer courses are also essential, regardless of chemistry special-
ization, to learn how to create modeling and simulation tasks, and
operate computerized laboratory equipment.
Other Requirements
Chemists must be detail-oriented, precise workers. They often work
with minute quantities, taking minute measurements. They must
record all details and reaction changes that may seem insignificant
and unimportant to the untrained observer. They must keep careful
records of their work and have the patience to repeat experiments
over and over again, perhaps varying the conditions in only a small
way each time. They should be inquisitive and have an interest
in what makes things work and how things fit together. Chemists
may work alone or in groups. A successful chemist is not only self-
motivated but should be a team player and have good written and
oral communication skills.
Exploring
Learn as much as you can from your high school chemistry classes.
This will give you the opportunity to learn scientific methods, per-
form chemical experiments, and become familiar with chemical
terminology. Advanced placement (AP) courses will also help. Con-
tact the department of chemistry at a local college or university
to discuss the field and arrange tours of their laboratories or class-
rooms. Read magazines and books about the topic also, to keep up
to date on developments and breakthroughs in the field. You can
Chemists 41
Learn More About It

Ahluwalia, V.K. Green Chemistry: Environmentally Benign Reac-
tions. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2007.
Anastas, Paul T., and John C. Warner. Green Chemistry: Theory
and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Lancaster, M. Green Chemistry. London, England: Royal Society
of Chemistry, 2002.
Manahan, Stanley. Green Chemistry and the Ten Commandments
of Sustainability, 2d ed. Columbia, Mo.: ChemChar Research,
2005.
Peroso, Alvise, and Fulvia Zecchini. Methods and Reagents for
Green Chemistry: An Introduction. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Inter-
science, 2007.
also learn more about the field through an internship or part-time

job with a laboratory. These positions may be challenging to find
because they often require extensive training, but it cant hurt to
explore the possibility. Contact local research or manufacturing
institutions to see if there are any available openings, and if not, ask
for recommendations for other resources that will help you learn
more about the chemistry field.
Visiting the Web site of the Center for Green Chemistry and
Green Engineering at Yale University will also provide you with
further information about research, education, policy updates, cur-
rent projects and partnerships, and publications on environmental
and green chemistry. Go to http://greenchemistry.yale.edu to learn
more.
Employers
About 41 percent of the approximately 93,000 chemists and mate-
rials scientists employed in the United States work for manufactur-
ing companies. Most of these companies are involved in chemical
manufacturing, producing such products as plastics, soaps, paints,
drugs, and synthetic materials. Chemists are also needed in indus-
trial manufacturing and pilot plant locations. Examples of large
companies that employ many chemists are Dow Chemical, DuPont,
Monsanto, and Campbell Soup.
42 SCIENCe
Chemists also work for government agencies, such as the Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, the Department of Agriculture,
the Department of Energy, and the National Institute of Standards
and Technology. About 18 percent of all chemists work for scientific
research and development service companies, and 12 percent work
in architectural, engineering, and related services. Chemists may
find positions in laboratories at institutions of higher learning that
are devoted to research. In addition, some chemists work in full-
time teaching positions at high schools and universities.
Starting Out
Most chemists get started in their careers through internships and
summer jobs. You can get a head start in the chemistry field while
in high school by attending chemical trade fairs and science and
engineering fairs to meet and speak with companies that employ
chemists. Start doing your own research regarding the chemistry
specialization that interests you most, and exploring the colleges
and universities that offer course work and degree programs in that
area. You can also learn more by reading trade publications such
as the journal Green Chemistry and the Journal of Environmental
Monitoring, and by visiting the Web sites of professional organiza-
tions, like the American Chemical Society (http://www.chemistry.
org) for further resources. ScienceDaily is another useful source for
science news. Visit the Web site at http://www.sciencedaily.com
and key in chemistry in the search box to access chemistry-related
articles.
Advancement
Chemists usually advance by taking on greater responsibilities, han-
dling more complex projects, working independently, and having
more funding with which to conduct their work. A chemist may rise
from doing basic research in a laboratory to being a group leader,
overseeing and directing the work of others. Some chemists eventu-
ally leave the laboratory and set up their own consulting businesses,
serving the needs of private manufacturing companies or govern-
ment agencies. Others may accept university faculty positions.
Chemists who work in a university setting follow the advance-
ment procedures for that institution. Typically, a chemist in aca-
demia with a doctoral degree will move up from instructor to
assistant professor to associate professor and finally to full professor.
In order to advance through these ranks, faculty members at most
Chemists 43
colleges and universities are expected to perform original research

and publish their papers in scientific journals of chemistry and/or
other sciences. As the rank of faculty members increases, so do their
duties, salaries, responsibilities, and reputations.
Earnings
Salary levels for chemists vary based on education, experience,
and specialty. According to the U.S. Department of Labor (DoL),
median annual earnings for all chemists in 2008 were $66,230.
The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $37,840, and the high-
est paid 10 percent made more than $113,080 annually. Chemists
working for the federal government averaged $98,060 in 2008.
Those working in research and development usually have higher
earnings than those who work in industry. In 2008 chemists who
worked in scientific research and development services had annual
incomes of $79,560. Those who worked for pharmaceutical and
medicine manufacturing companies earned $70,570 per year, and
those who worked in basic chemical manufacturing had annual
incomes of about $67,490.
As highly trained, full-time professionals, most chemists receive
health insurance, paid vacations, and sick leave. The specifics of
these benefits vary from employer to employer. Chemists who teach
at the college or university level usually work on an academic cal-
endar, which means they get extensive breaks from teaching classes
during summer and winter recesses.
Work Environment
Most chemists work in clean, well-lighted laboratories that are well
organized and neatly kept. They may have their own offices and
share laboratory space with other chemists. Some chemists work at
such locations as oil wells or refineries, where their working condi-
tions may be uncomfortable. Occasionally, chemical reactions or
substances being tested may have strong odors. Other chemicals
may be extremely dangerous to the touch, and chemists will have to
wear safety devices such as goggles, gloves, and protective clothing
and work in special, well-ventilated hoods.
Outlook
The U.S. Department of Labor predicts the employment of chem-
ists to grow about as fast the average through 2016. Manufacturing
44 SCIENCe
companies are continuing to outsource their research and devel-
opment and testing operations to smaller, specialized firms, so
employment opportunities will be best at professional, scientific,
and technical services firms. Another area of growth for aspiring
chemists is in pharmaceutical and biotechnology research, due to
advances in genetics opening up new avenues for treating diseases.
Chemists will also be needed to create and improve technologies
and processes for chemical production, and to measure and monitor
water and air pollutants to ensure compliance with federal, state,
and local environmental regulations. The DoL states that, Envi-
ronmental research will offer many new opportunities for chemists
and materials scientists. To satisfy public concerns and to comply
with government regulations, chemical manufacturing companies
will continue to invest billions of dollars each year in technology
that reduces pollution and cleans up existing waste sites. Research
into traditional and alternative energy sources should also lead to
employment growth for chemists.
Those wishing to teach full time at the university or college level
should find some opportunities but also stiff competition. Many of
these institutions are choosing to hire people for adjunct faculty
positions (part-time positions without benefits) instead of for full-
time, tenure-track positions. Well-trained chemists with masters
or doctoral degrees will have better odds of securing employment
in the field.

For a copy of Partnerships in Health Care, a brochure discussing clini-
cal laboratory careers, and other information, contact
American Association for Clinical Chemistry
1850 K Street, NW, Suite 625
Tel: 800-892-1400
http://www.aacc.org
For general information about chemistry careers and approved educa-

tion programs, contact
American Chemical Society
1155 16th Street, NW
Tel: 800-227-5558
Email: help@acs.org
http://www.chemistry.org
Chemists 45
Find publications, education, and career information by visiting

Center for Green Chemistry and Green Engineering at Yale
PO Box 208107
New Haven, CT 06520-8107
Tel: 203-432-5215
Email: greenchemistry@yale.edu
http://greenchemistry.yale.edu
Climatologists
quick facts
Chemistry
Salary Range
$127,100+
None required
Work Environment
Overview
Climatologists study past climate trends in order to forecast future
long-term changes in the climate. They study climates and weather
patterns within specific regions by analyzing and interpreting data,
maps, charts, photographs, and other materials. Climatologists work
for a variety of employers, including government agencies, nonprofit
organizations, private scientific consulting firms, and colleges and
universities.
History
Chinese Scholar Shen Kuo is considered by some to be the father
of paleoclimatology, which is the study of the history of climate
through such things as tree rings and rocks. In the 11th century Kuo
found fossil plant stems growing in Shenxi Province, a dry region
in China that is not typically hospitable to plants. He hypothesized
that the climate must have naturally shifted over a long span of time
to allow this to happen
Other early climatologists include British scientist Sir Edmund
Halley, who in 1686 created a map of tropical surface winds based
on wind data collected from ships logs. In the 1800s Benjamin
46
Climatologists 47
Franklin was curious as to why it took less time to sail from Europe
to the United States than it took heading in the opposite direction.
He studied and mapped the Gulf Stream, measuring wind speeds,
depth, and temperature. The Gulf Stream map would help speed
travel as well as shipments and overseas mail deliveries. In the 1860s
British doctor and explorer Sir Francis Galton invented an early
form of weather maps that are used by meteorologists today. He
also coined the term anticyclone, which is a large atmospheric cir-
culation system that features wind flowing clockwise within it in
the Northern Hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere. Anticyclones usually occur when the air mass is cooled
by a cool ocean surface, or when the air mass over land is cooled
during the fall, winter, or spring, when less sunlight is available.
Climatology was formally recognized in the United States in
1870, when a national weather program was established within
the U.S. Signal Corps. Later transferred to the U.S. Department
of Agriculture and renamed the USDA Weather Bureau, its main
mission was to measure and report on the climate of our nation. To
accomplish this, the Cooperative Weather Network was started in
1893, in which volunteer observers across the United States would
use Weather Bureau instrumentation to read and record the maxi-
mum, minimum, and current temperature, precipitation amount,
and write their comments as wellat the same time every day. By
1895 the Co-op Network was combined with existing state weather
networks for standardization. Aviation weather forecasting develop-
ments in the early 20th century weakened the climatology field until
1954, when Dr. Helmet Landsberg, an internationally renowned
climatologist, took charge of the Weather Bureaus Climatologi-
cal Services Division. He created the National State Climatologist
Program within the bureau, to collect high-quality climate data
nationally as well as provide services locally. In a little over a decade,
the Weather Bureaus name was changed to the National Weather
Service, which it is still known as today. Landsberg also introduced
the use of statistical analysis in climatology as well as other new
weather data processing methods and electronic computing.
The mission of climatologywhich was originally geared toward
forecasting weather and climate for farmershas grown in the
past decades because of increased concern about the environment.
Future changes in the climate can have long-term effects on any-
thing from food production and energy usage to human health and
life expectancy. Climatologists today study climate trends of the
past to help solve current and potential environmental, social, and
economic problems.
48 SCIENCe
climatology TERMS
albedo The amount of solar radiation the earth reflects. Albedo
changes with cloud cover and human activity.
Arctic frontal zone A frontal zone in the Greenland Sea that
separates warm, salty, northward-flowing water in the Norwe-
gian Atlantic current and the West Spitsbergen current to the east
from the cooler and fresher Arctic surface water in the Greenland
Sea gyre (ringlike system of ocean currents rotating clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere) to the west.
Arctic surface water (ASW) The summer surface-water mass
found in the Arctic domain in the North Atlantic Ocean.
atmospheric aerosol content Generated by natural and artificial
sources, these nongaseous microscopic particles and droplets
float in the atmosphere and affect the climate in ways similar to
greenhouse gases. They consist mostly of particles of mineral
dust, sulfuric acid, ammonium sulfate, biological material-like
pollens, and carbon or soot.
hydrologic cycle The process of evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, and flow of water from land to ocean, which plays a
The Job
Climatologists are atmospheric scientists who study weather patterns
and the climate to forecast what the climate will be in the future.
They study the interactions between five climate-system compo-
nents: atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and litho-
sphere. With the atmosphere, they study the gases that surround the
earth. The biosphere is ecosystemsall living organisms on land,
and in waters and the atmosphere, as well as dead organic matter
such as in soil. The hydrosphere concerns liquid surfaces and water,
as in oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and underground water. Frozen water
comprises the cryosphereglaciers, snow, permafrost, and floating
ice. (Any changes in these directly affect the biosphere and the atmo-
sphere.) The lithosphere is the earths crust and upper mantle.
Climatologists use a number of tools in their work, such as
satellites to study cloud cover. They analyze cloud cover, snow
packs, and glacier sizes of the past to see trends in the climate.
They study ice core or mud samples taken from poles, looking for
Climatologists 49
major role in climate. This cycle transports heat from the equator
to the polar areas.
ice core The section of ice removed from an ice sheet or gla-
cier, used to study climate patterns. Ice samples have air trapped
within them, which climatologists study to determine carbon diox-
ide and other gas amounts that have been in the atmosphere over
long periods of time.
ozone Composed of three oxygen atoms, ozone is a highly
reactive gas that, depending on its location, can affect the
earth for the positive or negative. Stratospheric ozone forms
naturally when solar ultraviolet radiation interacts with molecu-
lar oxygen. This ozone layer is found six to 30 miles above the
earths surface and reduces the amount of harmful UV radia-
tion reaching the earths surface. Seasonal changes, such as
volcanoes and solar flares, vary the ozone layers concentra-
tion. Tropospheric, or ground level, ozone forms primarily from
reactions between two major classes of air pollutants: vola-
tile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides. These reactions
depend on the presence of heat and sunlight, meaning more
ozone forms in the summer months.
compounds trapped in ancient snow, water, and soil so that they

delineate what the climate was like back then. These samples can
contain pollens that will reveal which plants thrived in the past,
further revealing what the climate was to allow for that survival.
Volcanic ash and dissolved gases can also be found in ice and mud
samples. Climatologists also collect and study samples of plant
and animal species. Studying and monitoring ocean temperatures,
ocean currents, and changes in salinity is also a large part of a
climatologists job.
Paleoclimatologists study polar ice caps, as well as fossils and rock
layers. They are concerned with understanding what the earths
climate was like in the pasttheir work may take them back hun-
dreds, thousands, or millions of years ago. Global warming studies
often include the findings of paleoclimatologists.
Climatologists are a bit like detectives in that they have to puzzle
through problems and examine and question a variety of data to
come up with conclusions. They are open mindedsome have even
50 SCIENCe
A climatologist works with seabed cores taken from below the Arctic
Ocean. Cores to a depth of 430 meters were drilled, allowing for the study
of climate change over the past 55 million years. Philippe Psaila/Photo
Researchers, Inc.
studied paintings and illustrations of the past to see what plant spe-
cies are featured and how cloud cover was portrayed.
Climatologists also use computer-based climate models to simu-
late climates and predict climate patterns. With these tools they
can learn how the climate changes over time and analyze data to
see if human activity is affecting the current climate, and what this
impact may have in the long term. Climatologists can use computer
models to demonstrate historic events that have occurred in the
earths climate. They can also manipulate models to demonstrate
how various changes such as minor temperature increase can affect
the future climate.
Requirements
High School
Climatologists use math skills to collect and analyze data, so if this
work interests you as a future career, take as many math classes
as possible while in high school. Also take courses in biology,
Climatologists 51
chemistry, geology, geography, ecology, environmental science,

computers, and English.
Undergraduate degrees for climatologists vary. Some have degrees
specifically in climatology, while others may have atmospheric
science degrees, or even meteorology degreeseven though the dis-
ciplines vary in their mission, many of the tools and methods used
are the same. Others may have degrees in physics or other math sub-
jects. Course work that provides a good basis for future climatology
work includes algebra, trigonometry, physics, geometry, meteorol-
ogy, statistics, computer modeling, data analysis, and global imaging
systems and global positioning systems. Some climatology positions
may require advanced degrees.
Other Requirements
Strong math skills and ability to prioritize information are intrin-
sic to climatology work. The ability to collect massive amounts
of data, organize, and then analyze it is also essential. Clear com-
munication skills are important for writing reports and making
presentations about findings. Successful climatologists need to
have solid knowledge of statistics, economics, environmental pol-
icy and government affairs, as well as skill in using forecasting
equipment and procedures, data software programs, and computer
modeling.
Exploring
A great way to learn more about what it takes to become a climatol-
ogist is to speak with someone already working in the atmospheric
science field. Contact professional climatology and atmospheric sci-
ence organizations to see if you can informally interview a clima-
tologist either by phone or email. Create a short list of questions
beforehand so that you will be prepared in case someone agrees to
chat with you immediately. You can start with the American Asso-
ciation of State Climatologists, the National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration, or even NASA. (Web sites are listed at the
end of this article.)
Employers
There were about 8,800 atmospheric scientists employed in the
United States in 2006. Most work for the federal government, with
52 SCIENCe
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration being the
largest employer of scientists in National Weather Service stations
throughout the country. Other atmospheric scientists work for
professional, scientific, and technical service firms, and nonprofit
organizations that are concerned with climate-related issues. Many
others teach atmospheric science and related courses in colleges and
universities
Starting Out
Visit the Student Opportunities section of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administrations Web site to learn more about
atmospheric science careers, educational programs, and intern-
ships listed for high school, college, and graduate students (http://
www.oesd.noaa.gov/noaa_student_opps.html). Your colleges
career services office can provide leads for entry-level positions,
and professors often have contacts that may be of use in the job
search. Also, reading is a great way to reap information about cli-
matology, and there are plenty of books out there to help you gain
a better understanding of the field, such as Ecological Climatology:
Concepts and Applications, by Gordon Bonan; and The Chilling
Stars: The New Theory of Climate Change, by Henrik Svensmark.
Advancement
Climatologists may advance to more senior management posi-
tions, handling more complex research projects and managing
larger or more departments and regions. Those who work full
time at companies may leave to start their own businesses. Col-
lege and university climatology teachers and instructors can move
up the career ladder within academia by becoming tenured pro-
fessors or department heads. Securing an advanced degree in a
different atmospheric specialty is another way to advance within
the field.
Earnings
Atmospheric scientists earned median annual incomes of $81,290,
with salaries ranging from $38,990 to $127,100 or higher in 2008.
Federally employed scientists averaged $89,950 in 2008, while
those who worked for management, scientific, and technical con-
sulting services earned $50,930 per year. Atmospheric scientists
who worked for colleges, universities, and professional schools had
Climatologists 53
annual salaries of $81,760 per year. The top paying metropolitan

areas for atmospheric scientists were Baltimore-Towson, Maryland
(paying $116,840 annually); Sacramento-Arden-Arcade-Roseville,
California ($102,850); San Diego-Carlsbad-San Marcos, Cali-
fornia ($101,750); Oxnard-Thousand Oaks-Ventura, California
($99,350); and Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, D.C., Virginia,
Maryland, and West Virginia ($93,610).
Work Environment
Climatologists generally work 40 hours per week or more in labora-
tories, offices, and on site conducting fieldwork. They work indepen-
dently and on teams with other scientists and specialists, analyzing
data and writing reports on their findings. They travel to conduct
fieldwork, and may collect data from mountaintops or ocean bot-
toms in various climatesranging from tropical weather to sub-
freezing conditions. Climatologists also spend some time traveling
to meet with clients and attend conferences and workshops. Those
who are on faculties of colleges and universities teach in classrooms
and lecture halls, and work in offices and research laboratories.
Outlook
The U.S. Department of Labor forecasts average employment
growth for atmospheric scientists through 2016. Opportunities for
scientists are expected to be better in the private industry sec-
tor than in the federal government. Companies and organizations
concerned about long-term climate change and its effects will hire
climatologists to conduct studies and present findings.

Find membership information, publications, and other resources at the
AASCs Web site.
American Association of State Climatologists (AASC)
http://www.stateclimate.org/
Find information about the earths atmosphere, updates on climate

issues, and other environmental news at the Earth section of NASAs
Web site.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/index.html
54 SCIENCe
Find information about climatology issues and programs, job listings,
and other resources at NOAAs Web site.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
http://www.noaa.gov/index.html
Learn more about current climate research programs and new develop-
ments in the field by visiting
United States Global Change Research Program
1717 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 250
Tel: 202-223-6262
http://www.globalchange.gov
Ecologists
quick facts
Chemistry
Salary Range
Communication/ideas $102,610+
Technical/scientific
Work Environment Voluntary
Primarily outdoors
Primarily multiple Outlook
locations Much faster than the average
Overview
Ecology is the study of the interconnections between organisms
(plants, animals) and the physical environment. It links biology,
which includes both zoology (the study of animals) and botany
(the study of plants), with physical sciences such as geology and
paleontology. Thus, ecologist is a broad name for any of a number of
different biological or physical scientists concerned with the study
of plants or animals within their environment.
History
Ecology is an old science. The ancient Greeks recorded their obser-
vations of natural history many centuries ago. Linking the studies
of life with the physical environment is fairly new, however. In
1866 Ernst von Haeckel, a German biologist, first defined the term
ecology. Like many scientists of his time, he grappled with Charles
Darwins theory of evolution based on natural selection, which
stated that the species of plants and animals that were best adapted
to their environment would survive. Haeckel did not agree with
Darwin, but he and many other scientists grew fascinated with the
correlation between living things and their physical environment.
55
56 SCIENCe
Significant discoveries in geology proved that many forms of plants
and animals had once existed but had died out. Fossils showed star-
tlingly unfamiliar plant types, for example, as well as prehistoric
animal remains that no one had ever imagined existed. (Before such
discoveries, people assumed that the species they saw all around
them had always existed.) Realization that there were important
connections between living things and the physical world was a key
step in the development of the science of ecology.
The professional field of ecology became popular in the late
1960s and early 1970s. Before then some scientists and others had
tried to warn the public about the ill effects of industrialization,
unchecked natural resource consumption, overpopulation, spoiling
of wilderness areas, and other thoughtless misuse of the environ-
ment. It was only in the years after World War IIwhen radiation,
pesticides, and other chemicals were used widely; industrial and
automobile pollution was rampant; and water pollution surged
that the general public grew alarmed about the environment. By
this time, many feared it was too late. Heavy municipal and indus-
trial discharge into Lake Erie, for example, made it unable to sus-
tain life as before.
In response the U.S. government passed a series of hard-hitting
environmental laws during the 1960s and 1970s. To become com-
pliant with these laws, companies and municipalities began their
search for professionals who understood the problems and could
help them take steps toward remediation. Originally hired were
professionals from existing fields, such as geologists, sanitary engi-
neers, biologists and chemists. These professionals may not have
studied environmental problems as such at school, but they were
able to apply the science they knew to the problems at hand.
To some extent, this is still true. Many people working on environ-
mental problems have general science or engineering backgrounds.
Recently, however, the trend leans toward specialization. Biology,
chemistry, engineering, law, urban planning, and communications
students can obtain degrees with specialization in the environment.
Todays ecologist can have a background in traditional biological or
physical sciences, or may have studied these subjects specifically in
the context of environmental problems.
The Job
Ecologists focus their work predominantly on the ecosystem, which
are communities of plants and animals within a given habitat that
provide the necessary means of survival, including food and water.
Ecologists 57
Ecosystems are defined by such physical conditions as climate,

altitude, latitude, and soil and water characteristics. Examples
include forests, tundra, savannas (grasslands), and rainforests.
Numerous complex and delicate interrelationships comprise an
ecosystem. A good example of how the links work starts with green
plants. They convert the energy from sunlight to make carbohy-
drates, fats, and proteins; some animals eat these plants and acquire
part of the energy of the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins; and then
other animals eat these animals and acquire a smaller part of that
energy.
Ecologists work in many areas of specialization. Limnologists study
freshwater ecology; hydrogeologists focus on water on or below the
surface of the earth; paleontologists study the remains of ancient life
in the form of fossils; geomorphologists study the origin of landforms
and their changes; and geochemists study the chemistry of the earth,
including the effect of pollution on the earths chemistry.
Other specialties are those of the endangered species biologists
and wetlands ecologists. Protecting ecosystems from disruption is
also a primary concern of ecologists today. And ecosystem resto-
rationthe reconstruction of areas that have been destroyed or
nearly destroyed by pollution, overuse of land, or other actionsis
a field of expertise that is on the rise. To address these issues, many
ecologists specialize in land and water conservation. They help to
restore damaged land and water as well as to preserve wild areas for
the future. Understanding the links between organisms and their
physical environments can be invaluable in such efforts.
To give you a better idea of how this works, imagine a woman is
out jogging one day by a large pond at the edge of town. She notices
that hundreds of small, dead fish have washed up at the edge of the
pond (a fish kill, in environmental language). Clearly something
is wrong, but what? A nearby factory discharges its wastewater into
the ponddid this have something to do with it? Or, is there some-
thing new in the wastewater that killed the fish? A professional such
as an ecologist, who understands the fish, the habitat (the pond), the
possible reasons for the fish kill, and the potential solutions, would
be useful here.
Ecologists may also be called upon to help with environmental
planning and resource management projects and issues. Planning
involves studying and reporting the impact of an action on the envi-
ronment. For example, how might the construction of a new federal
highway affect the surrounding ecosystem? A planning team may
go to the site to view the physical geography and environment, the
58 SCIENCe
plants, and the animals; assess the problems; and make recommen-
dations for alternative actions that will have less damaging effects.
Resource management means determining what resources already
exist and working to use them wisely. Professionals may build data-
bases cataloging the plants, animals, and physical characteristics of
a given area. They may also report on what can be done to ensure
Two ecologists sample bottom sediments in a lake for small invertebrates

that indicate ecosystem health. Science Source
Ecologists 59
that the ecosystem can continue to sustain itself in the future. If

an ecosystem has been completely destroyed, ecologists can help
reconstruct it, bringing the physical environment back up to par and
reintroducing the species that used to live there.
Requirements
High School
Classes in earth science, biology, chemistry, English, and math are
useful foundations for future ecology work. Much of the work is
done through computer database software and online applications,
so be sure to take computer classes as well.
A bachelors of science is the minimum degree required for nonre-
search ecology jobs, which include testing and inspection. Majors
can be in biology, botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, or geology.
Classes in mathematics, physics, engineering, as well as environ-
mental policy and legislation are recommended. A masters degree
is necessary for jobs in applied research or management. Areas of
study include natural resource management, ecology, botany, con-
servation biology, and forestry. Advanced degree programs usually
include class work and fieldwork, laboratory research, and a disserta-
tion or thesis. To advance in the field, particularly in administration
positions, a Ph.D. is usually required.
Certification is voluntary and can help improve opportunities for
employment and advancement in the field. The Ecological Society
of America offers professional certification at three levels: associ-
ate ecologist, ecologist, and senior ecologist. A candidates certifi-
cation title depends on educational level and years of prior work
experience.
Other Requirements
Ecologists appreciate and respect nature. They have analytical yet
creative minds, and are able to puzzle through data to come up
with solutions. They are well versed in scientific fundamentals and
have working knowledge of computer database software programs.
The ability to work independently as well as with other scientists
in different areas of specialization is essential, and clear communi-
cation skills, both verbal and written, are needed for reports and
presentations.
60 SCIENCe
Exploring
Talk to people working in the field to learn more about whats
involved in the work. Contact nearby colleges, universities, and
government agencies to see if you can set up an informal interview
with a professional ecologist. And an easy way for you to learn more
about ecology is to study your own environment. Over the next few
months, commit time to take trips to a nearby pond, forest, or park
and bring a notebook with you so you can record your observations
and collect data. Your science teachers as well as local park service
or arboretum personnel can also offer you guidance.
Employers
The Ecological Society of America points out that ecologists are
needed not only to address natural resource management, but also
to study a whole host of other environmental issues, such as ozone
depletion, global climate change, ecosystem management, species
extinction, invasive species, habitat alteration and destruction,
nitrogen deposition, and sustainable ecological systems. Academia,
government and nongovernment agencies, and private environmen-
tal firms hire ecologists to research these topics and help create
solutions.
Most land and water conservation jobs are in the public sec-
tor. This includes the federal government, the largest employer.
The Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
National Park Service, and U.S. Geological Survey are among the
federal agencies that manage U.S. conservation. Other public sector
opportunities are with states, regions, and towns. Opportunities in
the private sector can be found with utilities, timber companies, and
consulting firms. An additional area of employment is in teaching.
Starting Out
Internships as well as part-time and seasonal jobs are great ways
to get started in the field of ecology. You can volunteer with such
groups as the Student Conservation Association (SCA), which
places people in resource management projects. Programs include
three- to five-week summer internships for high school students.
If you have already graduated from high school (and are over
age 18), you can check with the SCA for information on intern-
ships in wildlife management, natural resources, forestry, and
other areas.
Ecologists 61
words to know
arthropod An animal with an exoskeleton, a segmented body,
and jointed appendages.
canopy The upper layer of a forest, created by the foliage and
branches of the tallest trees.
coniferous A coniferous forest is composed of trees that bear
cones.
ecosystem A community of animals and plants and their interac-
tion with the environment.
effluent Wastewater or sewage that flows into a river, lake, or
ocean.
entomology The study of insects.
invertebrate An organism that does not have a backbone.
riparian zone Forest or grass growing on the banks of a stream.
The riparian zone can prevent soil erosion.
savanna A flat, grassy plain found in tropical areas.
tundra A cold region where the soil under the surface of the
ground is permanently frozen.
watershed The gathering ground of a river system, a ridge that
separates two river basins, or an area of land that slopes into a
river or lake.
Another option is to contact a federal or local government agency

directly about an internship. Many, including the Environmental
Protection Agency, National Park Service, and Bureau of Land Man-
agement, have internship programs. Programs are more informal
at the local level. In the private sector, internships are available at
nonprofit organizations such as the National Wildlife Federation and
the Natural Resources Defense Council.
Advancement
Ecologists with a couple of years of work experience may take on
more responsibilities by moving up to managerial positions or to
62 SCIENCe
nontechnical administrative, sales, or supervisory jobs. Ph.D. ecolo-
gists can advance by conducting independent research and mov-
ing into administrative positions. They may also take salaried jobs
within academia, starting with assistant professor positions and
moving up to associate and tenured professorships.
Earnings
Ecologists salaries depend on a variety of factors, such as their
level of education, work experience, area of specialization, and the
organization for which they work. The U.S. Department of Labor
reports that in 2008, the median annual income of environmental
scientists and specialists was $59,750. Salaries ranged from less than
$36,310 to $102,610 or more annually. Ecologists working for local
governments in 2008 earned average salaries of $58,040 while those
who worked in the private sector for management, scientific, and
technical consulting firms earned $70,450 per year.
Work Environment
Ecologists work in a variety of places, from wilderness areas to for-
ests to mountain streams. They might also work in sewage treat-
ment plants, depending upon their specialty. Ecologists also spend
their days in front of computers or in research laboratories, or find
themselves testifying in court. While loving nature is certainly a
driving factor for ecologists, they must also be very skilled in sci-
entific fundamentals. Ecologists might start out in the field col-
lecting samples, making notes about animal habits, or doing other
monitoring. They may work independently or share what they have
learned with teams. They usually work 40 hours or more per week,
and spend some time traveling to conduct research, and to attend
meetings and conferences.
Outlook
The U.S. Department of Labor forecasts employment growth for
environmental scientists will be much faster than the average for
all occupations through 2016. Intensified demands on environmen-
tal and water sources because of the growing population will spur
greater need for environmental scientists such as ecologists. Private-
sector firms will offer the most opportunities. Competition for land
and resource conservation jobs will continue to be keen, however,
because of their high popularity and tight budgets for such agencies.
Ecologists 63
Ecologists with advanced degrees will have more advantages in the

job market.

For information on careers in the geosciences, contact
American Geological Institute
4220 King Street
Alexandria, VA 22302-1502
Tel: 703-379-2480
http://www.agiweb.org
Find information about ecological issues, publications, and certification

by visiting
Ecological Society of America (ESA)
1990 M Street, NW, Suite 700
Tel: 202-833-8773
Email: esahq@esa.org
http://esa.org
For environmental career information, visit

Environmental Careers Organization
http://www.eco.org
For information on internships, job opportunities, and student chapters,

contact
Reston, VA 20190-5362
Tel: 800-822-9919
http://www.nwf.org
For information on student volunteer activities and programs, contact

Student Conservation Association
689 River Road
PO Box 550
Charlestown, NH 03603-0550
Tel: 603-543-1700
http://www.thesca.org
Environmental Scientists
quick facts
Chemistry
Salary Range
$102,610+
None required
Work Environment
One or more locations Much faster than the average
Overview
Environmental scientists use physical science (such as biology, chem-
istry, and geology) and social science (including conservation and
resource management) to study and assess the environment in
relation to the impact human activity has on it as well as damage
incurred through natural interactions. Their work is also used to
ensure environmental laws and regulations are being met and to
help prevent violations before they occur. Environmental scientists
specialize in various areas such as air, soil, and water, and use dif-
ferent tools and software programs to collect and study samples.
They work for federal, state, and local environmental protection
agencies, as well as private sector companies, and teach in colleges
and universities. There are approximately 83,000 environmental
scientists employed in the United States.
History
Environmental science has early roots in the 1800s, when scientists
began drawing a correlation between living things and the environ-
ment. During this time Charles Darwin developed his controversial
theory of natural selection, which states that animals and species
64
that are best adapted to their environments are the ones that sur-
vive, while others die out. Geologists unearthed fossils of many
prehistoric plants and animals that had once lived on this planet
but no longer existed. Research into why these animal and plant
species became extinctsuch as due to catastrophic climate and
environmental changescontinues to this day.
The 1960s and 1970s kicked off the beginning of global environ-
mental awareness and increasing interest in environmental science.
In the United States alone, numerous laws were passed to address
such issues as air and water pollution, landfills, hazardous waste,
and endangered and threatened species and habitats. People became
more knowledgeable about the direct and indirect impact human
activity has on the environment, and in reverse, the impact that a
damaged environment can have on human health and the health
of all living creatures. The Environmental Protection Agency was
created at this time to protect the natural environment and human
health, and with it followed many new and amended environmental
laws enacted to protect land, air, and water, such as the Clean Air
Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act, and the Pollution Preven-
tion Act.
The profession of environmental scientist has also grown since
the 1970s, in direct relation to the greater need to remedy and repair
damaged ecosystems, and the desire to prevent pollution and other
hazards before they occur. Todays environmental scientists study
topics such as global warming, ozone depletion, forest conservation,
soil erosion, and changes in the earths atmosphere.
The Job
Environmental science is interdisciplinary, drawing from many dif-
ferent scientific areas that are needed to have a fuller understanding
of environmental issues that have been caused by humans as well
as natural activity. It is the study of the interaction between bio-
logical, chemical, and physical components of the environment and
their effects on all organisms. Environmental scientists use scientific
principles, methodologies, and tools to identify and analyze envi-
ronmental problems and solutions. Because many environmental
problems cover multiple scientific areas, environmental scientists
often consult with other scientists and may also work in teams that
consist of scientists who specialize in different areas.
Environmental scientists are knowledgeable about biology, chem-
istry, physics, ecology, and earth sciences such as geology. They are
also well versed in social science, political science, economics, and
66 SCIENCe
environmental legislation and policies. They collect and assess data
for governmental agencies, industry, environmental programs, and
the general public. Depending on their specialty, they gather soil,
water, or air samples to identify, abate, or eliminate sources of pol-
lutants or hazards that affect the environment and or human health.
Their work may be used to help design and monitor waste disposal
sites, preserve water supplies, and reclaim contaminated land and
water so that it complies with federal environmental regulations.
Another large part of their job entails identifying and assessing risks,
and writing risk assessments based on their findings. In these assess-
ments, they describe risks that may occur from construction and
other environmental changes. They also write technical proposals
and give presentations to managers and regulators.
The types of issues environmental scientists are called upon to
help address may include global warming and other global climate
change problems, energy and natural resource depletion, air or
water pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, coral reef damage, habi-
tat destruction, the spread of infectious disease, pesticide-resistant
bugs, and monitoring and safely disposing of waste. According to
the U.S. Department of Labor, environmental scientists are similar
to physical and life scientists in the training they receive and work
they do, but the difference is that they focus on environmental
issues. They specialize in subfields such as environmental biology
or chemistry, environmental ecology and conservation, or fisher-
ies science. There are many job titles within the category of envi-
ronmental science. Environmental ecologists, for example, study the
interrelationship between organisms and their environments. They
examine the effects of population size, pollutants, precipitation,
climate, and other factors on both the organisms and environments.
Ecological modelers use mathematical modeling, systems analysis,
themodynamics, and computer techniques to study ecosystems,
pollution control, and resource management. Environmental chem-
ists study chemical toxicity, examining the effects these chemicals
have on people, animals, and plants. Geoscientists are environmental
scientists who study the earth. Other aspects of environmental sci-
entists work include processing and reviewing environmental per-
mits, licenses, and related materials; reviewing and implementing
environmental technical standards, guidelines, policies, and formal
regulations that meet requirements; and investigating and reporting
on accidents that affect the environment.
Environmental scientists use a variety of tools in their work,
such as digital mapping, remote sensing, geographic information
systems (GIS), and global positioning systems (GPS). They may
use air samplers or collectors, radiation detectors, soil core samplers,

water samplers and analyzers. Depending on their specialty, the
technology they use might include pollution modeling software and
emissions tracking software. Some of the computer programs envi-
ronmental scientists need to be well versed in are Adobe Illustrator,
CorelDraw, and various map creation software programs.
Requirements
High School
Environmental scientists have various educational backgrounds
depending on their specialty. A well-rounded education in high
school includes classes in biology, chemistry, ecology, geology, phys-
ics, algebra, geometry, environmental science, and history. Courses
that emphasize writing and public speaking are also useful for future
report writing and presentation of findings. Be sure to take English,
communications, and speech classes. Course work in computer soft-
ware programs and foreign language are also beneficial.
Environmental scientists may have degrees in environmental sci-
ence, or they may have degrees in other specialty areas, such as
biology, ecology, chemistry, climatology, geology, or even social sci-
ence or engineering. A masters degree is generally required, and
a doctoral degree is needed for college teaching or research jobs.
Securing a bachelors degree is the first step, and environmental
science degree programs offer an interdisciplinary approach to the
natural sciences, focusing on biology, chemistry, and geology. Stu-
dents usually study data analysis and physical geography, which can
later be applied to practical work in analyzing pollution abatement
or ecosystems protection and management. They may also study
atmospheric science, soil science, management or conservation of
water resources, hydrology, hazardous waste management, environ-
mental legislation, and geologic logging.
Other Requirements
Environmental scientists are avid learners and enjoy puzzling through
problems to arrive at solutions. They have a deep appreciation for
nature and a strong desire to improve the health and well-being
of the environment and people. To thrive in this work, scientists
need to have mental flexibility and be open to sharing information
with other scientists and specialists when collaborating on proj-
ects. The work relies on strong, clear communication skills, both
68 SCIENCe
written and verbal. Strong knowledge of computer software pro-
grams is essential, and experience with data analysis and integration,
and computer modeling is required. Fluency in a foreign language is
also useful as more work is being conducted internationally.
Exploring
Read books, magazines, and journals about environmental
science to learn more about the field. Visit Web sites such as
E! Science News (http://esciencenews.com) and ScienceDaily
(http://www.sciencedaily.com) for the latest news and develop-
ments in environmental science. The Environmental Protection
Agencys Student Center is another good place to explore envi-
ronmental science. Visit http://www.epa.gov/students/index.
html for ideas on ways to explore your neighborhood, start an
environmental project, check out environmental careers, and earn
environmental awards.
Employers
About 83,000 environmental scientists are employed in the United
States, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. About 35 per-
cent work for state and local governments, and approximately
21 percent work for management, scientific, and technical con-
sulting firms. Others work for the federal government; for private
companies that provide architectural, engineering, and related
services; or as teachers and instructors at colleges and universities.
Some environmental scientists run their own businesses and are
self-employed, although this number is small (2 percent).
Starting Out
Many environmental scientists get started in their careers as
research assistants or technicians in laboratories or offices. While
in high school, an internship, volunteer work, or a part-time job
with an environmental consulting firm, environmental protec-
tion agencies, state departments of conservation or other related
state agencies can give you better insight into the field and help
you determine which areas of environmental science interest you
most. You can explore job, volunteer, and internship listings by
visiting organizations Web sites directly, such as the Careers for
Students section of the Environmental Protection Agencys site
(http://www.epa.gov/careers/stuopp.html), as well as by check-

ing out environmental employment sites such as eco.ORG (http://
www.eco.org) and Environmental Career Opportunities (http://
ecojobs.com).
Advancement
Environmental scientists can advance by handling more complex
projects and managing larger teams of researchers. They can be
promoted to project leaders, program managers, or other senior
management and research positions. Those who are staff employees
of companies may leave their positions to start their own consult-
ing businesses. Advancement for environmental scientists can also
come about by gaining knowledge and honing skills in other areas
of science by pursuing advanced degrees.
Earnings
In 2008 environmental scientists earned median annual incomes of
$59,750, with salaries ranging from $36,310 to $102,610 or higher,
according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Those who worked for
management, scientific, and technical consulting services averaged
about $70,450 per year, while those who worked for local govern-
ments earned $58,040 per year in 2008. The top paying states for
environmental scientists were the District of Columbia, Massachu-
setts, Colorado, Wisconsin, and California.
In addition to salary, environmental specialists may also receive
benefits such as health insurance; paid vacation, holiday, and sick
time; employer-paid training; tuition reimbursement; and pension
and retirement benefits.
Work Environment
The work environment for environmental scientists varies: some
days they may work indoors in comfortable, clean laboratories, run-
ning tests and analyzing data; other days, they may be outside at
an industrial site or in a rural area, collecting air, soil, or water
samples. Scientists are detail oriented and follow strict procedures
and precautions to prevent possible exposure to hazardous condi-
tions. They may need to travel to conduct their studies as well as
to attend conferences and seminars. They usually work 40 or more
hours per week, depending on the projects and deadlines.
70 SCIENCe
Outlook
The U.S. Department of Labor has a new category for occupations
that are seeing a great deal of growth due to the green economy.
Environmental scientists are included in this newly dubbed Green
Increased Demand section and employment opportunities are
expected to be excellent in the years to come. Scientists will find
many opportunities particularly in private-sector consulting firms.
Additionally, growth in the worlds population is causing greater
need for environmental and water resources, which is spurring
increased demand for environmental scientists. Stricter environ-
mental lawsparticularly in relation to clean air and clean water
means that business owners and environmental protection agencies
will need scientists to make sure operations and procedures are in
compliance. An increase in environmental remediation and solu-
tion work (particularly focusing on minimizing waste, recovering
resources, and preventing and controlling pollution) is also causing
job growth for environmental scientists. They will be needed to
collect and analyze data, and make recommendations for effective
ways to improve environmental health.

Learn more about environmental careers in air and waste management
by visiting
Air & Waste Management Association
420 Fort Duquesne Boulevard
One Gateway Center, 3rd Floor
Pittsburgh, PA 15222-1435
Tel: 412-232-3444
Email: info@awma.org
http://www.awma.org
For information on environmental careers in geology, visit

4220 King Street
Tel: 703-379-2480
Find membership information and internship listings at this societys

Web site.
American Society for Environmental History
c/o Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences Program
University of Washington
1900 Commerce Street

Tacoma, WA 98402-3112
Email: director@aseh.net
http://www.aseh.net
Find information about ecological issues and publications by visiting

Ecological Society of America (ESA)
1990 M Street, NW, Suite 700
Tel: 202-833-8773
Email: esahq@esa.org
http://esa.org
Learn more about environmental issues and find student employment

opportunities by visiting
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Tel: 202-272-0167
Email: public-access@epa.gov
http://www.epa.gov
To learn more about conferences and workshops, contact

Water Environment Federation
601 Wythe Street
Tel: 800-666-0206
http://www.wef.org
.
Geologists
quick facts
School Subjects Salary Range
Earth science $41,700 to $79,160 to
Geography $155,430+
Personal Skills
Helping/teaching Certification or Licensing
Technical/scientific Voluntary (certification)
Required by certain states
Work Environment (licensing)
Indoors and outdoors
One location with some travel
Outlook
Minimum Education Level Much faster than the
Bachelors degree average
Overview
Geologists study all aspects of the earth, including its origin, history, com-
position, and structure. Today they play an increasingly important role
in studying, preserving, and cleaning up the environment. Geologists
may, through the use of theoretical knowledge and research data, locate
groundwater, oil, minerals, and other natural resources. They may spe-
cialize in any number of areas. Many work closely with environmental
scientists and others in the field to preserve and clean up the environment.
Others advise construction companies and government agencies on
the suitability of locations being considered for buildings, highways,
and other structures. Preparing geological reports, maps, and diagrams
is another large part of a geologists work. About 31,000 geoscientists,
including geologists, geophysicists, and oceanographers, are employed
in the United States, according to the U.S. Department of Labor.
History
Geology is a young science, first developed by early mining engi-
neers. In the late 18th century scientists such as A. G. Werner and
72
Geologists 73
James Hutton, a retired British physician, created a sensation with

their differing theories on the origins of rocks. Through the study
of fossils and the development of geological maps, others continued
to examine the history of the earth in the 19th century.
From these beginnings, geology has made rapid advances, both
in scope and knowledge. With the development of more intri-
cate technology, geologists are able to study areas of the earth
they were previously unable to reach. Seismographs, for example,
measure energy waves resulting from the earths movement in
order to determine the location and intensity of earthquakes.
Seismic prospecting involves bouncing sound waves off buried
rock layers.
The Job
The geologists work includes locating and obtaining physical data and
material, which might require drilling deep holes to obtain samples,
collecting and examining the materials found on or under the earths
surface, or using instruments to measure the earths gravity and mag-
netic field. Some geologists may spend three to six months of each
year in fieldwork. In laboratory work, geologists carry out studies
based on field research. Working under controlled temperatures or
pressures, geologists analyze the chemical and physical properties of
geological specimens, such as rock, fossil remains, and soil. Once the
data is analyzed and the studies are completed, geologists and geologi-
cal technicians write reports based on their research.
A wide variety of laboratory instruments are used, including
X-ray diffractometers, which determine the crystal structure of
minerals, and petrographic microscopes for the study of rock and
sediment samples.
Geologists working to protect the environment may design and
monitor waste disposal sites, preserve water supplies, and reclaim
contaminated land and water to comply with federal environmental
regulations.
Geologists often specialize in one of the following disciplines:
Marine geologists study the oceans, including the seabed and sub-
surface features.
Paleontologists specialize in the study of the earths rock forma-
tions, including remains of plant and animal life, in order to under-
stand the earths evolution and estimate its age.
Geochronologists are geoscientists who use radioactive dating and
other techniques to estimate the age of rock and other samples from
an exploration site.
74 SCIENCe
Profile: James Hutton (17261797)

Scottish geologist James Huttons concept of the formation of the
earths crust and surface features made him a founder of modern
geology. He showed that granite was formed by solidification
from a molten state, and that the earth was much older than sci-
entists and theologians believed. Hutton originated the doctrine
of uniformitarianismthat the formation of the surface of the
earth is due to various processes of erosion and land building that
are at work even today. He summarized his finding in the state-
ment that the present is the key to the past.
Petroleum geologists attempt to locate natural gas and oil deposits

through exploratory testing and study of the data obtained. They
recommend the acquisition of new properties and the retention or
release of properties already owned by their companies. They also
estimate oil reserves and assist petroleum engineers in determining
exact production procedures.
Closely related to petroleum geologists are economic geologists,
who search for new resources of minerals and fuels.
Engineering geologists are responsible for the application of geo-
logical knowledge to problems arising in the construction of roads,
buildings, bridges, dams, and other structures.
Mineralogists are interested in the classification of minerals com-
posing rocks and mineral deposits. To this end, they examine and
analyze the physical and chemical properties of minerals and pre-
cious stones to develop data and theories on their origin, occur-
rence, and possible uses in industry and commerce.
Petrologists study the origin of igneous, metamorphic, and sedi-
mentary rocks.
Stratigraphers study the distribution and relative arrangement of
sedimentary rock layers. This enables them to understand evolu-
tionary changes in fossils and plants, which leads to an understand-
ing of successive changes in the distribution of land and sea.
Closely related to stratigraphers are sedimentologists, who
determine processes and products involved in sedimentary rock
formations.
Geohydrologists study the nature and distribution of water within
the earth and are often involved in environmental impact studies.
Geologists 75
Geomorphologists study the form of the earths surface and

the processes, such as erosion and glaciation, which bring about
changes.
Glacial geologists study the physical properties and movement of
ice sheets and glaciers.
Volcanologists research volcanos and volcanic phenomena to pre-
dict future volcanic eruptions and hazards so that people can be
prepared in advance.
The geologist is far from limited in a choice of work, but a basic
knowledge of all sciences is essential in each of these specializations.
An increasing number of scientists combine geology with detailed
knowledge in another field. Geochemists, for example, are concerned
with the chemical composition of, and the changes in, minerals and
rocks, while planetary geologists apply their knowledge of geology to
interpret surface conditions on other planets and the moon.
Requirements
High School
While in high school, classes that will provide you with a solid
foundation for this type of work include biology, chemistry, physics,
geology, geography, history, English, and computer classes. Math is
also essential, so be sure to take classes in algebra, trigonometry,
and statistics.
A bachelors degree is the minimum requirement for entry-level
geology jobs, but a masters degree is usually necessary for begin-
ning positions in research, teaching, and exploration. A person
with a strong background in physics, chemistry, mathematics,
or computer science may also qualify for some geology jobs. For
those wishing to make significant advancements in research and
for teaching at the college level, a doctoral degree is required. An
aptitude for geology as well as for physics, chemistry, and math-
ematics is mandatory.
Many colleges, universities, and institutions of technology offer
degrees in geology. Programs in geophysical technology, geophysical
engineering, geophysical prospecting, and engineering geology also
offer related training for beginning geologists.
Traditional geoscience courses emphasize classical geologic meth-
ods and concepts. Mineralogy, paleontology, stratigraphy, and struc-
tural geology are important courses for undergraduates. Students
76 SCIENCe
interested in environmental and regulatory fields take courses in
hydrology, hazardous waste management, environmental legisla-
tion, chemistry, fluid mechanics, and geologic logging. Courses in
related sciences, mathematics, English composition, and computer
science are also recommended. Students seeking graduate degrees in
geology concentrate on advanced courses in geology, placing major
emphasis on their particular fields.
The American Institute of Professional Geologists (AIPG) grants
the certified professional geologist (CPG) designation to geologists
who have earned a bachelors degree or higher in the geological sci-
ences and have eight years of professional experience (applicants
with a masters degree need only seven years of professional expe-
rience and those with a Ph.D., five years). Candidates must also
undergo peer review by three professional geologists (two of whom
must be CPGs) and pay an application fee.
The institute also offers the registered member designation to
geologists who are registered in various states and are not seeking
AIPG certification. Applicants must have at least a bachelors degree
in the geological sciences with a minimum of 30 semester hours of
geology, be licensed by the state they wish to work in, undergo peer
review, and pay an application fee.
A number of states require geologists who provide services
directly to the public to be registered or licensed by a state licens-
ing board. Requirements for licensing vary, but they usually include
a certain level of education and years of work experience in addition
to a passing score on a licensing examination.
Other Requirements
In addition to academic training and work experience, geologists
who work in the field or in administration must have skills in busi-
ness administration and in working with other people. Computer
modeling, data processing, and effective oral and written commu-
nication skills are important, as is the ability to think indepen-
dently and creatively. Physical stamina is needed for those involved
in fieldwork.
Exploring
If this career sounds interesting, read everything you can about
geology and geologists. For instance, The Field Guide to Geology, by
Geologists 77
David Lambert and Diagram Group, will give you a good introduc-
tion to the field. Another excellent way to learn more is by joining
clubs or organizations concerned with such things as rock collecting.
Amateur geological groups and local museums also offer opportuni-
ties for you to gain exposure to the field of geology.
Employers
Approximately 31,000 geoscientists (including geologists) are
employed in the United States. The majority of geologists
are employed in private industry. Some work for oil and gas extrac-
tion and mining companies, primarily in exploration. The rest work
for business services, environmental and geotechnical consulting
firms, or are self-employed as consultants to industry and govern-
ment. The federal government employs geologists in the Depart-
ment of the Interior (in the U.S. Geological Survey or the Bureau
of Reclamation) and in the Departments of Defense, Agriculture,
and Commerce. Geologists also work for state agencies, nonprofit
research organizations, and museums. Many geologists hold faculty
positions at colleges and universities and most of these combine
their teaching with research.
Starting Out
Geologists often begin their careers in field exploration or as
research assistants in laboratories. As they gain experience, they
are given more difficult assignments and may be promoted to super-
visory positions, such as project leader or program manager. While
in high school, volunteering or interning with an organization that
does geoscience or geology work is the best way to gain early expo-
sure to this field. Search the Web sites of professional associations
for geoscientists (such as those listed at the end of this article) for
volunteer and internship opportunities.
Advancement
Advancement for beginning geologists requires more formal training
and more years of work experience. After a few years on the job,
they may take on more complex, challenging projects, and later
advance to more senior and supervisory positions. A doctorate is
essential for most college or university teaching positions and is
preferred for much research work. Geologists who work in academia
can move up to tenured professorships and administrative positions
78 SCIENCe
within college and university faculties. Those who work in the pri-
vate sector may start their own consulting companies.
Earnings
Graduates with a bachelors degree in the geological sciences earned
about $40,786 annually in 2007, according to the National Associa-
tion of Colleges and Employers.
The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the median annual
salary for geoscientists was $79,160 in 2008; the top paid 10 per-
cent earned more than $155,430, while the lowest paid 10 percent
earned less than $41,700 a year. In the federal government, the
average salary for geologists in managerial, supervisory, and non-
supervisory positions was $91,030 in 2008.
Although the petroleum, mineral, and mining industries offer
higher salaries, competition for these jobs is stiff and there is less
job security than in other areas. In addition, college and university
teachers can earn additional income through research, writing, and
consulting. Salaries for foreign assignments may be significantly
higher than those in the United States.
Work Environment
Some geologists spend most of their time in a laboratory or office,
working a regular 40-hour week in pleasant conditions; others divide
their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory work. Those
who work in the field often travel to remote sites by helicopter or
four-wheel drive vehicle and cover large areas on foot. They may
camp for extended periods of time in primitive conditions with the
members of the geological team as their only companions. Explo-
ration geologists often work overseas or in remote areas, and job
relocation is not unusual. Marine geologists may spend considerable
time at sea.
Outlook
Employment prospects for geologists look excellent, according to
the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Employment opportunities
are expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupa-
tions through 2016. The increasing need for alternative energy,
environmental protection, and more responsible land and water
management will drive demand for geoscientists. Those who
Geologists 79
work in management, scientific, and technical consulting firms

will find more opportunities than in other industries. More pri-
vate companies need help with environmental management plans
and technical assistance, and will require geoscientists expertise.
Geoscientists will also be needed to study and assess the quality
of the environment, including deteriorating coastal environments,
rising sea levels, and aquatic ecosystems. Environmental protec-
tion and reclamation offers many employment opportunities for
geoscientists.
Adding to the positive forecast for this career is the fact that
few students are earning masters degrees in the geosciences, which
means that there will be more jobs than applicants to fill them.
Curtailed petroleum activity in the late 1980s and 1990s has dimin-
ished the number of graduates in geology and geophysics, especially
petroleum geology, in the last decade. Relative stability has now
returned to the petroleum industry, increasing the need for quali-
fied geoscientists. Those with a masters degree and familiarity with
computer modeling and global positioning systems (GPS) will have
the advantage in the job market. Geologists who are able to speak a
foreign language and who are willing to work overseas will also have
strong employment prospects.

For information on geoscience careers, contact
4220 King Street
Tel: 703-379-2480
For information on careers, certification, and scholarships, contact

American Institute of Professional Geologists
1400 West 122nd Avenue, Suite 250
Westminster, CO 80234-3499
Tel: 303-412-6205
http://www.aipg.org
For career information and profiles of women in geophysics, visit the

AWGs Web site.
Association for Women Geoscientists (AWG)
80 SCIENCe
Tel: 303-412-6219
Email: office@awg.org
http://www.awg.org
For information on student chapters, contact

Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists
PO Box 460518
Denver, CO 80246-0518
Tel: 303-757-2926
Email: aeg@aegweb.org
http://aegweb.org
For information on geotechnical engineering, contact

GEOENGINEER
http://www.geoengineer.org
For career information and job listings, contact

Geological Society of America
PO Box 9140
Boulder, CO 80301-9140
Tel: 888-443-4472
Email: gsaservice@geosociety.org
http://www.geosociety.org
For information on the Fundamentals of Geology exam, contact

National Association of State Boards of Geology
PO Box 11591
Columbia, SC 29211-1591
Tel: 803-739-5676
http://www.asbog.org
For career and educational information about the geosciences, visit

U.S. Geological Survey
http://www.usgs.gov/education
Geophysicists
quick facts
Earth science Bachelors degree
Physics
Salary Range
Helping/teaching $155,430+
Work Environment Requirements vary by state
One location with some Outlook
travel Much faster than the average
Overview
Geophysicists are concerned with matter and energy and how they
interact. They study the physical properties and structure of the
earth, from its interior to its upper atmosphere, including land sur-
faces, subsurfaces, bodies of water, as well as electrical and gravi-
tational forces. Some collaborate with environmental scientists on
environmental preservation and remediation projects. There are
approximately 31,000 geophysicists, geologists, and oceanographers
employed in the United States, according to the U.S. Department
of Labor.
History
Geophysics is an important field that combines the sciences of geol-
ogy and physics. Geology is the study of the history and composition
of the earth as recorded by rock formations and fossils. Physics deals
with all forms of energy, the properties of matter, and the relation-
ship between energy and matter. The geophysicist is an earth physi-
cist, one who works with the physical aspects of the earth from its
inner core to outer space.
81
82 SCIENCe
This alliance between the earth and physical sciences is part of
the progress that science has made in searching for new understand-
ings of the world. Like the fields of biochemistry, biomathemat-
ics, space medicine, and nuclear physics, geophysics combines the
knowledge of two disciplines. However, the importance of geo-
physics goes well beyond abstract theory. Geophysicists apply their
knowledge to such practical problems as predicting earthquakes,
locating raw materials and sources of power, and evaluating sites
for power plants.
The Job
Geophysicists use the principles and techniques of geology, physics,
chemistry, mathematics, and engineering to perform tests and con-
duct research on the surface, atmosphere, waters, and solid bodies of
the earth. They study seismic, gravitational, electrical, thermal, and
magnetic phenomena to determine the structure and composition
of the earth, as well as the forces causing movement and warping
of the surface.
Many geophysicists are involved in fieldwork, where they engage
in exploration and prospecting. Others work in laboratories, where
research activities are the main focus. In general, their instruments
are highly complex and designed to take very precise measurements.
Most geophysicists specialize in one of the areas discussed below.
Geodesists measure the shape and size of the earth to determine
fixed points, positions, and elevations on or near the earths surface,
as well as polar motion and rotation. Using the gravimeter, they
perform surveys to measure minute variations in the earths gravi-
tational field. They also collect data that is useful in learning more
about the weight, size, and mass of the earth. Geodesists are active
in tracking satellites orbiting in outer space.
Geomagnetists use the magnetometer to measure variations in
the earths magnetic field from magnetic observatories and stations.
They are also concerned with conditions affecting radio signals,
solar phenomena, and many other aspects of space exploration. The
data gathered can be most helpful in working with problems in radio
and television transmission, telegraphy, navigation, mapping, and
space exploration and space science.
Applied geophysicists use data gathered from the air and ground,
as well as computers, to analyze the earths crust. They look for oil
and mineral deposits and try to find sites for the safe disposal of
hazardous wastes.
Exploration geophysicists, sometimes called geophysical prospec-
tors, use seismic techniques to look for possible oil and gas deposits.
Geophysicists 83
They may use sonar equipment to send sound waves deep into the
earth. The resulting echo helps them estimate if an oil deposit lies
hidden in the area.
Hydrologists are concerned with the surface and underground
waters in the land areas of the earth. They map and chart the flow
and the disposition of sediments, measure changes in water volume,
and collect data on the form and intensity of precipitation, as well as
on the disposition of water through evaporation and ground absorp-
tion. The information that the hydrologist collects is applied to
problems in soil and water conservation, flood control, inland water
projects, crop production, and irrigation. Some hydrologists study
glaciers and their sedimentation.
Paleomagnetists study fossil magnetization in sediments and rocks
from the planets oceans and continents to record continental move-
ment (known as wandering), polarity of the earths magnetic field,
and expansion of the sea floor.
Planetologists use data from artificial satellites and astronauts
equipment to study the makeup and atmosphere of the planets, the
moon, and other bodies in our solar system. Recent advances in this
field have greatly increased our knowledge of Jupiter, Saturn, and
their satellites.
Seismologists specialize in the study of earthquakes. With the
aid of the seismograph and other instruments that record the
location of earthquakes and the vibrations they cause, seismolo-
gists examine active fault lines and areas where earthquakes have
occurred. They are often members of field teams whose purpose
is to examine and evaluate possible building or construction sites.
They also may explore for oil and minerals. In recent years, seis-
mologists have contributed to the selection of missile launching
sites.
Tectonophysicists study the structure of mountains and ocean
basins, the properties of the earths crust, and the physical forces
and processes that cause movements and changes in the structure of
the earth. A great deal of their work is research, and their findings
are helpful in locating oil and mineral deposits.
Volcanologists study volcanoes, their location, and their activity.
They are concerned with their origins and the phenomena of their
processes.
Requirements
High School
A strong interest in the physical and earth sciences is essential for this
field. You should take basic courses in earth science, environmental
84 SCIENCe
International Geophysical Year

The International Geophysical Year (IGY) was held from
July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958. The 18-month year
was scheduled to coincide with a peak period in the suns
energy cycle, which influences the earths magnetic field
and the ionosphere.
IGY scientists from 66 nations, under the direction of
the International Council of Scientific Unions, carried
out experiments and observations in all parts of the
world. Governments and universities supported the
project, which cost about $500 million. The most spec-
tacular achievement of the IGY was the launching of the
first artificial satellites. Much IGY activity took place in
Antarctica.
Following the IGY, findings were studied at world data
centers and results were made available to all scientists
everywhere. Some of the major discoveries included:
The earth bulges about 45 feet at the North Pole. The
earths crust slips about on the molten interior. Over
millions of years, slippage has caused continents to
drift apart and the poles to wander.
The worlds climate as a whole is getting warmer. The
lowest natural temperature that had yet been recorded,
-125.3 degrees F, was recorded in Antarctica.
The amount of ice on the earth is nearly 4.5 million cubic
miles40 percent more than had been estimated.
science, physics, chemistry, and at least four years of mathematics.

Advanced placement work in any of the mathematics and sciences
is also helpful. Other recommended courses include mechanical
drawing, shop, social studies, English, and computer science.
A bachelors degree in geophysics is required for most entry-level
positions. Physics, mathematics, and chemistry majors can locate
positions in geophysics, but some work in geology is highly desir-
able and often required, especially for certain government posi-
tions. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelors degree in
Geophysicists 85
geophysics, and a growing number of these institutions also award

advanced degrees. An undergraduate major in geophysics is not usu-
ally required for entrance into a graduate program. Undergraduate
classes typically include mineralogy, petrology, paleontology, stra-
tigraphy, and structural geology.
A masters degree in geoscience, geology, environmental science,
or earth-systems science is generally required for most geoscience
positions. Graduate work at the masters or doctoral level is required
for research, college teaching, and positions of a policy-making or
policy-interpreting nature in private or government employment.
Geoscientists who offer their services directly to the public may be
required to be licensed by a state licensing board. Requirements vary
by state, but generally, geoscientists must meet education and work
experience requirements, as well as pass a licensing examination.
Other Requirements
A strong aptitude in mathematics and science, particularly the phys-
ical and earth sciences, is required to be a geophysicist, as well as an
interest in observing nature, performing experiments, and studying
the physical environment. Computer modeling, digital mapping,
and data integration are part of the job, so strong knowledge of
geographic information systems (GIS) and global positioning satel-
lite (GPS) systems is essential. Because geophysicists frequently
spend time outdoorsin any kind of weatherphysical fitness and
stamina are required, and enjoying outdoor activities such as hiking
and camping is a plus.
Exploring
Earth and physical science classes offer a good introduction to
the geophysics field. Course work dealing with electricity, rocks
and minerals, metals and metallurgy, the universe and space, and
weather and climate will help you learn more about the field. Hob-
bies that deal with radio, electronics, and rock or map collecting
also offer opportunities to learn about the basic principles involved
in geophysics.
You can also explore this field through membership to and par-
ticipation in professional geophysicist associations. For example,
the Society of Exploration Geophysicists offers student chapters at
certain colleges and universities.
86 SCIENCe
Employers
Approximately 31,000 geoscientists (including geophysicists) are
employed in the United States. About 24 percent are employed in
architectural, engineering, and related services; 18 percent worked
for oil and gas extraction companies. In 2006 about 17 percent of
all geoscientists worked for state agencies such as state geological
surveys and state departments of conservation, according to the U.S.
Department of Labor. About 12 percent worked for the federal gov-
ernment, mainly the U.S. Department of the Interior for the U.S.
Geological Survey and within the U.S. Department of the Defense.
Other geophysicists work as consultants, or pursue teaching careers
in colleges and universities.
Starting Out
Geoscientists usually start their careers as technicians or assistants
in lab or research settings. While in high school, part-time or sum-
mer work with a private or government organization that does geo-
physics work is a good way to get your foot in the door. Working
or volunteering as an aide or helper with a geophysical field party
will give you the opportunity to study the physical environment
and interact with geophysicists. National organizations such as the
American Geophysical Union (AGU) also offer useful resources
to people who are involved in the field of geophysics. Visit AGUs
Web site (http://www.agu.org) to learn more about membership,
upcoming programs, education, and careers.
Advancement
Beginning geophysicists with a bachelors degree who are employed
in a private firm usually begin their jobs with an on-the-job training
period. Entry-level position responsibilities vary. Trainees typically
work with a junior geophysicist, which in many companies is the
level of assignment received after the training has ended.
Junior geophysicists can advance to intermediate geophysicist
positions, and eventually to geophysicist. From this point, they
can transfer to research positions or, if the geophysicist remains in
fieldwork, to party chief. The party chief coordinates the work of
people in a crew, including trainees; junior, intermediate, and full
geophysicists; surveyors; observers; drillers; shooters; and aides.
Advancement with the company may eventually lead to supervisory
and management positions.
Geophysicists 87
Geophysicists can often transfer to other jobs in the fields of

geology, physics, and engineering, depending on their qualifications
and experience.
Earnings
The salaries of geophysicists are comparable to the earnings of those
in other scientific professions. According to the U.S. Department of
Labor (DoL), geoscientists (which includes geologists, geophysicists,
and oceanographers) earned an average annual salary of $79,160 in
2008. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $41,700 per
year, while the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $155,430
annually. In 2008 the average salary for a geoscientist working for
the federal government was $91,030. Both the federal government
and private industry provide additional benefits, including vaca-
tions, retirement pensions, health and life insurance, and sick leave
benefits.
Salaries for college and university faculty positions vary depend-
ing upon experience, education, and professional rank. Faculty
members may teach in summer school for additional compensation
and also engage in writing, consulting, and research for government,
industry, or business.
Additional compensation is awarded to geophysicists who are
required to live outside the United States.
Work Environment
Geophysicists employed in laboratories or offices generally work
a regular 40-hour week under typical office conditions. Field geo-
physicists work under a variety of conditions and often the hours
are irregular. They are outdoors much of the time in all kinds of
weather. The work requires carrying small tools and equipment
and occasionally some heavy lifting. The field geophysicist is often
required to travel and work in isolated areas. Volcanologists, for
example, may face dangerous conditions when visiting and gathering
data near an erupting volcano.
Outlook
According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, employment of
geophysicists is expected to grow much faster than the average for
all occupations through 2016. The increased focus on environmen-
tal protection, land and water management, and renewable energy
88 SCIENCe
sources will drive the need for geophysicists in the years to come.
Employment growth will also result from the growing need to moni-
tor the quality of the environment, particularly eroding coastal envi-
ronments and rising sea levels, and to provide technical assistance
and environmental management plans to private corporations.
The petroleum industry, the largest employer of geophysicists,
has increased its exploration activities, and more geophysicists will
be needed to locate less-accessible fuel and mineral deposits using
environment-friendly methods and to do research on such problems
as radioactivity, cosmic and solar radiation, and the use of geother-
mal energy to generate electricity. The petroleum industry is also
expected to expand operations overseas, which may create new jobs
for those who are willing to travel.
Competition for jobs will still be keen, however, as there are usu-
ally more geoscientist graduates than available positions. Geophysi-
cists with masters degrees have better chances of finding work than
those with bachelors degrees. Management, scientific, and technical
consulting firms are expected to continue offering the most employ-
ment opportunities in the field.

For information on geoscience careers, contact
4220 King Street
Tel: 703-379-2480
For information on local meetings, publications, job opportunities, and

science news, contact
American Geophysical Union
2000 Florida Avenue, NW
Tel: 800-966-2481
http://www.agu.org
For career information and profiles of women in geophysics, visit the

AWGs Web site.
Association for Women Geoscientists (AWG)
Tel: 303-412-6219
Geophysicists 89
Email: office@awg.org
http://www.awg.org
For information on careers in geophysics and student chapters at colleges

and universities, contact
Society of Exploration Geophysicists
PO Box 702740
Tulsa, OK 74170-2740
Tel: 918-497-5500
Email: membership@seg.org
http://www.seg.org
To read the online publication Become a Geophysicist . . . A What?,

visit
http://www.usgs.gov/education
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/kids/become.php
Marine Biologists
quick facts
Earth science
Salary Range
Mechanical/manipulative $111,676+
Work Environment Required for certain positions
locations About as fast as the average
Overview
Marine biologists study species of plants and animals living in saltwa-
ter, their interactions with one another, and how they influence and
are influenced by environmental factors. Marine biology is a branch
of the biological sciences, and biologists in this area work in myriad
industries, including government agencies, universities, aquariums,
and fish hatcheries, to name a few. They generally work either in a
laboratory setting or in the field, which in this case means being in
or on the ocean or its margins.
History
Marine biologists started to make their area of study into a real sci-
ence around the 19th century with a series of British expeditions. In
1872 the HMS Challenger set sail with scientists Sir Charles Wyville
Thomson and Sir John Murray on the most important oceanographic
mission of all time. Over four years they traveled 69,000 miles and
cataloged 4,717 new species of marine plants and animals. Many
marine scientists view the reports from this expedition as the basis
of modern oceanography.
90
Before this time, marine scientists believed that sea creatures

inhabited only shallow waters. They believed that the intense cold,
pressure, and darkness below about 1,800 feet could not support
life. Then, in the late 1860s, the HMS Lightning and the HMS Por-
cupine made hauls from below 14,400 feet that contained bizarre
new creatures.
Scientists began to build precision equipment for measuring oce-
anic conditions. Among these were thermometers that could gauge
the temperature at any depth, containers that could be closed at a
desired depth to collect seawater, and coring instruments used to
sample bottom sediments. Scientists also figured out techniques for
measuring levels of salt, oxygen, and nutrients right on board ship.
Modern day innovations such as underwater cameras, oxygen
tanks, submersible craft, and heavy-duty diving gear that can with-
stand extremes of cold and pressure have made it possible for marine
biologists to observe sea creatures in their natural habitats.
The Job
Marine biologists are aquatic biologists who study and work with
sea creatures in their natural environment, the oceans of the world
and tidal pools along shorelines, as well as in laboratories. These
scientists are interested in knowing how the oceans changing condi-
tions, such as temperature and chemical pollutants, can affect the
plants and animals that live there. For example, what happens when
certain species become extinct or are no longer safe to be eaten?
Through research, study, and experimentation, marine biologists
can begin to understand how the worlds food supply is diminished
and help come up with solutions that can change such problem
situations. Their findings also help raise awareness about the impact
human activitysuch as industrial activity, tourism, and sewage
disposalhas on saltwater animal and plant species, as well as natu-
ral environments, and lead to changes that reduce or prevent harm
to the environment.
The work of these scientists is also important for improving
and controlling sport and commercial fishing. Through underwa-
ter exploration, marine biologists have discovered that humans
are damaging the worlds coral reefs. They have also charted the
migration of whales and counted the decreasing numbers of cer-
tain species. They have observed dolphins being accidentally caught
in tuna fishermens nets. By writing reports and research papers
about such discoveries, a marine biologist can inform others about
92 SCIENCe
problems that need attention and begin to make important changes
that could help the world. In addition to studying the larger animals,
marine biologists also study and classify smaller organisms, such
as algae, fish larvae, shrimp, worms, plankton, and bacteria. Their
work involves molecular biology, or the biochemical processes of
living cells.
To study plants and animals, marine biologists spend some of their
work time in the ocean wearing wetsuits to keep warm (because of
the frigid temperature below the surface of the sea) and scuba gear
to breathe underwater. They gather specimens with a slurp gun,
which sucks fish into a specimen bag without injuring them. They
must learn how to conduct their research without damaging the
marine environment, which is delicate. Marine biologists must also
face the threat to their own safety from dangerous fish and under-
water conditions.
Marine biologists also study life in tidal pools along the shoreline.
They might collect specimens at the same time of day for days at
a time. They keep samples from different pools separate and keep
records of the pools location and the types and measurements of
the specimens taken. This ensures that the studies are as accurate as
possible. After collecting specimens, they keep them in a portable
aquarium tank on board ship. After returning to land, which may
not be for weeks or months, marine biologists study specimens in a
laboratory, often with other scientists working on the same study.
They might, for example, check the amount of oxygen in a sea
turtles bloodstream to learn how the turtles can stay underwater
for so long, or measure elements in the blood of an Arctic fish to
discover how it can survive frigid temperatures.
In addition to the research and experimentation side of the job,
marine biologists also share their findings through written reports,
scientific papers, and professional presentations. They may also give
training sessions and presentations to schools, clubs, special interest
groups, and businesses. They also need funding to conduct their
research work, and frequently write grant proposals to secure finan-
cial support from private, state, or federal groups.
Requirements
High School
If you are interested in this career, begin your preparations by tak-
ing plenty of high school science classes, such as biology, chem-
istry, and earth science. Also take math, computer science, and
English classes, all of which will provide you with useful skills for
A marine biologist holds marine invertebrates collected for research. They

will be sent to a laboratory where the active molecules they contain can be
isolated and studied. Alexis Rosenfield/Photo Researchers, Inc.
future research and writing. And, because you will probably need
to extend your education beyond the level of a bachelors degree,
consider taking a foreign language. Many graduate programs require
students to meet a foreign language requirement.
In college, take basic science courses such as biology, botany, and
chemistry. However, your class choices dont end there. For instance,
in biology you might be required to choose from marine inver-
tebrate biology, ecology, oceanography, genetics, animal physiol-
ogy, plant physiology, and aquatic plant biology. You might also be
required to choose several more specific classes from such choices as
ichthyology, vertebrate structure, population biology, developmen-
tal biology, biology of microorganisms, evolution, and cell biology.
Classes in other subjects will also be required, such as computer
science, math (including algebra, trigonometry, calculus, analytical
geometry, and statistics), and physics.
94 SCIENCe
Although it is possible to get a job as a marine biologist with just
a bachelors degree, such jobs likely will be low-paying technician
positions with little advancement opportunities. Some positions
in the field are available with a masters degree, but most marine
biologists have a doctoral degree. Students at the graduate level
begin to develop an area of specialization, such as aquatic chemical
ecology (the study of chemicals and their effect on aquatic environ-
ments) and bioinformatics (the use of computer science, math, and
statistics to analyze genetic information). Masters degree programs
generally take two to three years to complete. Programs leading to
a Ph.D. typically take four to five years to complete.
If you are going to be diving, organizations like the Professional
Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) provide basic certifica-
tion. Training for scientific diving is more in-depth and requires
passing an exam. It is also critical that divers learn cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) and first aid. Also, if youll be handling hazard-
ous materials such as formaldehyde, strong acids, or radioactive
nucleotides, you must be licensed.
Other Requirements
You should have an ability to ask questions and solve problems,
observe small details carefully, do research, and analyze mathemati-
cal information. You should be inquisitive and must be able to think
for yourself. This is essential to the scientific method. You must
use your creative ability and be inventive in order to design experi-
ments; these are the scientists means of asking questions of the
natural world. Working in the field often requires some strength and
physical endurance, particularly if you are scuba diving or if you are
doing fieldwork in tide pools, which can involve hiking over miles of
shore at low tide, keeping your footing on weedy rocks, and lifting
and turning stones to find specimens.
Exploring
Join your high schools science club to learn more about the basic
science skills required for this career. If the club is involved in any
type of projects or experiments, you will have the opportunity to
begin learning to work with others on a team as well as develop your
science and lab skills. If you are lucky enough to live in a city with
Aquariums Across the Country

Alaska SeaLife Center
http://www.alaskasealife.org
Aquarium of the Bay

http://www.aquariumofthebay.com
Birch Aquarium, Scripps Institution of Oceanography

http://aquarium.ucsd.edu/
Gulf of Maine Research Institute

http://www.gmri.org
John G. Shedd Aquarium

http://www.sheddnet.org
Miami Seaquarium
http://www.miamiseaquarium.com
National Aquarium in Baltimore

http://aqua.org
New England Aquarium

http://www.neaq.org/index.php
New York Aquarium

http://www.nyaquarium.com/
Oregon Coast Aquarium

http://www.aquarium.org
Seattle Aquarium
http://www.seattleaquarium.org
Waikiki Aquarium
http://www.waquarium.org
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an aquarium, be sure to get either paid or volunteer work there. This
is an excellent way to learn about marine life and about the life of a
marine biologist. Visit Sea Grants marine careers Web site (http://
www.marinecareers.net) for links to information on internships,
volunteerships, and other activities, such as sea camps.
You can begin diving training while you are in high school. If
you are between the ages of 10 and 14, you can earn a junior open
water diver certification. When you turn 15 you can upgrade your
certification to open water diver.
Employers
Employers in this field range from pharmaceutical companies
researching marine sources for medicines to federal agencies that
regulate marine fisheries, such as the fisheries division of the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Aquariums hire
marine biologists to collect and study specimens. Marine products
companies that manufacture carrageenan and agar (extracted from
algae and used as thickening agents in foods) hire marine biologists
to design and carry out research. Marine biologists also work in
the private sector for environmental consulting firms, foundations,
independent research laboratories, and biotechnology firms.
After acquiring many years of experience, marine biologists with
Ph.D.s may be eligible for faculty positions at a school like the Scripps
Institution of Oceanography or the University of Washington.
Jobs in marine biology are based mostly in coastal areas, though
some biologists work inland as university professors or perhaps as
paleontologists who search for and study marine fossils.
Starting Out
With a bachelors degree only, you may be able to get a job as a
laboratory technician in a state or federal agency. Some aquaria will
hire you straight out of college, but generally its easier to get a paid
position if you have worked as a volunteer at an aquarium. You will
need a more advanced degree to get into more technical positions
such as consulting, writing for scientific journals, and conducting
research.
Web sites are good resources for employment information. If you
can find the human resources section of an aquariums home page,
it will tell you whom to contact to find out about openings and may
even provide job listings. Federal agencies may also have Web sites
with human resource information.
Professors who know you as a student might be able to help you

locate a position through their contacts in the professional world.
Another good way to make contacts is by attending conferences
or seminars sponsored by aquatic science organizations such as the
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography or the Mid-
Atlantic Marine Education Association.
Advancement
Lab technicians with four-year degrees may advance to become
senior lab techs after years with the same lab. Generally, though,
taking on greater responsibility or getting into more technical
work means having more education. Those wanting to do research
(in any setting) will need a graduate degree or at least be working
on one. To get an administrative position with a marine products
company or a faculty position at a university, marine biologists
need at least a masters degree, and those wanting to become senior
scientists at a marine station or full professors must have a doctoral
degree.
Earnings
Salaries vary quite a lot depending on factors such as the persons
level of education, the type of work (research, teaching, etc.), the
size, location, and type of employer (for example, large university,
government agency, or private company), and the persons level of
work experience. According to the National Association of Colleges
and Employers, those seeking their first job and holding bachelors
degrees in biological and life sciences had average salary offers of
$34,953 in 2007. The American Society of Limnology and Ocean-
ography reports that those with bachelors degrees may start out
working for federal government agencies at the pay grades GS-5 to
GS-7. In 2009 the yearly earnings at the GS-5 level 1 were $32,712.
Income for marine biologists who hold full-time positions at col-
leges and universities will be similar to those of other full-time
faculty. The American Association of University Professors Annual
Report on the Economic Status of the Profession 20072008 found
that college teachers (regardless of their subject area) averaged
a yearly income of approximately $73,191 at public universities
while those at private institutions averaged $88,190 per year. It
also reports that professors averaged the following salaries by rank:
full professors, $101,346 to $111,676; associate professors, $73,534
to $79,130; assistant professors, $62,556 to $67,767; instructors,
98 SCIENCe
$43,536 to $45,012; and lecturers, $46,818 to $51,806. Marine
biologists who hold top-ranking positions and have much experi-
ence, such as senior research scientists, may make more than these
amounts.
Benefits vary by employer but often include such extras as health
insurance and retirement plans.
Work Environment
Most marine biologists dont actually spend a lot of time diving.
However, researchers might spend a couple of hours periodically
breathing from a scuba tank below some waters, like Monterey Bay
or the Gulf of Maine. They might gather samples from the deck of a
large research vessel during a two-month expedition, or they might
meet with several other research biologists.
In most marine biology work, some portion of time is spent in the
lab, analyzing samples of seawater or collating data on a computer.
Many hours are spent in solitude, reading papers in scientific jour-
nals or writing papers for publication.
Instructors or professors work in classrooms interacting with stu-
dents and directing student lab work.
Those who work for an aquarium, as consultants for private cor-
porations, or in universities work an average of 40 to 50 hours a
week.
Outlook
The Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that employment growth
for all biologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average
for all occupations through 2016. Changes in the earths environ-
ment, such as global warming and increased levels of heavy metals
in the global water cycle, will most likely prompt more research
and result in slightly more jobs in different subfields of marine
biology.
Greater need for smart management of the worlds fisheries,
research by pharmaceutical companies into deriving medicines from
marine organisms, and cultivation of marine food alternatives such
as seaweeds and plankton are other factors that may increase the
demand for marine biologists in the near future. Competition for
marine biology jobs will be keen, however, because this type of work
is popular and there are typically more applicants than there are
jobs to fill. The more advanced the degree, the greater the chances
of securing work.

Visit the education and outreach section of AIBSs Web site to learn
more about careers in biology.
American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS)
Tel: 202-628-1500
http://www.aibs.org
Find information on education, membership, publications, and other

resources at
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO)
5400 Bosque Boulevard, Suite 680
Waco, TX 76710-4446
Tel: 800-929-2756
Email: business@aslo.org
http://www.aslo.org
For reference lists, links to marine labs, summer intern and course
opportunities, and links to career information, check out the following
Web site:
Marine Biology Web
http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/mbweb.html
For information on volunteer programs for in-state students and college

internships, contact
National Aquarium in Baltimore
Conservation Education Department-Internships
501 East Pratt Street
Baltimore, MD 21202-3103
Tel: 410-576-3800
Email: volunteer@aqua.org or intern@aqua.org
http://aqua.org
Learn more about marine biology and environmental issues and news
by visiting
The Ocean Conservancy
1300 19th Street, NW, 8th Floor
Tel: 202-429-5609
http://www.oceanconservancy.org
100 SCIENCe
For information on diving instruction and certification, contact
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688-2125
Tel: 800-729-7234
http://www.padi.com
This center for research and education in global science currently runs
more than 300 research programs and uses a fleet of ships to conduct
expeditions over the entire globe. For more information, contact
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
University of California-San Diego
9500 Gilman Drive
La Jolla, CA 92093-5004
http://www-sio.ucsd.edu
For links to career information and sea programs, visit

Sea Grants Marinecareers.net
http://www.marinecareers.net
Meteorologists
quick facts
Geography Bachelors degree
Physics
Salary Range
$127,100+
Helping/teaching
Recommended
Work Environment
Overview
Meteorologists, or atmospheric scientists, study weather conditions
and forecast weather changes. By analyzing weather maps cov-
ering large geographic areas and related charts, like upper-air
maps and soundings, they can predict the movement of fronts,
precipitation, and pressure areas. They forecast such data as
temperature, winds, precipitation, cloud cover, and flying con-
ditions. To predict future weather patterns and to develop
increased accuracy in weather study and forecasting, meteo-
rologists conduct research on subjects such as atmospheric
electricity, clouds, precipitation, hurricanes, and data collected
from weather satellites. Other areas of research used to fore-
cast weather may include ocean currents and temperature. The
information meteorological research provides is also applied to
air-pollution control, forestry, agriculture, and air and sea trans-
portation. Meteorologists may also study possible trends in the
earths climate, including global warming, droughts, and ozone
depletion. There are about 8,800 atmospheric scientists employed
in the United States.
101
102 SCIENCe
History
Meteorology is an observational science: the study of the atmo-
sphere, weather, and climate. The basic meteorological instruments
were all invented hundreds of years ago. Galileo invented the ther-
mometer in 1593 and Evangelista Torricelli invented the barometer
in 1643. Simultaneous comparison and study of weather was impos-
sible until the telegraph was invented. Observations of the upper
atmosphere from balloons and airplanes started after World War I.
Not until World War II, however, was great financial support given
to the development of meteorology. During the war a very clear-
cut relationship was established between the effectiveness of new
weapons and the atmosphere.
More accurate instruments for measuring and observing weather
conditions, new systems of communication, and the development of
satellites, radar, and high-speed computers to process and analyze
weather data have helped meteorologists and the general public to
get a better understanding of the atmosphere. In addition, growing
awareness of environmental problems, such as pollution and fresh
water shortages, and increased funding for meteorological research
and technological development have broadened the field of atmo-
spheric science in recent years.
The Job
Although most people think of weather forecasting when they
think of meteorology, meteorologists also do many other kinds of
work. They research subjects ranging from radioactive fallout to
the dynamics of hurricanes. They study the ozone levels in the
stratosphere. Some teach in colleges and universities. A few meteo-
rologists work in radio and television weather forecasting programs.
Networks usually hire their own staff of meteorologists.
Meteorologists generally specialize in one branch of this rap-
idly developing science; however, the lines of specialization are not
clearly drawn and they often work in more than one area. The
largest group of specialists is operational meteorologists, the techni-
cal name for weather forecasters, who interpret current weather
information, such as air pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind
velocity, reported by observers, weather satellites, weather radar,
and remote sensors in many parts of the world. They use this data to
make short- and long-range forecasts for given regions. Operational
meteorologists also use Doppler radar, which detects rotational pat-
terns in violent thunderstorms, in order to better predict tornadoes,
Meteorologists 103
A meteorologist changes the recording card on a Campbell-Stokes sunshine

recorder. The instrument is used to record daily sunshine duration. David
Hay Jones/Photo Researchers, Inc.
104 SCIENCe
thunderstorms, and flash floods, as well as their direction and inten-
sity. Other specialists include climatologists, who study past records
to discover weather patterns for a given region. The climatologist
compiles, makes statistical analyses of, and interprets data on tem-
perature, sunlight, rainfall, humidity, and wind for a particular area
over a long period of time for use in weather forecasting, aviation,
agriculture, commerce, and public health.
Dynamic meteorologists study the physical laws related to air cur-
rents. Physical meteorologists study the physical nature of the atmo-
sphere, including its chemical composition and electrical, acoustical,
and optical properties. Environmental meteorologists study air pollu-
tion, global warming, ozone depletion, water shortages, and other
environmental problems and write impact statements about their
findings. Industrial meteorologists work in a variety of private indus-
tries, focusing their expertise on such problems as smoke control
and air pollution. They also evaluate and assess air quality for envi-
ronmental impact statements, and may work on developing ways to
control or diminish air pollution. Synoptic meteorologists find new
ways to forecast weather events by using mathematical models and
computers. Flight meteorologists fly in aircraft to study hurricanes
and other weather phenomena.
The tools used by meteorologists include weather balloons, instru-
mented aircraft, radar, satellites, and computers. Instrumented air-
craft are high-performance airplanes used to observe many kinds
of weather. Radar is used to detect rain and snow, as well as other
weather. Doppler radar can measure wind speed and direction. It
has become the best tool for predicting severe weather. Satellites use
advanced remote sensing to measure temperature, wind, and other
characteristics of the atmosphere at many levels. The entire surface
of the earth can be observed with satellites.
The introduction of computers has changed the research and fore-
casting of weather. The fastest computers are used in atmospheric
research, as well as large-scale weather forecasting. Computers are
used to produce simulations of upcoming weather.
Requirements
High School
You can best prepare for a college major in meteorology by taking
high school courses in mathematics, geography, computer science,
physics, environmental studies, and chemistry. A good command of
English is essential because you must be able to describe complex
weather events and patterns in a clear and concise way.
Meteorologists 105
Global Warming Affects

the Arctic and the Weather
The Arctic is heating up due to excessive greenhouse gases
(GHGs)such as carbon dioxidein the atmosphere. The GHGs
have nowhere to go, get trapped, and cause air temperatures
to rise and more clouds to form. The warm-air clouds are trap-
ping heat in the Arctic and are speeding up the summer ice melt.
Satellite images in 2008 showed that the Arctic Oceans summer
ice pack had diminished by more than 50 percent since 1980.
Global-warming models that had initially forecast that the Arctic
Ocean could be ice free in the summer by 2100 are now forecast-
ing that the summer ice could be gone as soon as 2030. Without
the ice reflecting incoming sunlight, the ocean will be warmer.
And the reduced summer ice pack could also contribute to warmer
winters in lower latitudes, and it could affect storm tracks and
precipitation.
Source: National Geographic (supplement), May 2009
Although some beginners in meteorological work have majored in
subjects related to meteorology, the usual minimal requirement
for work in this field is a bachelors degree in meteorology. For
entry-level positions in the federal government, you must have
a bachelors degree (not necessarily in meteorology) with at least
24 semester hours of meteorology courses, including six hours in
the analysis and prediction of weather systems, six hours of atmo-
spheric dynamics and thermodynamics, three hours of physical
meteorology, and two hours of remote sensing of the atmosphere
or instrumentation. Other required courses include three hours of
ordinary differential equations, six hours of physics, and at least
nine hours of courses such as calculus, physics, statistics, com-
puter science, chemistry, physical oceanography, physical hydrol-
ogy, physical climatology, radiative transfer, light and optics, and
advanced electricity and magnetism. Advanced graduate training in
meteorology and related areas is required for research and teaching
positions, as well as for other high-level positions in meteorology.
Doctorates are quite common among high-level personnel.
106 SCIENCe
Few colleges and universities offer meteorological degree pro-
grams, although atmospheric science and related courses are offered
through departments of physics and allied sciences. The American
Meteorological Society listed only 100 undergraduate and graduate
atmospheric science programs in 2007. In many of these programs,
the study of meteorology is combined with another field, such as
oceanography or hydrology. Students interested in working in broad-
cast meteorology should also take classes in speech, journalism, and
communications. Those interested in air quality and environmental
project work will benefit from classes in environmental policy and
government affairs.
The American Meteorological Society (AMS) provides certification
for consulting meteorologists, administered by a board of certified
consulting meteorologists. The AMS also awards a seal of approval
to recognize competence in radio and television weather forecasting.
To earn the certification, a meteorologist must provide character
references from fellow professionals, have a minimum of five years
of experience plus an advanced degree, and pass the certification
examination.
Other Requirements
Meteorologists are often under constant pressure in their jobs to
meet deadlines and plot severe weather systems. The ability to work
well and stay focused while handling multiple demands is critical.
Skill in communicating (verbally and in writing) complex theories
and events is required. Meteorologists must be able to absorb perti-
nent information quickly and pass it on to coworkers and the public
in a clear, calm manner. Broadcast meteorologists must have espe-
cially good communication skills in order to deal with the pressure
and deadlines of the newsroom.
Exploring
There are several ways that you can explore career possibilities
in meteorology. Each year, for example, the federal governments
National Weather Service accepts a limited number of student vol-
unteers, mostly college students but also a few high school students.
Some universities offer credit for a college students volunteer work
in connection with meteorology courses. The National Oceano-
graphic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) can provide
details about the volunteer program. NOAA also offers the online
Meteorologists 107
Career Guide for the Atmospheric Sciences, which can be found at

http://www.ametsoc.org/atmoscareers/index.html.
Arrange for an information interview with a meteorologist who
works at a local airport or college offering classes in meteorology,
or even a local news station. Your high school guidance counselor
should be able to help you set up this meeting. You can also get
additional information from organizations, such as those listed at
the end of this article.
You can also explore the field by reading books and magazines
about meteorology, and regularly visiting such Web sites as Meteo-
rology News (http://www.meteorologynews.com) to keep up with
news and trends.
Employers
Atmospheric scientists hold about 8,800 jobs, according to the Occu-
pational Outlook Handbook. The largest employer of meteorologists
is the federal government, which employs approximately 37 percent
of all meteorologists. Most federally employed meteorologists work
for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations National
Weather Service stations across the country. They also work for the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Department
of Agriculture. The remainder of the meteorologists work mainly
in research and development or management. Additionally, several
hundred civilian meteorologists work at the Department of Defense.
Many opportunities are also available in the armed forces and in
educational settings. There are hundreds of meteorologists teaching
at institutions of higher education.
Other meteorologists work for private weather consulting firms,
engineering service firms, commercial airlines, radio and television
stations, computer and data processing services, and companies that
design and manufacture meteorological instruments and aircraft
and missiles.
Starting Out
An internship or volunteer position with a meteorology organiza-
tion is a great way to learn valuable skills that you can apply to
future employment in the field, and may even lead to permanent
work within the company. For example, National Weather Service
volunteers may receive permanent positions as meteorologists upon
completing their formal training. Entry-level federal government
meteorologists start in intern positions, learning about the Weather
108 SCIENCe
Weather Forecasters
The weather forecast is a staple element of most TV and radio
newscasts. Some cable and radio stations broadcast weather
reports 24 hours a day; most local network affiliates broadcast
reports during newscasts, as well as during storms and other
extreme conditions. Weather forecasters, also called weather-
casters, compile and analyze weather information and prepare
reports for these newscasts. To help illustrate televised fore-
casts, they use computerized maps and graphics that show view-
ers which regions of the country or world are being affected by
certain weather conditions. They must be able to concentrate on
several different tasks at once. While talking about the weather,
forecasters may have to listen to time cues (the amount of time
left for the presentation) from their newscast producer through a
hearing device placed in their ear. During all this activity, broad-
cast weather forecasters must stay focused and calm.
Services forecasting equipment and procedures, and rotating to

different positions to learn about various weather systems. Mem-
bers of the armed forces who have done work in meteorology often
assume positions in meteorology when they return to civilian life.
Individuals interested in teaching and research careers generally
assume these positions upon receiving their doctorates in meteorol-
ogy or related subjects.
Advancement
Meteorologists employed by the National Weather Service advance
according to civil service regulations. After meeting certain experi-
ence and education requirements, they advance to classifications
that carry more pay and often more responsibility. Opportunities
available to meteorologists employed by airlines are more limited.
A few of these workers, however, do advance to such positions as
flight dispatcher and to administrative and supervisory positions. A
few meteorologists go into business for themselves by establishing
their own weather consulting services. They may work on environ-
mental projects concerning air quality and air pollution. Meteorolo-
gists who are employed in teaching and research in colleges and
universities advance through academic promotions or by assuming
administrative positions in the university setting.
Meteorologists 109
Earnings
In 2008 the median salary for atmospheric scientists was $81,290.
Salaries ranged from less than $38,990 to more than $127,100,
according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The average salary
for meteorologists employed by the federal government was about
$89,950 in 2008. Those who work for scientific and development
research companies earned comparably high salaries ($92,240),
while meteorologists employed by other professional and technical
services earned significantly less ($52,330). Other employers and
the median salaries include: colleges and universities, $81,760; and
management, scientific, and technical consulting services, $50,930.
The U.S. Department of Labor reports the median annual salary
for meteorologists working in radio and television broadcasting in
2008 was $85,760.
Work Environment
Weather stations operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week. This
means that some meteorologists, often on a rotating basis, work eve-
nings and weekends. Although most of these weather stations are at
airports located near cities, a number of weather stations are located
in isolated and remote areas. One of the most remote meteorologi-
cal posts is in the Antarctic, and yet it provides some of the most
interesting and relevant data in meteorology. In these places, the life
of a meteorologist can be quiet and lonely. Operational meteorolo-
gists often work overtime during weather emergencies such as hur-
ricanes. Meteorologists who work in college and university settings
enjoy the same working conditions as other professors.
Outlook
According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, employment for
meteorologists should grow about as fast as the average through
2016. Atmospheric scientists will continue to be needed to analyze
and monitor air pollution to ensure compliance with environmental
regulations and standards.
The National Weather Service (NWS) recently completed
upgrading its forecasting stations, filled all available meteorology
positions, and does not plan to hire more meteorologists in the near
future. Meteorologists are expected to have better employment
opportunities in private industry, however, through 2016. Private
weather consulting firms are able to provide more detailed informa-
tion than the NWS to weather-sensitive industries, such as farmers,
110 SCIENCe
commodity investors, radio and television stations, and utilities,
transportation, and construction firms.

For information on careers, education, certification, and scholarships,
contact
American Meteorological Society
45 Beacon Street
Boston, MA 02108-3693
Tel: 617-227-2425
Email: amsinfo@ametsoc.org
http://www.ametsoc.org
This government agency is concerned with describing and predicting

changes in the environment, as well as managing marine and coastal
resources.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1401 Constitution Avenue, NW, Room 5128
Tel: 301-713-1208
http://www.noaa.gov
For a list of schools with degree programs in meteorology or atmospheric

science, visit the NWA Web site.
National Weather Association (NWA)
228 West Millbrook Road
Raleigh, NC 27609-4304
Tel: 919-845-1546
http://www.nwas.org
To learn more about the weather, visit the NWS Web site.
National Weather Service (NWS)
1325 East West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910-3280
http://www.nws.noaa.gov
Visit the following Web site for a text and pictorial introduction to the
basics of meteorology:
Weather World 2010
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu
Oceanographers
quick facts
Chemistry
Salary Range
Communication/ideas $155,430+
Work Environment None available
One location with some Outlook
travel Much faster than the average
Overview
Oceanographers obtain information about the ocean through obser-
vations, surveys, and experiments. They study the biological,
physical, and chemical composition of the ocean and the geological
structure of the seabed. They also analyze phenomena involving the
water itself, the atmosphere above it, the land beneath it, and the
coastal borders. They study acoustical properties of water so that a
comprehensive and unified picture of the oceans behavior may be
developed in order to determine how these properties affect coastal
areas, climate, and weather. A limnologist is a specialist who studies
freshwater life.
History
The oceans hold approximately 97 percent of the water on Earth
and cover more than two-thirds of its surface. Oceans hold food,
chemicals, and minerals, yet oceanography is a fairly new science. In
fact, according to the Oceanography Society, it was only during the
20th century that we got the first global glimpse of how the oceans
work. With inventions such as deep-sea diving gear, scuba, and
the bathysphere (a steel diving sphere for deep-sea observation),
111
112 SCIENCe
scientists are undertaking more detailed studies of underwater life.
Oceanography includes studying air and sea interaction in weather
forecasting, solving sea mining problems, predicting and prevent-
ing pollution, studying sea life, and improving methods of deriving
foods from the ocean. Oceanographers have also been able to shed
light on how oceans, which store considerable amounts of heat and
carbon dioxide, can have an impact on the climate. Their studies
have helped in more accurately predicting changes in sea levels and
temperatures.
The Job
Oceanographers collect and study data about the motions of ocean
water (waves, currents, and tides), marine life (sea plants and ani-
mals), ore and petroleum deposits (minerals and oils contained in
the nodules and oozes of the ocean floor), and the contour of the
ocean floor (ocean mountains, valleys, and depths). Many of their
findings are compiled for maps, charts, graphs, and special reports
and manuals.
Oceanographers may spend some of their time on the water each
year gathering data and making observations. Those who infre-
quently go to sea do additional oceanographic work on dry land.
Experiments using models or captive organisms may be conducted
in the seaside laboratory.
Oceanographers use equipment designed and manufactured in
special shops. This equipment includes devices to measure depths
by sound impulses, special thermometers to measure water tem-
peratures, special cameras for underwater photography, and diving
gear and machines like the bathyscaphe (a submersible ship for
deep-sea exploration). In addition to such commonly used equip-
ment, many new devices have been developed for specific types of
underwater work. The oceanographer of the future may be using
such tools as a hydraulic miner (a dredge to extract nodules from
the ocean floor), an electronic beater (a machine used to drive fish),
dye curtains, fish pumps, and instrument buoys. New technologies
being developed today include satellite sensors and acoustic current-
measuring devices.
The oceanographer is usually part of a highly skilled team, with
each member specializing in one of the four main branches of the
profession. In actual work, however, there is a tremendous amount
of overlap between the four branches. Biological oceanographers or
marine biologists study all aspects of the oceans plant and animal life.
They are interested in how the life develops, interacts, and adapts to
Oceanographers 113
its environment. Physical oceanographers study such physical aspects

of the ocean as temperature and density, waves and currents, and
the relationship between the ocean and the atmosphere. Chemi-
cal oceanographers and marine geochemists investigate the chemical
composition of the water and ocean floor. They may study seawa-
ter components, pollutants, and trace chemicals, which are small
amounts of dissolved substances that give an area of water a specific
quality. Their work may involve desalinating seawater, researching
ways to extract desirable chemicals from the sea, and studying the
effect of pollution on oceans. Geological oceanographers study the
topographic features and physical composition of the ocean bottom.
Their work greatly contributes to our knowledge and understanding
of Earths history.
Oceanography jobs can be found all over the United States, and
not just where the water meets the shore. Although the majority of
jobs are on the Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf coasts, many other jobs are
available to marine scientists. Universities, colleges, and federal and
state agencies are the largest employers of oceanographers. Other
employers of oceanographers include international organizations,
private companies, consulting firms, nonprofit laboratories, and
local governments. Sometimes oceanographers are self-employed as
consultants with their own businesses.
Many oceanographers work as researchers, professors, and
writersall at the same time. For example, Mary Batteen is a
professor in the oceanography department at the Naval Postgradu-
ate School in Monterey, California, and a working oceanogra-
pher. She was the chairperson of the department from 2001 to
2008, which included many job responsibilities. As the chair-
person, she says, I interacted regularly with a variety of people:
my office staff, faculty, technical staff (usually oceanographers
with MS degrees), other chairs, the dean, the provost, and many
students. I was responsible for making sure that the oceanography
department ran smoothly. As a faculty member, I regularly inter-
act with students when I teach, advise theses, or carry out joint
research with them. My major research interest is understanding
the coastal circulation off west coasts like California, Portugal,
Morocco, Chile, and Western Australia. Typical research ques-
tions I pursue are: Why, at the same latitude, is the water warm
off western Australia and cool off the other west coasts? Why
do some coastal currents flow opposite to the prevailing winds?
What roles do wind forcing, capes (bays), and bottom topography
play in causing eddies to develop off west coasts? To address these
questions, I use a combination of numerical models and available
114 SCIENCe
ocean observations. I am presently writing a textbook [Exploring
Ocean Physics, Blackwell Publishing, 2011] on exploring ocean
physics with the goal of interesting a new generation of oceanog-
raphers in exploring the ocean environment.
Requirements
High School
Science courses, including geology, biology, and chemistry, and
math classes, such as algebra, trigonometry, and statistics, are espe-
cially important to take for future work as an oceanographer. A
great deal of research and documentation is entailed in the job,
so be sure to take English and writing classes to improve your
research and communication skills. In addition, take computer sci-
ence classes because you will be using computers throughout your
professional life.
A bachelors degree is required for entry-level oceanography posi-
tions. College course work includes physics, chemistry, biology, and
geology. Math classes, such as differential and integral calculus,
are recommended, and foreign language classes are also beneficial.
Students also take courses in field research or laboratory work in
oceanography where available. Graduate work in oceanography is
required for most positions in research and teaching. Many schools
now offer undergraduate programs in marine studies, and a growing
number of universities have graduate programs leading to a doctoral
degree in oceanography.
Other Requirements
Personal traits helpful to a career in oceanography are a strong
interest in science, particularly the physical and earth sciences and
an interest in situations involving activities of an abstract and cre-
ative nature (observing nature, performing experiments, creating
objects). A passion for outdoor activities such as hunting, fishing,
swimming, or boating is helpful in this type of work. Oceanogra-
phers also read, research, and write continually throughout their
careers. Their academic interests span the boundaries of biology,
chemistry, and physics.
Above-average aptitudes in verbal, numerical, and spatial abili-
ties are also required. Prospective oceanographers should be able
to discriminate detail among objects in terms of their shape, size,
color, or markings.
Oceanographers 115
Exploring
If you live near coastal regions, you will have an easier time becom-
ing familiar with oceans and ocean life than if you are land-bound.
However, some institutions offer work or leisure-time experiences
that provide participants with opportunities to explore particular
aspects of oceanography. Possible opportunities include work in
marine or conservation fisheries or on board seagoing vessels or field
experiences in studying rocks, minerals, or aquatic life. If you live or
travel near one of the oceanography research centers, such as Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, the
University of Miamis Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric
Science in Florida, or the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in
California, you should plan to spend some time learning about their
activities and studying their exhibits.
Volunteer work for students is often available with research
teams, nonprofit organizations, and public centers such as aquari-
ums. If you do not live near water, try to find summer internships,
camps, or programs that involve travel to a coastal area. You can
help pave your way into the field by learning all you can about the
Did You Know?

Oceans cover nearly three-quarters of the planets sur-
face336 million cubic miles.
Ocean depth averages 2.3 miles. The greatest known
depth of any ocean is in the Challenger Deep of the
Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean, about 250 miles
southwest of Guam. Recorded echo soundings indicate
a maximum depth of about 36,000 feet.
The oceans intricate food webs support more life by
weight and a greater diversity of animals than any other
ecosystem.
The oceans have vast reserves of commercially valuable
minerals, including nickel, iron, manganese, copper, and
cobalt.
The surface temperature of oceans ranges from about
86F at the equator to about 29F near the poles. The
worlds warmest water is in the Persian Gulf, where sur-
face temperatures of 96F have been recorded.
116 SCIENCe
geology, atmosphere, and plant and animal life of the area where
you live, regardless of whether water is present.
Employers
There were about 31,000 geoscientists, including oceanographers,
employed in the United States in 2006, according to the Depart-
ment of Labor. Of these, approximately 2,600 worked for the fed-
eral government, including the U.S. Department of the Interior
for the U.S. Geological Survey and within the U.S. Department of
Defense. Oceanographers, ocean engineers, marine technicians, and
those interested in marine policy also work for the Environmental
Protection Agency and the National Biological Survey, among oth-
ers. State governments often employ oceanographers in environ-
mental agencies or state-funded research projects.
Many oceanographers also work at colleges or universities, where
they teach, conduct research, write, and consult. Others work for
private industries such as oil companies and nonprofit organiza-
tions, including environmental societies. An increasing number of
oceanographers are being employed each year by industrial firms,
particularly those involved in oceanographic instrument and equip-
ment manufacturing, shipbuilding, and chemistry.
Starting Out
Many oceanography students participate in internships or work as
teaching assistants while in college to gain hands-on experience in
the field. Mary Batteen was a graduate teaching assistant while pur-
suing her MS degree in oceanography. Besides learning to teach,
she says, I learned on-the-job skills while out on oceanography
cruises. While pursuing my Ph.D., I was a graduate research assis-
tant. I learned many computer skills while analyzing oceanographic
data and running numerical models.
While in high school, an internship or part-time job with the
government or private industry can provide excellent opportuni-
ties for exposure to the field. Ask your science teachers for ideas on
where you might search for seasonal work in oceanography. You can
also check the Web sites of professional associations to learn more
about volunteer and intern programs. For example, the American
Society of Limnology and Oceanography (http://www.aslo.org)
offers educational and career information for students and working
oceanographers.
Oceanographers 117
Advancement
Starting oceanography positions usually involve working as a labo-
ratory or research assistant, with on-the-job training in applying
oceanographic principles to the problems at hand. Some beginning
oceanographers with Ph.D.s may qualify for college teaching or
research positions. Experienced personnel, particularly those with
advanced graduate work or doctorates, can become supervisors or
administrators. Such positions involve considerable responsibility
in planning and policy-making or policy interpretation. Those who
achieve top-level oceanographer positions may plan and supervise
research projects involving a number of workers, or they may be
in charge of an oceanographic laboratory or aquarium. Those who
work in private industry may branch out by starting their own con-
sulting businesses and writing and teaching.
Earnings
Salaries for oceanographers vary depending on education, experi-
ence, and chosen discipline. Supply and demand issues along with
the region in which oceanographers work also determine salary
levels. Some examples of jobs in the marine sciences that presently
pay more than the average include physical oceanography, marine
technology and engineering, and computer modeling.
According to a 2007 report by the National Association of Col-
leges and Employers, students graduating with a bachelors degree in
geology and related sciences were offered an average starting salary
of $40,786.
According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, in 2008
salaries for geoscientists (which includes geologists, geophysicists,
and oceanographers) ranged from less than $41,700 to more than
$155,430, with a median of $79,160. In 2007 oceanographers work-
ing for the federal government earned average annual salaries of
$93,461.
Oceanographers may also supplement their incomes with fees
earned from consulting, lecturing, and publishing their findings. As
highly trained scientists, they usually enjoy good benefits, such as
health insurance and retirement plans offered by their employers.
Work Environment
Oceanographers in shore stations, laboratories, and research centers
work five-day, 40-hour weeks. Occasionally, they serve a longer
118 SCIENCe
shift, particularly when a research experiment demands around-
the-clock surveillance. Such assignments may also involve unusual
working hours, depending on the nature of the research or the pur-
pose of the trip. Trips at sea mean time away from home for periods
extending from a few days to several months. Sea expeditions may
be physically demanding and present an entirely different way of
life: living on board a ship. Weather conditions may impose some
hazards during these assignments. Choosing to engage in underwa-
ter research may mean a more adventuresome and hazardous way
of life than in other occupations. It is wise to discover early whether
or not life at sea appeals to you so that you may pursue appropriate
jobs within the oceanography field.
Many jobs in oceanography, however, exist in laboratories, offices,
and aquariums, with little time spent underwater or at sea. Many
oceanographers are needed to analyze samples brought to land from
sea; to plan, develop, and organize seafaring trips from land; and to
teach. Oceanographers who work in colleges or universities get the
added benefit of the academic calendar, which provides time off for
travel or research.
Outlook
The U.S. Department of Labor predicts much faster than average
employment growth for oceanographers through 2016.
Many new jobs are being created due to the growing interest in
understanding and protecting the environment, according to the
Oceanography Society. Increased government contracting as well
as private corporations need for environmental management plan-
ning and technical assistance are also creating demand for more
oceanographers. Careers related to fisheries resources, including
basic research in biology and chemistry, as well as mariculture
and sea ranching, will also increase. Because the oceans hold vast
resources of commercially valuable minerals, employment oppor-
tunities will come from pharmaceutical and biotechnology compa-
nies and others interested in mining these substances for potential
miracle drugs and other commercial uses. Continued deep-sea
exploration made possible by underwater robotics and autonomous
seacraft may also create more market opportunities for underwater
research, with perhaps more international than U.S.-based employ-
ment potential.
Funding for graduate students and professional positions is
expected to increase during the coming decade in the areas of global
climate change, environmental research and management, fisheries
Oceanographers 119
Learn More About It

Crane, Kathleen. Sea Legs: Tales of a Woman Oceanographer.
Cambridge, Mass.: Westview Press, 2003.
Denny, Mark. How the Ocean Works: An Introduction to Oceanog-
raphy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008.
Garrison, Tom S. Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science.
Florence, Ky.: Brooks/Cole, 2009.
Miller, Charles B. Biological Oceanography. Malden, Mass.: Black-
well Publishers, 2004.
Parsons, Tim. The Seas Enthrall: Memoirs of an Oceanographer.
Victoria, BC, Canada: EcceNova Editions, 2004.
Trujillo, Alan P., and Harold V. Thurman. Essentials of Oceanogra-
phy. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007.
science, and marine biomedical and pharmaceutical research pro-

grams. Although job availability is always difficult to predict for
several years out, anyone doing good, strong academic work with a
well-known professor in the field has solid employment chances.
Developments in technology will also continue to create and
expand job opportunities for those interested in the marine sciences.
As ways of collecting and analyzing data become more advanced,
many more research positions are opening up for microbiologists,
geneticists, and biochemists, fields that were limited by the capa-
bilities of past technology but are now rapidly expanding. All these
fields can have ties to the marine biological sciences. In general,
oceanographers who also have training in other sciences or in engi-
neering will probably have better opportunities for employment
than those with training limited to oceanography.

For education and career information, contact the following
organizations:
Acoustical Society of America
Two Huntington Quadrangle, Suite 1NO1
Melville, NY 11747-4502
Tel: 516-576-2360
Email: asa@aip.org
http://asa.aip.org
120 SCIENCe
American Geophysical Union
2000 Florida Avenue, NW
Tel: 800-966-2481
Email: service@agu.org
http://www.agu.org
The education and outreach section of the AIBS Web site has informa-
tion on a number of careers in biology.
American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS)
Tel: 202-628-1500
http://www.aibs.org
Learn more about membership, publications, and find career informa-

tion on ASLOs Web site.
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO)
5400 Bosque Boulevard, Suite 680
Waco, TX 76710-4446
Tel: 800-929-2756
Email: business@aslo.org
http://www.aslo.org
For information about ocean careers and education, contact

Department of Oceanography
Texas A&M University
MS 3146
College Station, TX 77843-3146
Tel: 979-845-7211
http://www-ocean.tamu.edu
The IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society is a technical society of the Insti-

tute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. The OES Newsletter,
with information on the field, can be read online at the organizations
Web site.
IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society
http://www.oceanicengineering.org
To purchase the booklet Education and Training Programs in Ocean-

ography and Related Fields, contact
Marine Technology Society (MTS)
5565 Sterrett Place, Suite 108
Oceanographers 121
Columbia, MD 21044-2606
Tel: 410-884-5330
http://www.mtsociety.org
Contact this society for ocean news and information on membership.

The Oceanography Society
PO Box 1931
Rockville, MD 20849-1931
Tel: 301-251-7708
Email: info@tos.org
http://www.tos.org
For information on undergraduate and graduate programs available at

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, contact
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
8602 La Jolla Shores Drive
La Jolla, CA 92037-1508
Tel: 858-534-3624
Email: scrippsnews@ucsd.edu
http://www-sio.ucsd.edu
Soil Scientists
quick facts
Agriculture Bachelors degree
Earth science
Salary Range
Leadership/management $105,340+
Overview
Soil scientists study the physical, chemical, and biological charac-
teristics of soils to determine the most productive and effective
planting strategies. Their research aids in producing larger, healthier
crops and more environmentally sound farming procedures. They
also study soil to learn more about climate change, greenhouse
gases, and carbon sequestration. There are about 16,000 soil scien-
tists, working in the United States.
History
Hundreds of years ago, farmers planted crops without restriction;
they were unaware that soil could be depleted of necessary nutrients
by overuse. Crop rotationthe practice of systematically changing
crops to keep soils healthywas not yet employed. When crops
failed, farmers often blamed the weather instead of their farming
techniques.
Soil, one of our most important natural resources, was taken for
granted until its condition became too poor to ignore. An increas-
ing population, moreover, made the United States aware that its
122
Soil Scientists 123
own welfare depends on fertile soil capable of producing food for

hundreds of millions of people.
Concerns about feeding a growing nation inspired the reevalua-
tion of agricultural practices. In 1862 the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture (USDA) was created to give farmers information about new
crops and improved farming techniques. Although the department
started small, today the USDA is one of the largest agencies of the
federal government.
Following the creation of the USDA, laws were created to further
promote and protect farmers. The 1933 Agricultural Adjustment
Act inaugurated a policy of giving direct government aid to farm-
ers. Two years later, the Natural Resource Conservation Service
words to know
aeration porosity The fraction of the volume of soil that is filled
with air at any given time.
carbon sequestration The capture and long-term storage of car-
bon dioxide to reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The
carbon may be stored (or sequestered) in living reservoirs such
as green vegetation and forests, or in nonliving reservoirs like soil
and wood products.
erosivity The measured or predicted ability of soil to be eroded
by water, wind, gravity, or other agents of erosion.
gytta Peat consisting of plant and animal residues from stand-
ing water.
karst Topography with caves, sinkholes, and underground drain-
age that is formed in limestone and other rocks by dissolution.
leaching Removal of soluble material from soil or other material
by the action of percolating water.
macronutrient A nutrient found in high concentrations in a
plant.
paleosol Fossilized soil, usually found buried beneath sedimen-
tary or volcanic deposits.
scarp A cliff or steep slope along the margin of a plateau.
124 SCIENCe
developed after disastrous dust storms blew away millions of tons
of valuable topsoil and destroyed fertile cropland throughout the
midwestern states.
Since 1937, states have organized themselves into soil conser-
vation districts. Each local division coordinates with the USDA,
assigning soil scientists and soil conservationists to help local farm-
ers establish and maintain farming practices that will use land in
the wisest possible ways.
Within the past decade, soil science research has also focused
increasingly on environmental issues, particularly in relation to
safely disposing of land waste, preventing and curbing the impact
of soil erosion, planning sustainable urban development, and con-
serving natural resources.
The Job
Soil is formed when rocks break down and trees, plants, and animals
decay. It can take as long as 500 to 1,000 years to make just one inch
of topsoil. Wasteful farming methods can destroy that inch of soil in
just a few short years. Rainstorms, wind, ice, and gravity may also
carry away thousands of pounds of precious topsoil, removing the
nutrients needed to grow healthy crops and vegetation and causing
erosion. Soil scientists work with engineers to address these and
other issues.
Soil scientists spend much of their time outdoors, investigating
fields and sites. They specialize in areas of study. For example, those
who specialize in agriculture may advise farmers about crop rota-
tion or fertilizers, assess field drainage, and take soil samples. After
researching an area, they may suggest certain crops to farmers to
protect bare earth from the ravages of the wind and weather.
Soil mappers or soil surveyors study soil structure, origins, and
capabilities through field observations, laboratory examinations,
and controlled experimentation. Their investigations are aimed
at determining the most suitable uses for a particular soil. They
may be called upon to help with such issues as identifying and
protecting wetlands, or areas that have sensitive or unstable soils;
managing storm water or controlling sediment and erosion; manag-
ing waste (municipal biosolids, manure, etc.); and optimizing land
use through soil and nutrient management. Other issues soil scien-
tists help address include land remediation and restoration and soil
conservation.
Soil fertility experts develop practices that will increase or main-
tain crop size. They must consider both the type of soil and the
Soil Scientists 125
crop planted in their analysis. Various soils react differently when

exposed to fertilizers, soil additives, crop rotation, and other farm-
ing techniques.
All soil scientists work in laboratories, using microscopes to exam-
ine soil samples to determine bacterial and plant-food components.
They also write reports based on their field notes and analyses done
within the lab.
Soil science is part of the science of agronomy, which encom-
passes crop science. Soil and crop scientists work together in agricul-
tural experiment stations during all seasons, doing research on crop
production, soil fertility, and various kinds of soil management.
Some soil and crop scientists travel to remote sections of the
world in search of plants and grasses that may thrive in this country
and contribute to our food supply, pasture land, or soil replenish-
ing efforts. Some scientists go overseas to advise farmers and land
managers in other countries on how to treat their soils. Those with
advanced degrees can teach college soil science courses and conduct
research projects.
Requirements
High School
While in high school a good foundation for a future career in soil
science is course work in math, science, English, and public speak-
ing. Science courses such as earth science, biology, and chemistry
are particularly important. Since much of your future work will
involve calculations, you should take four years of high school math.
You can learn a lot about farming methods and conditions by taking
agriculture classes if your school offers them. Computer courses are
useful, as are English and speech courses, since soil scientists must
write reports and make presentations about their findings.
A bachelors degree in agriculture or agronomy with a specification
in soil science is the minimum educational requirement to become
a soil scientist. Typical courses include physics, geology, bacteriol-
ogy, botany, chemistry, soil and plant morphology and pathology,
soil fertility, soil classification, and soil genesis. Depending on their
major, students may also be required to study economics, busi-
ness, statistics, physical and life sciences, and various agricultural
sciences.
Research and teaching positions usually require higher levels
of education. Most colleges of agriculture also offer masters and
126 SCIENCe
doctoral degrees. In addition to studying agriculture or soil sci-
ence, students can specialize in biology, chemistry, physics, or
engineering.
Certification is not required but can help hone soil scientists skills
and enhance their careers. The American Society of Agronomy
offers certification programs in the following areas: crop advisory,
agronomy, crop science, soil science, plant pathology, and weed
science. The Soil Science Society of America offers certification to
soil scientists who have a bachelors degree in soil science and five
years of related work experience, or a graduate degree and three
years of experience. To receive certification from either organi-
zation, applicants must meet the prerequisites, pass certification
exams, and maintain their certification through continual training
and education.
Other Requirements
Soil scientists must be able to work independently as well as with
teams, either outdoors or in the laboratory. Much of their time is
spent outdoorsin any type of weatherso they must be able to
endure sometimes difficult and uncomfortable physical conditions.
Gathering and assessing data, and puzzling through problems to
Get More Dirt On It

Ashman, Mark, and Geeta Puri. Essential Soil Science: A Clear
and Concise Introduction to Soil Science. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-
Blackwell, 2002.
Brady, Nyle C., and Ray R. Weil. The Nature and Properties of
Soils. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007.
Kinsey, Neal, and Charles Walters. Hands-On Agronomy. Austin,
Tex.: Acres USA, 2006.
Magdoff, Fred. Building Soils for Better Crops. Washington, D.C.:
SARE Outreach, 2000.
Montgomery, David R. Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. Berkeley,
Calif.: University of California Press, 2008.
Plaster, Edward. Soil Science and Management. Florence, Ky.:
Delmar Cengage Learning, 2008.
Soil Scientists 127
find the solutions are intrinsic elements of the job. Soil scientists
must also be well versed in statistical techniques, business practices,
and computer database software.
Exploring
Learn more about careers and educational opportunities in agricul-
tural soil science by visiting the National FFA Web site at http://
www.ffa.org. A 4-H club can also give you valuable experience in
agriculture. Contact the local branch of these organizations, your
countys soil conservation department, or other government agen-
cies to learn about regional projects. You can also learn more about
soil by watching videos of the Smithsonians Dig It! The Secrets of
Soil exhibit, which you will find at http://www.sites.si.edu/soils/.
Employers
Most soil scientists work for state or federal departments of agricul-
ture, such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture. They may also
work for other public employers, such as land appraisal boards, land-
grant colleges and universities, and conservation departments. Soil
scientists who work overseas may be employed by the U.S. Agency
for International Development.
Soil scientists are needed in private industries as well, such as
agricultural and environmental service companies, banks, insurance
and real estate firms, food products companies, wholesale distribu-
tors, and environmental and engineering consulting groups. Private
firms may hire soil scientists for sales or research positions.
Starting Out
Internships or part-time work with organizations that have soil sci-
ence departments is the best way to get started in the field. Con-
tact the Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture, the
Department of the Interior, the Environmental Protection Agency, or
other state government agencies for beginning positions. You can also
see if colleges and universities near you offer soil science programs and
if they offer volunteer opportunities for upcoming projects.
Advancement
Soil scientists with masters and doctoral degrees usually have bet-
ter opportunities for advancement. Soil scientists who teach may
128 SCIENCe
advance to higher positions within academia, such as department
heads. In private business firms, soil scientists may advance to more
senior research and management positions. Supervisory and man-
ager positions are also available in state agencies such as road or
conservation departments.
Earnings
According to the U.S. Department of Labor (DoL), median earn-
ings in 2008 for soil and plant scientists were $58,390. The lowest
paid 10 percent earned less than $34,260, and the highest paid 10
percent earned approximately $105,340 or higher.
Federally employed soil scientists had annual incomes of $75,110
in 2008. Soil scientists who worked for management, scientific, and
technical consulting services had lower incomes, averaging about
$60,820 per year. The DoL reports that colleges, universities, and
professional schools paid the lowest wages of allacademically
employed soil scientists earned $50,840 per year in 2008. In addi-
tion to salaries, most soil scientist jobs offer health and retirement
benefits.
Work Environment
Soil scientists work at least 40 hours per week. The job responsibili-
ties are diverse and work takes place in various locationsscientists
may conduct fieldwork one day to collect samples, and then be back
in the lab the next day to analyze their findings. Depending on
the company and the nature of their work, some soil scientists are
required to travel frequently, sometimes to other countries. They
may travel for research as well as for meetings, conferences, and
training programs.
Outlook
Employment opportunities for soil scientists is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2016, accord-
ing to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Increasing interest in
protecting the environment and keeping land safe will continue to
drive the demand for soil scientists. In addition, private businesses,
such as those that deal with seed, fertilizers, or farm equipment,
will continue to need soil scientists to develop and improve upon
pesticides, fertilizers, soil fertility, and water quality. Technological
advances in equipment and methods of conservation are allowing
Soil Scientists 129
scientists to better protect the environment, as well as improve

farm production. Scientists ability to evaluate soils and plants will
improve with more precise research methods.

Contact the ASA for information on science policy, publications, and
careers.
American Society of Agronomy (ASA)
677 South Segoe Road
Madison, WI 53711-1086
Tel: 608-273-8080
http://www.agronomy.org
Learn more about seminars, issues affecting soil scientists, and educa-
tional institutions offering soil science programs by visiting
National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists
PO Box 1219
Sandpoint, ID 83864-0860
Tel: 800-535-7148
http://www.nscss.org
Find publications and other resources at

Soil Science Society of America
677 South Segoe Road
Madison, WI 53711-1086
Tel: 608-273-8080
http://www.soils.org
Wetland Scientists
quick facts
Chemistry
Salary Range
$101,030+
None required
Work Environment
One or more locations About as fast as the average
Overview
Wetland scientists have different missions within their field of study-
ing wetlands areas. Some study wetlands to help preserve, protect,
and restore them, as well as to assess and identify areas that qualify
as wetlands. They conduct studies to determine whether certain
wetlands need protection and restoration. They often work with
conservation planners and managers to design new wetlands or inte-
grate wetlands plans into surrounding environments. Others may
focus their work on specific plant and animal species found within
wetlands.
History
Wetlands are as the name suggests: lands in which water domi-
nates. They vary widely depending on the regions in which they are
located, and they are affected by the climates, soils, topography,
water chemistry, and other factors within those regions. Wetlands
are found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be on
coastlines or inland, and they may even be wet only periodically
if they are located in arid and semiarid areas, such as in the West.
In the Clean Water Act of 1972 wetlands are described as those
130
areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater

at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under
normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typi-
cally adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally
include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas.
Prior to the Clean Water Act, state and local governments were
responsible for creating standards and monitoring the quality of
U.S. waters, including wetlands, lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds.
The federal government provided financial assistance to the states
for basic water research and quality monitoring. Many states had
not followed through on creating consistent quality standards prior
to this, however, which was why the Clean Water Act was passed.
With it came stricter regulations, and while the federal govern-
ment would still continue to provide financial assistance to states for
water-related needs, it assigned the task of enforcing and monitoring
environmental laws to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Created in 1970 as part of the growing interest in protecting the
environment and human health, and conserving natural resources,
the EPA provides guidance to states for various environmental
issues, including water quality standards, to help protect wetlands.
Keeping wetlands healthy involves such aspects as shoreline stabili-
zation, runoff filtration, erosion control, and protecting and moni-
toring wildlife habitats.
Wetlands offer numerous ecological, economic, and social ben-
efits, according to the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Many saltwater
and freshwater fishes and shellfish of commercial and recreational
importance can be found in wetlands, which are frequently referred
to as nurseries of life because of the abundance of animal and
plant life found within them. Wetlands are also transition zones
between land and waterthey hold and slowly release snowmelt
and floodwaters, thereby preventing and controlling floods. They
also help cleanse water of impurities by absorbing and recycling
excess nutrients, sediments, and pollutants. On a recreational level,
they provide unique opportunities for people to view and appreciate
wildlife and nature.
The Job
Wetland scientists study various aspects of wetlands, from soil,
water, and geology to plant and animal species. Depending upon
their job and employer, their work may involve delineating and
documenting wetlands, conducting endangered species surveys,
preparing restoration and mitigation plans, overseeing construction
132 SCIENCe
and mitigation, and creating environmental impact assessments.
Other jobs requiring wetland science backgrounds include wetland
scientist manager, environmental scientist, soil scientist, water resources
engineer, environmental planning/project manager, stream ecologist,
and stream restoration scientist/engineer.
Wetland scientists determine whether certain areas qualify as
wetlands through field study work, sample collection and experi-
mentation, and data analysis. They may study photographs taken
of specific areas during different seasons over a number of years, to
look for patterns of soil saturation or inundation. They look at root
zones, particularly during growing seasons, and study watermarks
on trees or other structures. Other clues that help them include
sediment deposits, water-stained leaves, debris and drift lines, and
drainage patterns. They study the landscape to determine where
water exits and enters the area, how often the water comes in, and
how long the area stays saturated. They also look for current and
past activity by humans and animals (such as beavers), and observe
whether the area has been recently flooded or was flooded in the
past.
Wetland scientists also study animal and plant species native to
the wetlands, taking note of any invasive species that are affecting
the ecosystems and lifecycles of living organisms. They observe ani-
mals breeding and migratory behaviors, take population invento-
ries, monitor water and soil quality, and check for pollutants. Their
work also entails wetland permitting and writing environmental
impact assessments (EIA), which point out the positive and nega-
tive effects a proposed project may have on an environment. They
spend time in laboratories and in the field getting wet. Hip waders,
river shoes and boots, rain gear, and bug repellant are part of their
work gear.
Requirements
High School
Classes in biology, chemistry, ecology, botany, physics, environmen-
tal science, math, English, and computer software programs are
a good foundation for undergraduate studies in wetlands science.
Foreign language classes are also recommended and can be useful in
working with future team members from other countries.
Wetlands scientists may have degrees in wetland science and
management, or in any number of other science-related majors,
types of wetlands
Wetlands come in many different shapes and sizesfrom marshes
and mudflats to floodplains, shallow seas, and even lakes. They
are highly productive ecosystems that provide the world with
nearly two-thirds of its fish harvest, along with many other natu-
ral resources and benefits. What follows is a small sampling of the
variety of forms wetlands may take.
bogs Rainfall creates bogs, which are waterlogged peat lands
in old lake basins or landscape depressions. (Peat is partially
decayed vegetative matter.) Unique flora has evolved in bogs
because of their nutrient-poor and acidic conditions. And because
bogs are not useful for agriculture, forestry, or development, they
offer an undisturbed habitat for a variety of species, including
black bear, lynx, snowshoe hare, and mink. They also provide safe
habitat for migratory birds to rest, feed, and breed.
fens Fens are formed from glaciers that have retreated. Ground-
water and water from small streams contribute to the waters found
in fens. Because the water in fens has movement, fens are less
acidic; unlike bogs, their water and soil are richer in nutrients.
floodplains Flat land areas that are seasonally flooded by rivers
and lakes are known as floodplains. Coastal deltas and inland
floodplains are areas that experience natural overflow; they slow
the velocity of the floodwaters and allow nutrients and sediments
to settle.
mangrove swamps Forested ecosystems found at sheltered
tropical coastal areas, mangrove swamps feature partly sub-
merged roots of mangrove trees that spread out beneath the
water to trap sediment and prevent it from being washed out to
sea. Around 70 percent of tropical coastlines are mangrove lined.
Environmental planners sometimes strategically plant mangroves
between land and sea to stabilize shorelines and to protect com-
munities from ocean waves and powerful storms. These swamps
harbor many fish and wildlife species.
marshes Like mangrove swamps, marshes offer great biologi-
cal diversity. They form as fringes around lakes, in depressions in
the landscape, and along slow-flowing streams and rivers. They
(continues)
134 SCIENCe
(continued)
slow the rate of rainfall drainage and control its flow into lakes,
rivers, and streams. Floating-leafed plants such as water lilies and
duckweed predominate in marshes.
pocosins A Native American word meaning swamp on a hill,
pocosins are evergreen shrub bogs found on the coastal plain of
the southeastern United States. They are usually located in high
areas of flat, waterlogged landscapes.
vernal pools These are small, shallow, intermittently flooded
depressions in grasslands or forests, and are usually only wet
in winter and early spring. Vernal pools are critical habitats for
some animals, particularly a number of amphibians that rely on
them exclusively.
Source: World Wildlife Federation
including biology, environmental science, ecology, wildlife ecology,

aquatic or marine science, and soil science. Undergraduate course
work includes biology, chemistry, geology, physics, as well as data
analysis and physical geography, subjects that are especially useful
to students who are studying water resources, pollution abatement,
and ecosystem restoration, protection, and management. Students
also study environmental policy and legislation, particularly laws
related to waters and water resources. Most wetlands scientists have
masters degrees. A doctoral degree is usually required for college
and university teaching and research positions.
Certification is not required but can show current and prospec-
tive employers and clients achievement of a level of expertise and
knowledge within the wetland science field. The Society of Wet-
land Scientists offers certification to scientists who meet specific
academic and work experience requirements. The wetland profes-
sional in training title is designated to those who meet education
requirements but do not yet have sufficient work experience. The
professional wetland scientist designation is awarded to those who
meet both prerequisites.
Other Requirements
Wetland scientists are well versed in environmental regulations
and policies, particularly federal, state, and local wetland and pro-
tected species legislation. They are deeply interested in nature, in
the environment, and in preserving and protecting wetlands. They
are flexible, open minded, and willing and able to work in the field
at all hours of the day or nightmud, murky waters, mosquitoes,
glowworms, and crocodiles and alligators do not deter them. They
work independently and in teams. Familiarity with geographic
information systems (GIS) and global positioning systems (GPS)
is required in the work, as is computer modeling, data analysis and
integration, digital mapping, and remote sensing. Strong commu-
nication skills are essential for writing technical reports, research
proposals, and requests for grants, and for presenting findings to
managers, regulators, and the general public. Experience in wet-
land mitigation and restoration projects is crucial for many wetland
scientist positions.
Exploring
Visit the Environmental Protection Agencys Wetlands, Oceans
and Watersheds section of its Web site to learn more about our
waters, and the laws and regulations that protect them. You can also
volunteer to help protect your local watershed through the EPAs
Adopt Your Watershed program. Find volunteer activities and sug-
gestions by visiting http://www.epa.gov/adopt. Also, keep up with
environmental and wetland science issues, news, and developments
by reading publications such as Wetlands (http://www.sws.org/wet-
lands/index.mgi), Scientific American, Discover, and Environmental
Scientist.
Employers
There are 92,000 environmental scientists and 87,000 biological
scientists employed in the United States. Many scientists work for
federal, state, and local governments, such as the Environmental
Protection Agency, U.S. Department of the Interior for the U.S.
Geological Survey, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department
of Defense, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, national parks, and state
departments of conservation. Many also work as instructors and
professors at colleges and universities, and for nonprofit organiza-
tions. Others work in scientific research and testing laboratories, or
136 SCIENCe
for private-sector companies that provide management, scientific,
and technical consulting services. A small percentage of scientists
are self-employed and run their own companies.
Starting Out
Wetland scientists often start out as interns, working on field
study programs while still in college. In high school, volunteering
or interning with an environmental protection agency, national
park, or nonprofit group that has wetland projects is a great way
to literally and figuratively get your feet wet in this job. Visit the
Web site of your states department of conservation to search
for internships and volunteer programs. You can also find a vari-
ety of listings for internships, part-time and full-time jobs, and
other environmental opportunities at the Career Rookies Web
site (http://www.careerrookie.com).
Advancement
Scientists often start out in their careers in field exploration or as
research assistants or technicians. With experience, they advance
by taking on more challenging research projects, conducting inde-
pendent research, and eventually leading research projects and
overseeing teams of other scientists. They can move up to more
senior management and research positions. They may start their
own consulting businesses, and write books and articles about their
findings and experience in the field. Scientists who work on college
and university faculties can advance within academia to become
tenured professors and heads of departments.
Earnings
In 2008 biological scientists earned median annual salaries of
$65,080, with the bottom 10 percent averaging $35,620 and the
top 10 percent earning $101,030 or more annually, according to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Biological scientists who worked for the
federal government averaged $70,270 annually, and state-employed
scientists earned annual incomes of $55,500 in 2008. Salaries for
environmental scientists ranged from $36,310 to $102,610. Envi-
ronmental scientists who worked for management, scientific, and
technical consulting services earned $70,450 annually in 2008,
while those who worked for local governments brought home
approximately $58,040.
Work Environment
Wetland scientists may work 40 or more hours per week. Scien-
tists spend time indoors in laboratories analyzing test samples and
data. They also work in offices and, if they teach, in college and
university classrooms. Wetland scientists also spend a lot of time
outdoors in wetlands, conducting studies in various regions and
under diverse conditions. Work hours may be irregular, depend-
ing upon the projects scientists are working on and the seasons
in which theyre working. For example, if they are studying a
particular type of bird, they may spend several days and nights in
the wetlands in the spring, observing the birds migratory behav-
ior. Or, they may be out in the swamps at night studying recently
hatched crocodiles. Physical fitness and stamina are especially
important in the job. They work in all kinds of weather and are
frequently in the water using different types of equipment to col-
lect plant or animal samples. Wetland scientists travel to sites to
conduct their studies; they also travel for meetings, conferences,
and workshops.
Outlook
Biological scientists in general can expect employment oppor-
tunities to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa-
tions through 2016. Cleaning up and protecting the environment
will continue to be a global priority in the years to come, and
preserving and restoring wetlands will remain a focal point in
the conservation movement. Wetland scientists with strong aca-
demic backgrounds, solid work experience, and a body of pub-
lished research will have better chances of securing work. Those
with doctoral degrees will have the advantage in the market for
college and university instructors as well as for advanced research
projects.

Learn more about federal, state, and local wetlands programs, and find
other resources by visiting
Association of State Wetland Managers, Inc.
Two Basin Road
Windham, ME 04062-5322
Tel: 207-892-3399
http://www.aswm.org
138 SCIENCe
Find information about the Society of Wetland Scientists certification
program and training courses by visiting
The Center for Association Resources
Professional Certification Program
1901 North Roselle Road, Suite 920
Schaumburg, IL 60195-3187
Tel: 888-705-1434
http://www.wetlandcert.org
Visit the EPAs Web site to learn more about wetlands and efforts being
made to protect them.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
http://www.epa.gov
Learn more about wetlands issues and hot topics by visiting

National Wetlands Research Center
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
Reston, VA 20192-0002
Tel: 703-648-4000
http://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/
Find information about membership, news, publications, and programs

by visiting
Society of Wetland Scientists
1313 Dolley Madison Boulevard, Suite 402
Maclean, VA 22101-3926
Tel: 703-790-1745
http://www.sws.org
See photos and videos of various wetlands and find links to other wet-
lands-related Web sites at
The Wetland Foundation
http://web.mac.com/karenmckee1/The_Wetland_Foundation/
Home.html
Wildlife Scientists
quick facts
Mathematics
Salary Range
Mechanical/manipulative $90,850
Overview
Wildlife scientists are scientists whose work relates to animals in the
wild and in captivity. They may work in wildlife biology, wildlife
management, and wildlife rehabilitation. They research and study
animal behavior and lifecycle patterns of all animals, including
endangered species. Wildlife scientists apply scientific knowledge
and technical skills to help protect, conserve, and remedy challenges
wildlife may face as well as issues with habitats.
History
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 was enacted to protect ani-
mals from extinction as a result of economic growth and devel-
opment untempered by adequate concern and conservation. The
act is administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which
includes the National Marine Fisheries Service. Until the 20th cen-
tury, many animals were hunted and killed to extinction or near
extinction for commercial, recreational, and survival purposes.
Meat, skins, and furs of certain species were highly desirable and
marketed around the world. For example, passenger pigeons were
139
140 SCIENCe
a staple in peoples diets in the 1800s. Once the most common
bird in North America, the passenger pigeon no longer exists pri-
marily because of overhunting. Bisons were also nearly hunted out
of existencein the early 1800s it was estimated that more than
65 million roamed North America; by the late 1800s fewer than
1,000 remained. While their numbers have rebounded slightly
since then due to conservation and breeding efforts, Yellowstone
National Park is the only place where the last continuously wild
herd of bison exists, a group numbering between 3,000 and 3,500
bison. Today there are 86 mammals listed as endangered or threat-
ened on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services Species Reports, and
the wood bison is among them.
Habitats were also destroyed and animals either displaced or
harmed in the process of developing land for burgeoning popula-
tions and new and growing communities. For instance, many of
the ancient redwood forests in Northern California were leveled
from the mid-1800s to mid-1900s because of high demand for the
strong, rot-resistant wood. During that time, numerous logging
towns thrived around the sole purpose of felling trees for timber.
Starting in the early 1900s, growing concern about conserving the
trees and habitats for animals, such as the endangered spotted owl,
gave rise to the creation of national parks and land preserves.
Learn More About It

Birkhead, Tim. A Brand New Bird: How Two Amateur Scientists
Created the First Genetically Engineered Animal. New York:
Basic Books, 2003.
Brodowsky, Pamela, and the National Wildlife Federation. Desti-
nation Wildlife. New York: Perigee Trade, 2009.
Fulbright, Timothy E., and David G. Hewitt (eds). Wildlife Science:
Linking Ecological Theory and Management Applications.
Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2007.
Morrison, Michael L. Wildlife Restoration: Techniques for Habi-
tat Analysis and Animal Monitoring. Washington, D.C.: Island
Press, 2008.
Shenk, Ellen. Careers with Animals: Exploring Occupations Involv-
ing Dogs, Horses, Cats, Birds, Wildlife, and Exotics. Mechan-
icsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 2005.
Since the 1970s, with the passing of the Endangered Species Act
and many other laws to protect animals and the environment, the
profession of wildlife scientist has likewise grownfrom identify-
ing animal species and studying animal behaviors, to monitoring
populations to ensure conservation efforts, as well as to identifying
pollutants and other harmful impacts by human and natural activ-
ity to animals and their habitats. Their work is used in support of
environmental laws and regulations.
The Job
Studying animals in the wild and in captivity to better inform animal
conservation programs and plans is a large part of wildlife scientists
work. Wildlife scientists run parks, reserves, and zoos, as well as
advise landowners about animals and habitats. They study animals
to learn more about how to protect and conserve the population
and habitat, and solve environmental problems. Other job titles for
wildlife scientists may be wildlife biologist, marine biologist, or ecolo-
gist, depending upon specialty. Wildlife biologists study the habitats
and the conditions necessary for the survival of birds and other wild-
life, ensuring the continuation of healthy wildlife. Marine biologists
specialize in the study of marine species and their environment.
They gather specimens at different times, taking into account tidal
cycles, seasons, and exposure to atmospheric elements, in order to
answer questions concerning the overall health of sea organisms and
their environment. Ecologists examine such factors as pollutants,
rainfall, altitude, temperature, and population size in order to study
the distribution and abundance of organisms and their relation to
their environment.
Keeping track of animal populations in relation to the health of
certain species and their habitats often entails field study in a variety
of environments and climates. Many wildlife scientists specialize
in specific animals. For instance, wildlife scientists who focus on
elephants often find themselves in the savannas of Africa, studying
specific herds and individual elephants, taking notes while being
careful not to be charged and tusked. Those who specialize in croco-
diles will spend days or weeks in places such as the Florida Ever-
glades, battling mosquitoes while observing the reptilian creatures
and their hatchlings.
Researching and studying animal populations means working in
their environments, observing their behaviors day and night, and
catching representatives of the population to weigh, measure, and
tag them.
142 SCIENCe
Wildlife scientists collar and mark a polar bear for tracking. The ID mark
makes it easy to see from the air that the bear was already captured. Daniel J.
Cox/Corbis
Elizabeth Lizz Mulligan, who works for the New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), is studying the
American marten (Martes americana) ecology in the Adirondacks.
In the 1700s and 1800s, the martens were hunted relentlessly
almost to the point of extinctionfor their warm, luxurious furs,
which were highly valued and widely traded. Federal, state, and
local animal conservation regulations have since restricted hunting
and helped conserve the marten population. According to Lizz,
the DEC marten study aims to answer simple questions about
the population that we [otherwise] cannot answer. Issues being
addressed include determining the martens resource selection and
home-range dynamics, such as where and how large the areas are in
which they prefer to live; the influence of mast (food on the forest
floor) cycles and prey availability (for instance, beech seeds, which
are part of the martens diet, are on a biannual cycle of high and
low mast years); foraging ecology (where martens hunt); and demo-
graphic parameters (survival rates of martens). The population in
the Adirondacks has not been studied, or at least not accurately,
Lizz says. I think in the 1980s they attempted to [study martens],
but they didnt have the technology that we have today.
Martens, which are members of the mustelid family (includ-

ing fishers, minks, ermines, and river otters), are elusive animals.
About the size of a house cat, they are strong, agile climbers that
are very clever and hard to trap. They do have a weakness, though:
skunk odor. They love it. Skunk scent is a marten attractant, and
researchers like Lizz use it to lure them in. Once trapped, the
marten is tranquilized, weighed, measured, and blood work is
taken to study the overall health of the animal and to detect any
possible illnesses or diseases that may affect the population. The
marten is then tagged on its ear (for future tracking) and released.
The only downside about Lizzs work in the field so far is that she
transports the skunk scent in her car, and that scent has staying
power!
Wildlife scientists who work for state departments of conserva-
tion are responsible for conducting wildlife population inventories,
monitoring contaminant levels and wildlife diseases; developing
and implementing wildlife management plans; and promoting
appreciation of wildlife in urban environments. They may assist
in the development of wildlife management programs; reviewing
and analyzing project proposals that have strong potential to alter
natural wildlife habitats; and providing public facilities for the use
and enjoyment of wildlife resources. Their studies and research
can include the following:
b Analyzing characteristics of animals to identify and clas-

sify them
b Taking inventory of, or estimating, plant and wildlife
populations
b Organizing and conducting experimental studies with
live animals in controlled or natural surroundings
b Collecting and dissecting animal specimens, and examin-
ing specimens under microscopes
b Preparing collections of preserved specimens or micro-
scopic slides for species identification and study of devel-
opment or disease
b Studying animals in their natural habitats, assessing
effects of environment and industry on animals, inter-
preting findings and recommending alternative operating
conditions for industry
b Studying characteristics of animals such as origin, inter-
relationships, classification, life histories and diseases,
development, genetics, and distribution
144 SCIENCe
b Disseminating information by writing reports and sci-
entific papers or journal articles, and by making presen-
tations and giving talks at schools, clubs, and interest
groups, and for park interpretive programs
b Making recommendations on management systems
and planning for wildlife populations and habitat, and
consulting with stakeholders and the public at large to
explore options
Wildlife scientists work is important for maintaining healthy

wildlife populations, to prevent disease or extinction. Its also
important in relation to controlling the general publics enjoyment
of nature in parks and wilderness areas, as well as for monitoring and
setting limits for recreational activities such as hunting and fishing.
Their work contributes to environmental laws and regulations, help-
ing to determine when new laws need to be introduced and enacted,
and others continually upheld and enforced.
Requirements
High School
Take classes in biology, chemistry, ecology, environmental studies,
math, English, communications, and computer science. If your high
school offers any wildlife science or zoology classes, be sure to take
these as well.
A bachelors degree is the minimum educational requirement for
entry-level positions in wildlife science. Most research and advanced
positions require a masters or Ph.D. in wildlife science or wildlife
biology, or closely related subjects such as wildlife ecology, wildlife
genetics, fisheries, or biometrics. A doctoral degree is required for
permanent college or university faculty positions. Elizabeth Mul-
ligan graduated in May 2009 from the State University of New York
College of Environmental Science and Forestry (SUNY ESF) with
a BS in wildlife science, and plans to continue her education and
secure a masters degree in the field.
The types of classes wildlife science students may take include
principles of zoology; dendrology; mammalogy; animal behavior;
experimental chemistry; wildlife conservation; clinical wildlife
rehabilitation; natural resources management; wildlife techniques;
ornithology; forest ecosystems; wildlife habitat and silviculture;
wildlife population dynamics; forestry-fisheries interactions; wild-

life physiology, nutrition, and toxicology; and endangered species
management. They also learn how to use maps and remote sens-
ing such as geographic imaging systems and global positioning
systems.
While not required, certification shows achievement of a level
of knowledge and technical expertise in the field. The Wildlife
Society offers the titles of Certified Wildlife Biologist and Asso-
ciate Wildlife Biologist to those who meet specific educational
and work experience requirements. Learn more by visiting http://
www.wildlife.org.
Other Requirements
Wildlife scientists love animals and the outdoors, are passionate about
preserving wildlife and habitats, and have adventurous spirits. They
are patient, open to learning, and calm and cool under pressure. They
encounter many surprises in their work and need to be calm under
pressure. For instance, Elizabeth Mulligan studies martens, but every
so often she needs to switch gears to take best advantage of, and learn
from, the situation. The most interesting thing I encountered was
being able to process a black bear, she says. Another DEC technician
caught one in a trap. We knocked it out and then measured, weighed,
took blood, hair, and skin samples. And one of my best days in the
field was in Utah when my crew and I were only a few feet from a
cow moose and her calf.
Wildlife scientists have strong knowledge of plant and animal
organisms, their tissues, cells, functions, interdependencies, and
interactions with each other and the environment. They are curious
minded and detail oriented, able to spend long hours in any type of
weather studying wildlife and conducting research. Strong organi-
zational, observational, and decision-making abilities are required
to succeed in the job. Physical fitness is also necessary to endure
outdoor activities in diverse environments, climates, and condi-
tions. Fieldwork can often be dangerous, so courage and the ability
to handle stressful situations well are important assets. The ability
to communicate clearly, verbally and in writing, is also needed for
report writing and presentations. In addition, wildlife scientists who
work independently need to secure funding to cover the expenses
involved in conducting their research and studies. Strong writing is
particularly essential for creating grant proposals.
146 SCIENCe
Exploring
Learn as much as you can about wildlife science and scientists by
reading books and magazines such as National Geographic. Con-
tact schools that offer wildlife science degree programsPaul
Smiths College in the Adirondacks (http://www.paulsmiths.edu/
index.php), the College of Environmental Science and Forestry at
the State University of New York (http://www.esf.edu), Hocking
College in Ohio (www.hocking.edu), the School of Forestry and
Wildlife Sciences at Auburn University in Alabama (http://www.
forestry.auburn.edu), and the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
at Oregon State University (http://fw.oregonstate.edu), to name
only a fewto see if you can speak with students and scientists
working in the field. And watch the Mississippi State University
video clip that features wildlife science students out in the field
(as well as various animals), discussing their interests and stud-
ies, at http://www.cfr.msstate.edu/prospective_students/wildlife_
science.asp.
Employers
There are about 87,000 biological scientists employed in the United
States. There are more jobs than people think there are in this
field, Elizabeth Mulligan says. You might not even realize what you
really enjoy until you experience it. For example, I never thought I
liked birds; I never went looking for them and didnt know a thing
about calls. But after taking an ornithology class, I fell in love with
them and hope I can get a future career working on them.
Wildlife scientists work as professional wildlife biologists for
departments of environmental conservation and wildlife conser-
vation. They work for federal, state, and local governments. They
may work at land management companies. They may also run their
own consulting firms, advising landowners on wildlife and habitats,
particularly in areas where building development is being consid-
ered. Many others work as professors and instructors in colleges and
universities that offer fisheries and wildlife degree programs.
Starting Out
Many wildlife scientists get their start while in college by working
on field study programs. While still in high school, you can learn
firsthand if this work is for you by volunteering or getting a part-
time job with a state department of conservation or a national park.
Getting experience is essential, Elizabeth Mulligan says. Every-

one loves volunteers. Places like hatcheries, zoos . . . [working] with
a forest ranger, asking local state agencies for volunteer positions,
are all good places to look. And its fun stuff! You can explore job
and volunteer listings by visiting the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services
(FWS) employment section of its Web site (http://www.fws.gov/
jobs). The Careers Videos section on FWSs site is another great way
to learn more about the work involved in this field. You can find it
at http://www.fws.gov/home/feature/2009/wmv/careersvideos2.
html.
Advancement
Wildlife science interns, technicians, and research assistants move
up to become wildlife scientists once they secure more advanced
degrees and have more years of work and field study experience.
Elizabeth Mulligan describes her job with the Department of Envi-
ronmental Conservation as a stepping stone to becoming a wildlife
biologist. She says that experience and education are extremely
important in moving up the ladder in this field. Also, a huge draw
to this profession (wildlife technician, intern, research assistant,
etc.) is the ability to work on an array of species in any ecosystem.
For example, there are only a few wolf experts, but there are so
many wolf technicians.
Advancement for wildlife scientists can mean gaining greater
control over their research and moving up to become lead research-
ers, directing a team of scientists and technicians. Those who have
worked in full-time jobs may advance by starting their own consult-
ing businesses, providing consulting services to government agen-
cies and private-sector companies. They may also advance within
companies to management positions, responsible for more com-
plex projects and overseeing more departments and staff members.
Wildlife scientists who work on college and university faculties may
advance by becoming tenured professors and, with years of experi-
ence, department heads.
Earnings
In 2008 zoologists and wildlife biologists had median annual incomes
of $55,290, with the lowest paid 10 percent earning $33,550 or less,
and the highest paid 10 percent averaging $90,850 or more per year.
Those who were employed in the federal government had higher
148 SCIENCe
annual salaries ($72,330) compared to the annual salaries of zoolo-
gists and biologists who worked for state governments ($50,470)
and those who worked for scientific research and development firms
($56,570). In 2008 the top paying states for these fields were the
District of Columbia, Maryland, Rhode Island, California, and
Connecticut.
Work Environment
Wildlife scientists work in comfortable laboratories or on research
ships. They may spend a great deal of time outdoorson land or at
seastudying and researching wildlife. Fieldwork may take them
to remote areas of the world, where they may work in sometimes
dangerous and/or primitive conditions. The work hours can be
extremely long and fieldwork can be especially strenuous, requiring
digging, chipping, or hauling equipment or specimens. Wildlife sci-
entists work in all types of weather, independently and with teams.
Field study can take them away from their homes and families for
weeks, months, or even years.
Outlook
Biologists, including wildlife scientists, can expect employment
growth to be about as fast as the average for all occupations through
2016, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Demand will con-
tinue to be strong for biologists specializing in zoology and marine
biology, but competition will be fierce as this is a small, specialized
field and there are usually far more job candidates than available
positions.
Wildlife scientists with doctoral degrees, years of field study,
and a body of published research may find more job opportunities
and secure higher salaries, but will also face stiff competition for
research positions. Only one in four grant proposals are approved for
long-term research projects. Applied research positions in private
industries may also become more challenging to secure if more sci-
entists start seeking work in this sector if they cant secure research
jobs in academia.

For information on careers in biology, contact
Tel: 202-628-1500
http://www.aibs.org
Learn more about animals, wildlife issues, and volunteer opportunities

by visiting
Reston, VA 20190-5361
Tel: 800-822-9919
http://www.nwf.org/wildlife
Find information about endangered species, animal and habitat conser-

vation plans, job listings, and more at
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1849 C Street, NW
http://www.fws.gov
Visit the USGSs Web site to learn more about wildlife science, find
internships and job listings, and explore other resources. Key in wildlife
science to narrow your search.
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
Reston, VA 20192-0002
Tel: 703-648-4000
http://www.usgs.gov
Further Reading
Ahrens, C. Donald. Meteorology Today. Florence, Ky.: Brooks Cole,
2008.
Baird, Colin, and Michael Cann. Environmental Chemistry. New York:
W.H. Freeman, 2008.
Biebighauser, Thomas R. Wetland Drainage, Restoration and Repair.
Lexington-Fayette, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
Birkhead, Tim. A Brand New Bird: How Two Amateur Scientists Created
the First Genetically Engineered Animal. New York: Basic Books, 2003.
Brady Nyle C., and Ray R. Weil. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 14th
ed. Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007.
Brodowsky, Pamela, and the National Wildlife Federation. Destination
Wildlife. New York: Perigee Trade, 2009.
Castro, Peter, and Michael Huber. Marine Biology. New York: McGraw-
Hill Science, 2007.
Chernicoff, Stanley, and Donna Whitney. Geology. 4th ed. Saddle River,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2006.
Chivian, Eric. Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiver-
sity. New York, Oxford University Press, 2008.
Cox, Donald D. A Naturalists Guide to Wetland Plants: An Ecology for
Eastern North America. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press,
2002.
Crane, Kathleen. Sea Legs: Tales of a Woman Oceanographer. Cambridge,
Mass.: Westview Press, 2003.
Curran, Greg. Homework Helpers: Chemistry. Franklin Lanes, N.J.:
Career Press, 2004.
Denny, Mark. How the Ocean Works: An Introduction to Oceanography.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008.
Dow, Kirstin and Thomas Downing. The Atlas of Climate Change:
Mapping the Worlds Greatest Challenge. 2d ed. Berkeley, Calif.: Uni-
versity of California Press, 2007.
Eash, Neal et al. Soil Science Simplified. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell,
2008.
Eastman, John. The Book of Swamp and Bog: Trees, Shrubs, and
Wildflowers of the Eastern Freshwater Wetlands. Mechanicsburg, Penn.:
Stackpole Books, 1995.
Elpel, Thomas J. Botany in a Day: The Patterns Method of Plant Identifica-
tion. Pony, Mont.: HOPS Press, 2004.
150
Further Reading 151
Enger, Elden, and Bradley Smith. Environmental Science: A Study of

Interrelationships. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education,
2006.
Fowler, C. M. R. The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Fulbright, Timothy E., and David G. Hewitt, eds. Wildlife Science: Link-
ing Ecological Theory and Management Applications. Boca Raton, Fla.:
CRC Press, 2007.
Futuyma, Douglas. Evolution. 2d ed. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer
Associates, 2009.
Gadallah, Mamdouh R., and Ray Fisher. Exploration Geophysics.
New York: Springer, 2008.
Garrison, Tom S. Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science.
Florence, Ky.: Brooks/Cole, 2009.
Glaser, Christopher. The Complete Chemist or a New Treatise of Chemis-
try. Whitefish, Mont.: Kessinger Publishing, 2007.
Groom, Martha J. et al. Principles of Conservation Biology. 3d ed. Sunder-
land, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 2005.
Hargittai, Istvan, and Magdolina Hargittai. Candid Science: Conversa-
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2000.
Henson, Robert. The Rough Guide to Climate Change. 2d ed. London,
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Hickman Jr., Cleveland, et al. Integrated Principles of Zoology. New York:
McGraw-Hill Science, 2007.
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Associates, 2008.
Hilty, Jodi, et al. Corridor Ecology: The Science and Practice of Linking
Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation. Washington, D.C.: Island
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Holton, James. R. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. 4th ed.
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Lambert, David and Diagram Group. The Field Guide to Geology.
New York: Checkmark Books, 2006.
Levinton, Jeffrey S. Marine Biology: Function, Biodiversity, Ecology.
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Lewis Jr., William M. Wetlands Explained: Wetland Science, Policy, and
Politics in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Lowrie, William. Fundamentals of Geophysics. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2007.
152 SCIENCe
Lutgens, Frederick K., and Edward J. Tarbuck. Essentials of Geology.
Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2008.
Lutgens, Frederick K., et al. The Atmosphere: An Introduction to
Meteorology. 11th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2009.
Manahan, Stanley E. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry. 3d ed.
New York: CRC Press, 2008.
Manfredo, Michael J., et al, eds. Wildlife and Society: The Science of
Human Dimensions. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2008.
Mauseth, James D. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. Sudbury,
Mass.: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2008.
Miller, Charles B. Biological Oceanography. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell
Publishers, 2004.
Miller, G. Taylor, and Scott Spoolman. Environmental Science: Principles,
Connections and Solutions. Florence, Ky.: Brooks/Cole, 2007.
Mitsch, William J., and James G. Gosselink. Wetlands. Hoboken, N.J.:
Wiley, 2007.
Morrison, Michael L. Restoring Wildlife: Ecological Concepts and Practi-
cal Applications (The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration
Series). Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2009.
Morrison, Michael L. Wildlife Restoration: Techniques for Habitat Analysis
and Animal Monitoring. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2008.
Nybakken, James W., and Mark D. Bertness. Marine Biology: An Ecologi-
cal Approach. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Benjamin Cummings,
2004.
Oklahoma Climatological Survey. Explorations in Meteorology: A Lab
Manual. Florence, Ky.: Brooks Cole, 2005.
Owen, Claudia, et al. Earth Lab: Exploring the Earth Sciences. Florence,
Ky.: Brooks Cole, 2005.
Parsons, Tim. The Seas Enthrall: Memoirs of an Oceanographer. Victoria,
BC, Canada: EcceNova Editions, 2004.
Paul, Eldor A. Soil Microbiology, Ecology and Biochemistry. 3d ed. New
York: Academic Press, 2007.
Plaster, Edward. Soil Science and Management. Florence, Ky.: Delmar
Cengage Learning, 2008.
Reiss, Michael, and Jenny Chapman. Environmental Biology. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Rohli, Robert V., and Anthony J. Vega. Climatology. Sudbury, Mass.:
Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2007.
Ruddiman, William F. Earths Climate: Past and Future. New York:
W.H. Freeman, 2007.
Ruddiman, William F. Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum: How Humans Took
Control of Climate. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007.
Further Reading 153
Ryan, James M. Adirondack Wildlife: A Field Guide. Lebanon, N.H.:

UPNE, 2009.
Sanderson, Marie. High Heels in the Tundra: My Life as a Geographer and
Climatologist. Bloomington, Ind.: iUniverse, 2009.
Schmidt, Gavin, et al. Climate Change: Picturing the Science. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company, 2009.
Shenk, Ellen. Careers with Animals: Exploring Occupations Involving
Dogs, Horses, Cats, Birds, Wildlife, and Exotics. Mechanicsburg, Penn.:
Stackpole Books, 2005.
Silberberg, Martin. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change. New York: McGraw-Hill Science, 2008.
Sumich, James L. Laboratory and Field Investigations in Marine Life.
Sudbury, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2008.
Tarbuck, Edward J., et al. Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology. 9th
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Timberlake, Karen. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and
Biological Chemistry. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall,
2008.
Tiner, Ralph W. In Search of Swampland: A Wetland Sourcebook and Field
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Tiner, Ralph W. Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification,
Delineation, Classification and Mapping. New York: CRC Press, 1999.
Trujillo, Alan P., and Harold V. Thurman. Essentials of Oceanography.
9th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007.
Vallis, Geoffrey K. Atmospheric and Oceanic Fluid Dynamics: Funda-
mentals and Large-scale Circulation. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2006.
Van Dyke, Fred. Conservation Biology: Foundations, Concepts, Applica-
tions. New York: Springer, 2008.
Van Loon, Gary W., and Stephen J. Duffy. Environmental Chemistry:
A Global Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Index
Entries and page numbers in bold American Society of Limnology and
indicate major treatment of a topic. Oceanography (ASLO) 97, 99,
116, 120
analytical chemists 37
A anatomists 15
Acoustical Society of America anticyclone 47
119 applied geophysicists 82
Action Bioscience 8 aquariums 95
aeration porosity 123 aquatic biologists 15
Agricultural Adjustment Act of Arctic frontal zone 48
1933 123 Arctic surface water (ASW) 48
Air & Waste Management Aristotle 14
Association 70 arthropod 61
albedo 48 Association for Women
American Association for Clinical Geoscientists (AWG) 7980,
Chemistry 11, 44 8889
American Association of State Association of Environmental and
Climatologists (AASC) 51, 53 Engineering Geologists 80
American Board of Clinical Association of Environmental
Chemistry 7 Engineering and Science Professors
American Chemical Society 11, 42, 12
44 Association of State Wetland
American Geological Institute 63, Managers, Inc. 137
70, 79, 88 atmospheric aerosol content 48
American Geophysical Union atmospheric scientists. See
(AGU) 86, 88, 120 climatologists; meteorologists
American Institute of Biological Avery, Oswald 14
Sciences (AIBS) 1112, 24, 99, Avicenna 14
120, 148149 Avogadro, Amadeo 36
American Institute of Professional AW4 bacterial strain 6
Geologists (AIPG) 76, 79
American Meteorological Society
(AMS) 106, 110 B
American Physiological Society 24 Bartram, John 30
American Society for Biochemistry Batteen, Mary 113114, 116
and Molecular Biology 9, 12 Becquerel, Henri 36
American Society for Environmental biochemists 112, 15, 37
History 7071 advancement 9
American Society for Investigative earnings 10
Pathology 12 educational requirements 57
American Society for Microbiology employers 810
24 employment outlook 1011
American Society of Agronomy exploring the field 8
(ASA) 126, 129 high school requirements 57
154
Index 155
history 12 job, described 2729

information on 1112 organizations 3334
job, described 25 postsecondary training 2930
organizations 1112 requirements 2930
postsecondary training 7 starting out 31
requirements 58 work environment 3233
starting out 9 botanographist 26
work environment 10 botanologist 26
biological chemists. See biochemists bryologists 29
biological oceanographers 112113. Bureau of Land Management 61
See also marine biologists
biological technicians 15
biologists 1324 C
advancement 2122 Canon of Medicine (Avicenna) 14
earnings 22 canopy 61
educational requirements 1718 carbon sequestration 123
employers 2021 Career Rookie 136
employment outlook 2324 The Center for Association
endangered species biologists 57 Resources Professional
exploring the field 20 Certification Program 138
high school requirements 17 Center for Green Chemistry and
history 1315 Green Engineering 41, 45
information on 2425 chemical oceanographers 113
job, described 1517 chemists 3545
marine biologists 16, 90100, advancement 4243
112113, 141 biological (biochemists) 112,
organizations 2425 15, 37
postsecondary training 18 earnings 43
requirements 1720 educational requirements 3840
starting out 21 employers 4142
wildlife biologists 17, 141 employment outlook 4344
work environment 2223 environmental 37, 66
biophysicists 15 exploring the field 4041
bio-technicians 15 geochemists 57, 75, 113
Biotechnology Industry high school requirements 38
Organization 24 history 3536
bogs 133 information on 4445
Botanical Society of America (BSA) job, described 3638
31, 32, 33 organizations 4445
botanists 15, 2634 postsecondary training 40
advancement 32 requirements 3840
earnings 32 starting out 42
educational requirements 2930 work environment 43
employers 31 Clean Water Act of 1972 130131
employment outlook 33 climatologists 4654, 104
exploring the field 3031 advancement 52
high school requirements 29 earnings 5253
history 2627 educational requirements 5051
information on 3334 employers 5152
156 Science
employment outlook 53 terms used by 61
exploring the field 51 work environment 62
high school requirements eco.ORG 69
5051 ecosystem 61
history 4647 effluent 61
information on 5354 Endangered Species Act of 1973
job, described 4850 139141
organizations 5354 endangered species biologists 57
postsecondary training 51 engineering geologists 74
requirements 5051 entomologists 16
starting out 52 entomology 61
terms used by 4849 Environmental Career
work environment 53 Opportunities 69
coniferous, definition of 61 Environmental Careers
Cool Science 8 Organization 63
Crick, Francis 2, 1415 environmental chemists 37, 66
Curie, Marie 36 environmental ecologists 66
Curie, Pierre 36 environmental meteorologists 104
cytologists 15 environmental planning/project
manager 132
Environmental Protection Agency
D (EPA) 25, 61, 65, 6869, 71, 127,
Dalton, John 36 131, 135, 138
Darwin, Charles 19, 55, 6465 Environmental Protection Agencys
Davy, Humphrey 36 Student Center 68
dynamic meteorologists 104 environmental scientists 6471, 132
advancement 69
earnings 69
E educational requirements 67
ecological modelers 66 employers 68
Ecological Society of America (ESA) employment outlook 70
60, 63, 71 exploring the field 68
ecologists 16, 5563, 141 high school requirements 67
advancement 6162 history 6465
earnings 62 information on 7071
educational requirements 59 job, described 6567
employers 60 organizations 7071
employment outlook 6263 postsecondary training 67
environmental ecologists 66 requirements 6768
exploring the field 60 starting out 6869
forest ecologists 29 work environment 69
high school requirements 59 erosivity 123
history 5556 E! Science News 68
information on 6364 ethnobotanists 29
job, described 5659 exploration geophysicists 8283
organizations 6364
postsecondary training 59
requirements 59 F
starting out 6061 Faraday, Michael 36
stream ecologists 132 fens 133
Index 157
flight meteorologists 104 starting out 86

floodplains 133 work environment 87
forest ecologists 29 geoscientists 66
Franklin, Benjamin 4647 glacial geologists 75
global warming 105
green chemistry 41
G Green Chemistry (journal) 42
Galton, Sir Francis 47 greenhouse gases (GHGs) 105
geneticists 16 gytta 123
geochemists 57, 75, 113
geochronologists 73
geodesists 82 H
GEOENGINEER 80 Haeckel, Ernst von 55
geohydrologists 74 Halley, Sir Edmund 46
geological oceanographers 113 herpetologists 17
Geological Society of America 80 histopathologists 16
geologists 7280 Hooke, Robert 2
advancement 7778 Hutton, James 7273, 74
earnings 78 hydrogeologists 57
educational requirements hydrologic cycle 4849
7576 hydrologists 83
employers 77
employment outlook 7879
exploring the field 7677 I
high school requirements 75 ice core 49
history 7273 ichthyologists 17
information on 7980 IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society
job, described 7375 120
organizations 7980 immunologists 16
postsecondary training 7576 industrial meteorologists 104
requirements 7576 inorganic chemists 38
starting out 77 International Geophysical Year
work environment 78 (IGY) 84
geomagnetists 82 invertebrate 61
geomorphologists 57, 75
geophysical prospectors 8283
geophysicists 8189 J
advancement 8687 Journal of Environmental Monitoring
earnings 87 42
educational requirements 8385
employers 86
employment outlook 8788 K
exploring the field 85 karst 123
high school requirements 8384 Kuo, Shen 46
history 8182
information on 8889
job, described 8283 L
organizations 8889 Landsberg, Helmet 47
postsecondary training 8485 Lavoisier, Antoine 3536
requirements 8385 leaching 123
158 Science
Leeuwenhoek, Anton van 2 information on 110
lichenologists 29 job, described 102104
limnologists 16, 57, 111 organizations 110
Linnaeus, Carolus 19, 27, 30 postsecondary training 105106
requirements 104106
starting out 107108
M work environment 109
macromolecular chemists 38 Meteorology News 107
macronutrient 123 Meyer, Julius 36
mammalogists 17 microbiologists 16
mangrove swamps 133 Mid-Atlantic Marine Education
marine biologists 16, 90100, Association 97
112113, 141 mineralogists 74
advancement 97 molecular biologists 16
earnings 9798 Mulligan, Elizabeth Lizz 142147
educational requirements Murray, Sir John 90
9294 mycologists 16, 29
employers 96
employment outlook 98
exploring the field 9496 N
high school requirements 9293 Nagata, Shinichi 6
history 9091 National Aeronautics and Space
information on 99100 Administration (NASA) 51,
job, described 9192 5354, 107
organizations 99100 National Aquarium in Baltimore 99
postsecondary training 9394 National Association of State Boards
requirements 9294 of Geology 80
starting out 9697 National Institutes of Health 2425
work environment 98 National Marine Fisheries Service
Marine Biology Web 99 139
marine geochemists 113 National Oceanic and Atmospheric
marine geologists 73 Administration (NOAA) 51, 52,
Marine Technology Society (MTS) 54, 106107, 110, 139
120121 National Park Service 61
marshes 133134 National Science Foundation 18
martens 142143 National Society of Consulting Soil
materials chemists 38 Scientists 129
medicinal chemists 38 National Weather Association
Mendel, Gregor 14, 27 (NWA) 110
Mendeleyev, Dmitri 36 National Weather Service (NWS)
meteorologists 101110 5152, 106110
advancement 108 National Wetlands Research Center
earnings 109 138
educational requirements 104 National Wildlife Federation 3334,
106 61, 63, 149
employers 107 Natural Resource Conservation
employment outlook 109110 Service 123124
exploring the field 106107 Natural Resources Defense Council
high school requirements 104 61
history 102 The Nature Conservancy 31, 34
Index 159
Naval Postgraduate School 113114 Professional Association of Diving

nematologists 1617 Instructors (PADI) 94, 100
New York Department of pteridologists 29
Environmental Conservation public-health microbiologists 17
(DEC) 142143, 147
R
O riparian zone 61
The Ocean Conservancy 99
oceanographers 111121
advancement 117 S
earnings 117 savanna 61
educational requirements 114 scarp 123
employers 116 Schleiden, Matthias 2, 14
employment outlook 118119 Schwann, Theodor 2, 14
exploring the field 115116 ScienceDaily 42, 68
high school requirements 114 Scripps Institution of Oceanography
history 111112 96, 100, 115, 121
information about 119121 Sea Grants Marinecareers.net 100
job, described 112114 seismologists 83
organizations 119121 Society of Exploration Geophysicists
postsecondary training 114 85, 89
requirements 114 Society of Wetland Scientists 134,
starting out 116 138
work environment 117118 soil fertility experts 124125
The Oceanography Society 121 soil mappers 124
oceans, facts about 115 Soil Science Society of America
organic chemists 38 126, 129
ornithologists 17 soil scientists 122129, 132
ozone 49 advancement 127128
earnings 128
educational requirements 125126
P employers 127
paleoclimatologists 49 employment outlook 128129
paleoclimatology 46 exploring the field 127
paleomagnetists 83 high school requirements 125
paleontologists 57, 73 history 122124
paleosol 123 information on 126, 129
parasitologists 17 job, described 124125
Pasteur, Louis 14 organizations 129
petroleum geologists 74 postsecondary training 125126
petrologists 74 requirements 125127
pharmacologists 17 starting out 127
physical chemists 38 terms used by 123
physical meteorologists 104 work environment 128
physical oceanographers 113 soil surveyors 124
physiologists 17 stratigraphers 74
planetary geologists 75 stream ecologist 132
planetologists 83 stream restoration scientist/engineer
pocosins 134 132
160 Science
Student Conservation Association The Wetland Foundation 138
(SCA) 31, 34, 60, 63 wetlands, types of 133134
student science training programs wetland scientist manager 132
(SSTPs) 20 wetland scientists 130138
advancement 136
earnings 136
T educational requirements 132
taxonomist 27 134
tectonophysicists 83 employers 135136
Texas A&M Department of employment outlook 137
Oceanography 120 exploring the field 135
Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville 90 high school requirements 132
toxicologists 17, 29 history 130131
tundra 61 information on 137138
job, described 131132
organizations 137138
U postsecondary training 132134
Undaria pinnatifida 6 requirements 132135
uniformitarianism 74 starting out 136
United States Global Change work environment 137
Research Program 54 wetlands ecologists 57
University of Miamis Rosenstiel wildlife biologists 17, 141
School of Marine and Atmospheric wildlife scientists 139149
Science 115 advancement 147
U.S. Agency for International earnings 147148
Development 127 educational requirements 144
U.S. Department of Agriculture 145
(USDA) 123124, 127 employers 146
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service employment outlook 148
(FWS) 34, 131, 139141, 147, 149 exploring the field 146
U.S. Geological Survey 80, 89, 138, high school requirements 144
149 history 139141
U.S. Public Health Service 18 information on 140, 148149
job, described 141144
organizations 148149
V postsecondary training 144145
vernal pools 134 requirements 144145
volcanologists 75, 83 starting out 146147
work environment 148
Wildlife Society 145
W Woods Hole Oceanographic
wakame 6 Institution 115
Water Environment Federation 71
water resources engineer 132
watershed 61 Y
Watson, James D. 2, 1415 Yale University 41, 45
weathercasters 108
weather forecasters 108
Weather World 2010 110 Z
Werner, A. G. 7273 zoologists 17

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F e r g u s o n

Copyright 2010 by Infobase Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ferguson books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk

You can find Ferguson on the World Wide Web at http://www.fergpubco.com

Text design by Annie ODonnell

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Further Reading 150

b Quick Facts is a snapshot of job basics, including salary

government agency or for individual states with laboratories that

A biochemist studies autoradiographs of bacterial phage viruses. Hank

Wakame to the Rescue:

Source: Interscience Publishers

Many colleges and universities also require several years of a foreign

production, or information systems at biotechnology companies

trained scientists outranks available funding for projects and positions.

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American Chemical Society

American Institute of Biological Sciences

American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

American Society for Investigative Pathology

Association of Environmental Engineering and Science

the complex structure of DNA and hypothesized that it carried the

or attack other nematodes that exist in soil or water. Nematologists

Profile: Carolus Linnaeus (17071778)

Here, for instance, is the classification of the domestic dog, Canis

Classification of the cork oak tree, Quercus suber:

Services, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Depart-

Biologists frequently work under pressure and must be able to

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For a career brochure, career-related articles, and a list of institutions

For information on careers, educational resources, and fellowships,

For career information, including articles and books, contact

For information on specific careers in biology, contact

To learn more about employment opportunities as a biologist in envi-

In the 1700s Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist and taxono-

A botanist looks through strawberry plants while conducting research on

Some botanists, particularly those working in conservation or

Profile: John Bartram (16991777)

focuses on the conservation of specific plant and animal communi-

working during summers or school holidays for a nursery, park,

be able to work fewer hours other weeks, depending on the specific

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Learn more about school and internship programs, news on endangered

For information about internships with state chapters or at TNC head-

Learn more about educational opportunities and volunteer programs in

Find volunteer and career information, as well as other resources at the

Pierre and Marie Curie

weight of the original reactants. This discovery became known as

Chemists who work in research are usually focused on either

Wearing protective gloves and a facemask, a chemist performs tests in a

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also learn more about the field through an internship or part-time

colleges and universities are expected to perform original research

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compounds trapped in ancient snow, water, and soil so that they

chemistry, geology, geography, ecology, environmental science,

annual salaries of $81,760 per year. The top paying metropolitan

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b Quick Facts is a snapshot of job basics, including salary