Applicationand Protection

of
PowerSystems

AREVAT&D Pte. Ltd.

Automation& InformationSYstems

22nd- 26th MaY2006

\
 AREVA

ANALYSISOF BALANCED&
UNBALANGED FAULTS

T&D - -
Enetgy Automation& Infomation - st LeonardsAvenue stafford sT17 4LX- England
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: +44(011785212232
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/1.REV,t

Fault Analysis

Alan Wixon
Senior AP Plications Eng i neer

p:/applics/Powerpoint CabineUTrainingCourses/APPS1
JanuarY2004
 PowerSysfemFault AnalYsis(1)

shouldhavean understanding
Engineers
All Protection
TO:-
. CalculatePower System Currents and Voltages during Fault
Conditions
. Check that BreakingCapacityof Switchgear is Not
Exceeded
. Determinethe Quantitieswhich can be used by Relays to
Distinguish BetweenHealthy (i.e' Loaded) and Fault
Conditions
. Appreciatethe Effect of the Method of Earthing on the
Detection of Earth Faults
. Select the Best RelayCharacteristicsfor Fault Detection
. Ensure that Load and Short Circuit Ratings of Plant are Not
Exceeded
. Select Relay Settingsfor Fault Detection and Discrimination
. UnderstandPrinciplesof Relay Operation
. Conduct Post Fault AnalYsis

Power Sysfem Fault AnalYsis (2)

PowerSystemFaultAnalysisalsousedto :

) ConsiderStabititYConditions
. Requiredfault clearancetimes
r Needfor 1 phase or 3 phase auto'reclose
 ComputerFault CalculationProgrammes

)> Widely available,particularly in large power utilities

) Powerful for large Power systems
)> Sometimes overcomplex for simple circuits
) Not always user friendlY
) Sometimes operated by other departments and not
directly availableto protection engineers
) Programmecalculationmethods:- understandingis
important
) Need for'by hand' spot checks of calculations

Pocket Calculator Methods

) Adequate for the majority of simple applications

}Usefulwhennoaccessisavai|abletocomputersand
programmese.g. on site

) Usefulfor'spot checks' on computer results

 phase
canbe usedto represent
Vectornotation
quantities'
betweenelectrical
relationship
z

H \-r = lsin(wt-o)
7 = ll-0"

:
Rotatesvectorsby 90" anticlockwise

"real"and
Usedto expressvectorsin termsof
"imaginary"
Parts.
 a = 12120"

Rotatesvectorsby 120' anticlockwise

in "Symmetrical
Usedextensively Component
Analysis"

. c18L
0 ' d {"

'Jt
az=ll24oo=-1
;- rT

a = 1 2120'

Balanced3@voltages :-

i a 2 ' ' + a + 1= 0
 BalancedFaults

Balanced (3O) Faults (1)

> RARE :- Majorityof FaultsareUnbalanced

) CAUSES:-
1. System Energisationwith MaintenanceEarthing
Clamps still connected.
2 . 1 @F a u l t sd e v e l o p i n gi n t o 3 0 F a u l t s

BY 1A CIRCUIT
> 3g FAULTSMAYBE REPRESENTED
Valid because system is maintainedin a BALANCEDstate
d u r i n gt h e f a u l t
Voltages equal and 120' apart
C u r r e n t se q u a l a n d 1 2 0 ' a P a d
Power System Plant Symmetrical
Phase lmpedancesEqual
M u t u a ll m p e d a n c e sE q u a l
Shunt Admittances Equal
 Balanced (3@)Faults(2)

GENERATOR TMNSFORMER

Balanced pQ Faults(3)

I
I
I
I

I ro--
PositiveSequence(SinglePhase)Circuit:-

1 zn, z'
 Representationof Plant

GeneratorShort Circuit Current

The AC Symmetrical component of the short circuit current varies with time
due to effect of armature reaction.

(RMS)
Magnitude of currentat anytimet afterinstantof shortcircuit:
Iac = (I"- I')e'UTd" + (I'' I)e'VTd' + I
where:
I' = lnitial Symmetrical S/C Current or Subtransient Current
= E/Xd"g 50ms
g
I' = Symmetrical Current a Few Cycles Later 0'5s or
Transient Current = ED(d'
[ = Symmetrical Steady State Gurrent = ElXd
 SimpleGeneratorModels

Generator model X will vary with time. Xd " ' Xd'- Xd

Xe=0.2Pu

lf both generator EMF's are equal .'. they can be thought of as

resulting from the same ideal source - thus the circuit can be
simplified.
 P.U.Diagram

Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers

2 WindingTransformers

Primary Leakage Reactance

Secondary Leakage
Reactance
MagnetisingimPedance
Large compared with Zp
and Zt
Infinity .'. RePresentedbY
an Open Gircuit
Zp+Zs = Positive
Sequence lmPedance
 Faultcurrentcontributiondecayswith time
Decayrateof the currentdependson the system.
Fromtests,typicaldecayrateis 100- 1S0mS.
Typically modelled as a voltage behind an
impedance

-T-
[*'
I
@,

lnduction Motors - IEEERecommendations

SmallMotors
Motor load <35kW neglect
. Motor load >35kW SGM = 4 x sum of FLC6

LarqeMotors
, SCrr,'rv motor full load amps
xd'

Approximation : SCM = locked rotor amps

SCilt = 5 x FLGM ^v assumes motor
impedance20%
 I
SynchronousMotors- IEEERecommendations

6.7 x FLCMfor A s s u m e sX " d = 1 5 %

1200rpm

5 x FLGy for Assumes X"d = 20o/o

5 1 4- 9 0 0 r p m

3.6 x FLGNTfor Assumes X"d = 28o/o

450 rpm or less

Anatysisof BalancedFaults
 Different Voltages- How Do WeAnalyse?

d;ffi
oX'

lJLr -

iJhr
;{Fi
t----r
ldeal
Iransformer

Consider the equivalent CCT referred to :-

Primarv Secondarv
R. + N2R^ Xt + NzXz R-/N2+ R^ Xt/Nz + X,
4ff
 Per Unit Sysfem

Usedto simplifycalculationson systemswith more

than 2 voltages.

Definition

P.U.Value ActualValue
of a QuantitY BaseVatuein the SameUnits

Base Quantitiesand Per Unit Values

Z c = 0 ' 3P ' u '

with
) Particularlyusefulwhen analysinglarge systems
severalvoltagelevels
quantities
All system parametersreferredto common base
Base quantities fixed in one part of system
levels
Base quantities at other parts at different voltage
depend on ratio of interveningtransformers

t
 Base Quantitiesand Per Unit Values(1)

Basequantitesnormallyused :-
= MVAo = 30 MVA
Constantat all voltagelevels
Value - MVAratingof largestitem
of olantor 100MVA
BASEVOLTAGE= KVo = AIA voltagein kV
Fixedin onepartof system
Thisvalueis referredthrough
transformersto obtainbase
voltageson otherpartsof system.
Basevoltageson eachsideof
transformerarein sameratioas
voltageratio.

Base Quantitiesand Per Unit Values(2)

Other basequantites:-

-:.6 =
Basetmpedance
ffiinohms
Mulq in
Basecurrent = 'rb = kA
'trv\
re kvb
 Base Quantitiesand Per Unit Values(3)

Per Unit Values = ActualValue

BaseValue

PerUnitMVA = MVAe.u.

=
=kVp.u.
PerUnitVoltage t.:',".ii,i,a
ffi
rce=zp.u.=Z=t"ffi
Ia
, .=
t u r r e n t-= ^Tp^ , u
P e r U n iC
i5

Tran sformer Percentage Im pedan ce

> llZr = 5'h

with SecondarYS/C
57oV 1ureo1ProducesI (*oreo) in Secondary'
produces 100 x I lnereol
." V lp,lrED)
5
= 20 x I(*lr.o)

) lf Source lmPedanceZ. = g
Faultcurrent = 20 x I6rreD)
Fault Power = 2Qx kVA (RATED)

) & V ln,nreo)
Z, is based on I 1s.rreo1
i.e. Based on MVA (RATED) & kV ln,rreo)
.'. is same value viewed from either side of transformer'
 Example (1)

Per unit impedanceof transformeris sameon eachside of

the transformer.

Gonsidertransformerof ratio kV1/ kvz

MVA

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side

Example (2)

Base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the

same ratio as voltage ratio.of transformer.
\, :
-.-ta

11.8kV f .a141kv 132111kv

3ix'lj#''on
lncorrectselection
of kvb 11.8kV 11kV \

Correctselection 132x11.8 11kV

Alternativecorrect 11.8kV
selectionof kVb
Conversionof Per lJnit Valuesfrom One-94!
Quantitiesto Another

xfi
h=zo.rt

1 1k v 1 1 / 1 3 k2v

=
. ' . I 1 1k V = 0 ' 6 9 8x I u
874A 0 . 6 9 8 x 2 6 2 5= 1 8 3 3 A
=
l 1 3 z k V= 0 ' 6 9 8 x 2 1 9 1 5 3 A
= 610A
: ls, kV = 0'698 x 874
.' i8 =0.367",,
p . uj .2 1. 8
:

T.
 Line - Ground (65 - 70%)

Line- Line- Ground (10'20%l

Line- Line (10- 15%)

Line- Line- Line(5%)

Statisticspublishedin 1967CEGBReport,but are

similartodayall overthe world.

lJnbalancedFaults
 UnbalancedFaults(1)

In threephasefault calculations,a single

phaserdpresentation is adoPted.
3 phasefaults are rare.
Majorityof faultsare unbalancedfaults'
UNBALANCED FAULTSmay be classifiedinto
SHUNT FAULTS ANdSERIESFAULTS.
SHUNTFAULTS:
Lineto Ground
Lineto Line
Lineto Lineto Ground
SERIESFAULTS:
SinqlePhaseOPenCircuit
Dou-blePhaseOPenCircuit

IJnbalanced Faults (2)

LINETO GROUND

LINETO LINE

LINETO LINETO GROUND

Gauses:

1) lnsulationBreakdown
2l Lightning Dischargesand other Overvoltages
3) MechanicalDamage
 UnbalancedFaults(3)

OPENCIRCUIT
ORSERIESFAULTS

Causes:

1) BrokenGonductor
2l Operationof Fuses
3) Maloperationof SinglePhaseCircuitBreakers

OF SYSTEM
FAULTS,SYMMETRY
DURINGUNBALANCED
IS LOST

IS NO LONGERVALID
.,.SINGLEPHASEREPRESENTATION

UnbalancedFaults (4)

Analysedusing :-

) SymmetricalComponents

System
) Gonnectionof SequenceNetworks
appropriateto TYPeof Fault
 Symmetrical ComPo nents

Symmetrical ComPone nts

Fortescue discovered a property of unbalanced phasors

'n' phasors maY be resolved into :'

iet having a different phase sequence

plus

VA = Vo, + V* + Vas * Ve+ Vn(n-r) + VAn

VB = Vgt + VaZ + Vgg + Va+ '" " Ve(n.t) + VBn
Vc = Vcr + Vcz + Vcs + Vc4 Vc(n-t) + Vcn
VD = Vot + Voz + Vol + Vo+ Vo(n-t) * VDn

vn = +Yffi

(n-1)xBalanced
 Unbalanced 3-Phase Sysfem

vA = Vnt + VRz + Vlo

vB = vBl + Vez + Veo
vc = vcl + VCZ.' VC'

NegativeSequence

Unbalanced 3'Ph ase Sysfetn

Voo
Jlr
,, -v Bo

,/ J V"o
,/,/-,
./
./ ./
"/ ' r /

Zero Sequence
 Symmetrical Components
Positive+ Negative+ Zero

Va-Vx,Vnz+Vno
V a- V e r * V e z + V a o
Vg=V61,Vcz+Vco

Ynz
* \--v",
l)
Va', Var

Y", = aYo'- vBo - vAo

v", = azYo, vco - tAo

l/ lf,';.f
Vg ilO'*
It
vy

Convertingfrom Sequence Componeqtg.-lo-

PhaseValues
VA = Vnr+Vnz+Voo
VB = Vet + Vez + Veo = d2Vnt + aVnz + Vlo
Vc = Vct + Vcz + Vco = ?Vet + a'Yor l Vno

ur'7 uuo
 Converting from Phase VaLuesto.
SequenceComponents
Vo,, = 1/3{VA + aVe + a2Vc}
Vaz = 1/3{VA + a2Ve + aVc}
Vao = 1/3 tVA + V" + V")

Va = Vl,t VA2 Voo

Ve = *2Var Vrz Voo
Vc = Vrr n2Y,o voo

lM Ioo
A2 Ilo
n2r* rao

Vrr = 1/3 {Vo + Ve *2v")

Vrz = 1/3 {Vo + *2v" *Vc )
Vao= 1/3 {Vo + VB Vc)

Inr = 113tIA + Ia 0.2I" )

Io, = 1/3 {IA + n2rt Ic )
Iro + 1/3 (IA + IB Ic)
 ResidualCurrent

Used to detect earth faults

InEsroualis BalancedLoad iaesrouo'is @/E Faults

zero for :- 3Z Faults present for t- AIQIEFaults
6lA Faults OPen circuits (with
current in remaining Phases)

Residual Voltage

Used to detect earth faults

Residualvoltage is measured
from "Open Delta" or "Broken
Delta" VT secondary windings.
V*a'oro.- is zero for:'
HealthYunfaulted sYstems
30 Faults
AIA Faults
V*.r,oro' is Presentfor:'
O/E Faults
AIAIE Faults
Open Gircuits (on suPPIY
side of W)
 Example

Evaluatethe positive,negativeand zero sequence

componentsfor the unbalancedphase vectors :

VA=1/0"
VB = 1.5 Z-9ao
Vc = 0.5 Z12oo

Vo,, = 1i3 (VA + aVs + a2Vc)

= 1/3 [ 1 + (1 2120) (1.5 t'90)
+ (1 22401(0.s 2120)l
= 0 . 9 6 52 1 5

VA2 = 113(Vo + a2V, + aVs)

= 1/3 [ 1 + (1 1240',1(1.5 Z-90)
+ ( 1 t 1 2 o \ ( 0 . 5z 1 2 o \ l
= 0.211 1150

Voo = 113(VA + VB * V.)

= 113(1 + 1.5 l-90 + 0.5 1120)
= 0.434l'55
 Positive Seguence Voltages

Vlr = o'965215o

v e z =o ' 2 1 1 1

Zero Sequence
vB2 - avAz
Voltages
tive Sequence
Voltages
Evaluatethe phase quantitiesI", Io and I" from the sequence
components
Int = 0'6 zo
lM = -o'4 Z0

Iao = 'o'2lo

Solution
IA = Int+I4Z+IAO = 0

IB - * 2 I A l + c c l 4 1+ I 4 g
= 0.6Z240'0'42120 '0.220 = 0.91Z'109

Ic = cclo, +..2I* + Ioo

= 0.61120 '0'42240 '0.220 = 0.91l-109
tJnbatancedvoItag" l,!I
E "'"{',ff;:;""rffi

ac!Ag:*
IJnbalancedVoltages a-ndCurren-ts
Balanced ImPedances
components
ResolveV & I phasorsinto symmetrical

MultiPlYbY [Afl
-1

wiIiil WX4[ii]f'l
i,fl h*"J][iil['l
H='"[
t*:?o:.U
*ih:A
H
UnbalancedVoltagesand Currents acltrlg en

o
['l'' i,".,!,J
[i
[?l[.l
The symmetrical component impedance matrix is
a diagonal matrix if the system is symmetrical.

The sequence networks are independentof

each other.

The three isolated sequence networks are

interconnectedwhen an unbalancesuch as a fault
or unbalaneedloading is introduced.

Representation of Plant
Cont...
 Tran sformer Zero Sequence lm pedance

GeneralZero SeguenceEquivalentCircuit for

Two Winding Transformer

On appropriateside of transformer :

Earthed Star Winding C l o s el i n k ' a '

O p e nl i n k ' b '
' O p e nl i n k ' a '
Delta Winding
C l o s el i n k ' b '

UnearthedStar Winding Both links oPen

Zero SeguenceEquivalent Circuits (1)

Zero SeguenceEquivalent Circuits (2)

Zero SeguenceEquivalent Circuits (3)

Zero SeguenceEquivalent Circuits (4)

 3 Winding Transformers

Z?,Zs,Zr = Leakage reactances of Primary,

Secondary and Tertiary Windings
Zr,r = Magnetising lmpedance = Large
.'. lgnored

Zps = Zp + Zs = lmpedance between Primary (P)

and Secondary (S) where Zp &Zs
are both expressed on same
voltage base
S i m i l a r l y Z r . ,= Z " + 2 , andZ.., = Zs+Zr

Equivalentcircuit is similar to that of a 3 Zr,,r= Magnetising lmPedance =

winding transformer. Large .'. lgnored

Zstt = Z,r + 2.' (both referred to same voltage base)

Zr.y = Zut + Zrl (both referred to same voltage base)
Zt,t = Ztt + Zr, (both referred to same voltage base)
 Seguence Networks

SeguenceNetworks(1)

It can be shown that providing the system

impedances are balanced from the points of
generation right up to the fault, each
-"qu"n"" current causes voltage drop of its
own sequenceonlY.

Regard each current flowing within own

network thro' impedancesof its own
sequence only, with no interconnection
between the sequence networks right up to
the point of fault.
 SeguenceNetworks(2)

+ve, -ve and zero sequence networks are drawn for a

'reference' phase. This is usually taken as the 'A'
phase.

Faults are selected to be 'balanced' relative to the

reference 'A' phase.

e.g. For 6lE faults consider an A-E fault

For 6l@ faults consider a B-C fault

Sequence network interconnectionis the simplest for

the reference phase.

Positive Seguenc e Diag ram

Start with neutral point N1

- All generator and load neutrals are
connected to N1
lnclude all source EMF's
- Phase-neutralvoltage
lmpedance network
- Positive sequence impedance per phase
Diagramfinishes at fault point F1
 at fault point
PositivesequencePH'N voltage
into F1
Positivesequencephase current flowing
Er - Ir (Zat + Zt't + Zut\

NegativeSequence Diagram

zz F2
N2

1. Start with neutral Point N2

connected
' All generator and load neutrals are
to N2
' 2. No EMF's included
generatedl
' No negative sequencevoltage is
3. lmPedancenetwork
per phase
- Negativesequenceimpedance
4. Diagramfinishes at fault point F2
 Negative Sequence Diagram (Nz)

V2 = NegativesequencePH'Nvoltageat fault point

12 = Negativesequencephasecurrentflowinginto F2
v2 = -tz(zaz+zrz * ze)

Zero Sequence Diagram (1)

For "ln Phase"(ZeroPhaseSequence)currentsto flow in

eachphaseof the system,theremust be a fourth
connection(this is typicallythe neutralor earth
connection).
 Zero Seguence Diagram (2)

ResistanceEarthed SYstem :'

given by
Zero sequence voltage between N & E
Vo = 3Ioo.R
path
Zero sequence impedance of neutral to earth
Zo=Vo=3R
Iao

Zero SeguenceDiagram(3)

No

point
Zero sequencePH'E voltage at fault

Zero sequencecurrent flowing into Fg

'ts (Zro + Z1e)

l-_
 NetworkCannections

Interconnectionof SequenceNetworks(1)

Consider sequence networks as blocks with fault

terminals F & N for external connections.

r-r 12
| ...t#
| ruEcnrtveI t
I lu,
I iEil,:x",f
I H
r-r Io
I ff
lzeno | |
I sEouENcE
I lV"
lNErwoRK | | -
| -l+
 Interconnectionof SeguenceNetworks(2)
For any given fault thereare 6 quantitiesto be consideredat the fault
point
i.e. VA VB Vc IA Is Ic

Relationshipsbetweenthese for any type of fault can be converted

into an equivalentrelationshipbetweensequencecomponents
V1, V2,Vo and I.,,I. , Is

This is possibleif :-
1) Any 3 phasequantitiesare known (providedthey are not all
voltagesor all currents)
or 2) 2 are known and 2 others are known to have a specific
relationship.

Fromthe relationshipbetweensequenceV's and I's, the mannerin

which the isolationsequencenetworksare connectedcan be
determined.

The connectionof the sequencenetworksprovidesa single phase

(in sequenceterms)of the fault.
representation

To derivethe system constraintsat the fault terminals :'

Terminalsareconnectedto representthe fault.

 Line to GroundFault on Phase'A'

f
In
At faultpoint:-

"l VA=0
VB=!
Vc=!

IA=?
IB=o
Ic=0

Phase to Earth Fault on Phase'A'

0; Ie = 0; I"= g
v1 +v2 + vo
Vl + Vz+Vo=0
1/3 (Io + IB +Ic) = 1/3 In
113(Io + aIB + a2lc) = 1/3 Ir
1/3 (IA + a2I" + 31.1 = 1/3 Ir
Ir=Iz=Io='tl3In

To comply with (1) & (2) the sequencenetworks must be connected in series :'
 Example: Phaseto Earth Fault

1 3 2k v Z,-,= 10O
4L0 - uv:4
2OOO MVA
Zr, = 8.7{l
Zro = 8.7C)

N1

N2

Totalimpedance= 81'1C)

t,r = lz= Io = l!.?9,9,9-= 940 AmPs

{3 x 81.1
Ip=In=11+I2+Io = 3Io
= 2820Amps

Earth Fautt with Fault Resistance

l;,
POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK

NEGATIVE
>EUUCI\Vtr
NETWORK #
>trUUtrI\Utr
NETWORK #
 Phaseto PhaseFault:: B-C Phase

Example : Phase to Phase Fault

rALJL I
132kV
2OOO MVA
2", = Z"r= 8.7C)

Total impedance = 37.4f1 Ia = a2lt+ alt

I. = _!!-2000_= 2037Amps = a2I.' - alr
{g x gz.+ = (a2. a) 11
I, = 'tQf,/ tr6P5 = (-j). {s x zosz
= 3529Amps.
Phaseto PhaseFault with Resistance

Phaseto Phaseto Earth Fault:' B-C'E

 Phaseto Phaseto Earth Fault:-
B-C-Ewith Resistance

Maximum Fault Level

SinglePhaseFaultLevel :

) Can be higher than 3@fault level on solidly-

earthed systems

Gheck that switchgear breaking capacity > maximum

fault Ievel for all fault types.
 3O Versus1O Fault Level (1)

3@Versus1@Fault Level (2)

+ a -7
L2-'1
 3@Versus1@Fault Level(3)

=
3zrnur-TLEVEL
r= A= 221+21

=
larnutrtEvEl
#^

.'. lFZs < 21

lOpnUttEVEL, 3Ar XULTLEVEL

OpenCircuit & Double Faults

 Series Fautts(or Open Circuit Faults)

NETWORK
SEOUENCE
NEGATIVE
OPEN CIRCUITFAULT ACROSSPQ

NETWORK
ZEROSEQUENCE

(
I nterconnectionof Seguence Networks

Gonsidersequence
networks as blocks with
faultterminalsP&Qfor -1,
interconnections. t -l:..H=z

Unlikeshunt faults'
----lffiriFll"'
terminal N is not used lJl-=e'
for interconnections.
-lo
.-_/,0

---l '.r#!s:
|

|
I 1".
-lc,

b-
 6-Cir"uit FauttOn PhaseA (2)

At fault Point = 0
vu = 0iv"= 0iI"

= 1 / 3v '
v o = 1 / 3( v " + v o + v " ) = 'l{:
u"
vl = 1te(v.* "io + i'v") = 1 / 3 v a
ul =,rtiv"+"2v0+ccv")
Iy. = vn = 1/3v

sequencenetworksareconnected
Fromequations(1)& (2)the
in parallel'

Earth Faultson P@9!

rr v ---
'Two
it Diff"'"nt Locations

4-l7v
F
-?
7
a-e a'-e
)
N
l_
At fault PointF
V"= 0iIu= 0iI"= 0

It can be shown that

I-" = I^2 =

V_fr*+v"o = 0
At fault Point F'
U"'=oi ro'=o; !'= o
tt can be-ehqwn-!ha!
7= r'^ = I-'
trJ VJr. V"'o= 0
 Open Circuit & Ground Fault
r
\/l

Ooen Circuit Fault At fault Point :- At fault point :-

v"=? Va'=0
Vo=o Vb'=?
vc=o Vc'=?

Ia =$ L*It.= ?
Ib =J Io+I'o= g
Ic =] I"*I'"= 0
u.,lIv a r lu.',
l

I vazl
u"rl lu.''
INTRODUCTION

An understanding and working knowledgeof System Analysisis very importantto the

protectionEnginelras he must-know howthe systemoperatesunderloadandfaultconditions
beforechoosingsuitablerelaysto matchthe systemparameters'
for :-
alsoprovidesusefulinformation
Analysisof loadandfaultconditions

a) Choiceof PowerSystemArrangement
b) and Fusegear
RequiredBreakingcapacityof Switchgear
c) of ControlEquipment
Application
d) RequiredLoadand ShortCircuitRatingsof Plant
e) SystemOperation,Securityof Supply,Economics
0 Investigation PlantPerformance
of Unsatisfactory

VECTORS

Z = lzlze = R+ jX = lzllcos9 + j s i n 9 ) = l Z l e i a
tt 7t = lz,lze, and22= lzrlze2
7,.72= lzrllzrlto1+ez ana
/
1 0 1 -0 2

OPERATORS

j =1 zgQ' through90'
rotatesa vectoranti-clockwise

a = 1 1120" through120'
rotatesa vectoranti-clockwise
used extensivelyin component
symmetrical analysis

a2=11240'; a'+a+1=0

USEDFORVOLTAGEDIRECTION
CONVENTION
Z suchthat A is positivewith
currentI flowingin directionshownproducesa voltagedrop in
respectto B.

Ens Vle = VOLTAGEOF A ABOVE B

z = *Iz

P a g e1
 ANDPERUNITSYSTEM
BASEOUANTITIES

Thisis particularly
usefulwhenanalysing largesystemswithseveralvoltagelevels.Beforeany
systemcalculations can take placethe systemparameters must all be referredto common
base quantities,The base quantitiesare fixedon one part of the systemand basequantities
on otherpartsat different
voltageswilldepend on the ratioof interveningpowertransformers.

Thebasequantities
usedare:-

Basevoltage kvu phaseto phasevoltagein kV

- Base MVA MVAg threephaseMVA

:-
can then be established
Otherbasequantities

Baseimpedance= z,o = # inohms.

MVAb
Basecurrent = 16 = in kA.
J5.tvo
per unitvaluesareobtainedby dividingactualvaluesby basevaluesas follows:-

Actualimpedance = z^ = z=* MVA=

Zo.r. =
Per unitimpedance -" "
Baseimoedance 26 {*uo;,

Per unitvoltagekVo.u. = kV"

kVn

MVAa
Per unit MVA,MVAo.u. =
MVAb

lp.u.
Perunitcurrent =
*

percentagevaluesare common,uur"o for transformer and whereper unitvalues

impedances
perunitvalues'
valuesare100timestheequivalent
u"ryJmall.Percentage
"r"

Page 2
-7

PER UNIT QUANTITIESFROM ONE SET OF BASE VALUES TO

TRANSFERRING
ANOTHER
7
LetZ^,,r = ?
Ldt

Perunitvalueon baseZ62isZp.u.2=
za
zoz
ze.'tfi

= z*u.tx#f
zp.u.2 " MVA61- (kvuz)2
Y,Yo?'
= zp.*1x$* (kYnr)'
" "
MVA61 " (kVoz)2
 EXAMPLE1

eachsectionfor a threephasefaultat F.
Findthefaultcurrent'in

111132
kV OVERHEADLINE 132133kV
0 . 3p . u . 50 MVA,10% 40Q 5 0M V A , ' 1 0 %

BasekVg = 11 132 33
30
50 FAULT
Base MVAO 50'

4 =yi = 2.42e 349a 21.80

MVA b

= MVAu kA = 2625A 2 1 9A 874A

I
{s.xv6

5o= 0 . 1p . u .
4A =
0.11p
5.u, 0 . 1p . u . =o367pu
on
Zr.u.
commonbase
0.3x
20
0.75p.r.
349 J

p.u.
1.432

Ip = = 0.698P.u.
\41p.u. #

I11kv= 0.698xIu = 0.698x2625 = 1833A'

Irgzt<v= 0.698x219 = 1534.
h 3 k v = 0 . 6 9 8 x 8 7 4= 6 1 0 A .

P a g e4
 2
EXAMPLE
mustbe in the sameratioas the voltageratio
The basevoltageon eachsideof a transformer
of thetransformer'

1 1 . 8k V kv
11.81141 132111kv
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

11.8kV 132kV 1 1 KV
ect Selectionof kVO
11
tl KV
= kV 1 3 2k V
ct Selectionof kV5 132.X11'8 11'05
141
1 4 1k V 1 4 1x 1 1 = 1 1 ' 7 5k V
11'8 kV
ativeCorreciionSelectionof kVb 132

3
EXAMPLE
is thesameon eachsideof thetransformer'
of a transformer
Theperunitimpedance
withvoltageratiokV1/kV2'
a transformer
Consider

viewedfrom side 1 = Za1'

Actualimpedanceof the transformer
viewedfrom side 2 = Zaz'
Actualimpedanceof the transformer

MVA
zp.u.1= = Z^t x -----i
* kVt'

MVA
zp.u.z= = 7^c x -'---;
* kYz'

butZ"2 = ZalX
ryt-
kVr2

MVA - zp.u.1
2 n , , 2 = Z a 1*
kV;
1'

P a g e5
CIRCUIT
LAWS

Therearethreebasiclaws:

i) OhmsLaw

KirchoffsJunctionLaw

At anyjunction(ornode)XI = 0
i.e. Ir +12+f3 = Q

iii) KirchoffsMesh Law

z1

+l
',lQ ((
rl-
a
arq,
I
-
Roundany meshs.E LL_LL
\'T7

e g , i n m e s h( 1 ) : Fa Z .l tl -/ la +\23-i2

=hZt + (ir -iil Zz

 THEQREMS
CIRCUIT
usedfor systemanalysis
Theseare derivedfromthe circuitlaws. The threemostcommonly
Transform
star/Delta
areThevenins, Theorems'
andsuperposition

i) Theorem
Thevenins
interest'
whichis not of particular
partof a network
Thisis usefulfor replacing
by a singledriving
Any activenetworkviewedfrom any 2 terminalscan be replaced
where:-
voliagein serieswitha singleimpedance

Drivingvoltage = Opencircuitvoltagebetweenterminals
lmPedance = lmpedance of the networkas viewedfromthetwo
withalldrivingvoltagesshortcircuited'
terminals

Ex a m p l e :

i)

=,
=-,'l
Zs.Zl
= Zq
whereE'
,1, -
Z:i1;.E1andz'.= ffi

ii) Delta/Starand Star/DeltaTransform Theorems

1

- -\.
Z - 1' i- \\ 'r
\
Ur
\\\\
+
f

/ Zso

Page7
 ztz = zto+zzo+ztg'z'o
430

1 ztz.zst
L1o
zr, + Zn + 41

iii) Theorem
Superposition

In anylinearnetworkthe currentin anybranchdueto the simultaneous actionof several

by eachdriving
differentdrivingvoltagesis equalto the vectorsumof the currents'caused
voltageactingalonewiththe othersshortcircuited.

Example:

l=,

1,,
13= I.r+1r, f-l;
6,i'Lt /)

ctoi Y LrA
7to 2w *to= z w '2v:
Ztz=LwrW+
ivo 7,2+ ?.r { 7gl

t ?-py 2:,^
774 =?to+7*o 2,n 7 zg
ztn, - Zzo :
lry.r Lt I Ztt
LB. T'tov?-to i Vz' Zw
'd\o
-7v,o : t'vt ' Ztt
.----_.
'Tvr
Ln | 721

Page8
INTRODUCTION

In a balanced three-phase system,eachof thethreephasesof anypartof the systemwillhave

currentsandvoltages whichareequaland 120odisplaced withrespectto eachother.To
maintainbalanced operation, eachltemof systemplantmustbe symmetrical: i.e.haveidentical
impedances In eachline,equalmutualimpedances between phasesandground, andequal
shunt admittances to ground. Thisis the casefor and
machines transformers,
and it is also
validfor linesif theyare fullytransposed.

faultimpedances
Threephasefaultswithsymmetrical leavethe systemin balanced
operation.
Suchfaultscan be analysedusingthe simplesinglephaserepresentation. these
However,
faultsare rare.

The majorityof faultsoccurbetweenone lineand ground,or betweentwo linesand ground.

Theseare asymmetrical or unbalanced faults.Theyarisefrom lightningdischarges and other
overvoltageswhich initiateflashoversfollowedby power arcs; or they may arise from
mechanicalcausessuch as birdson overheadlinesor mechanical damageto cables,etc.
Anothertypeof unbalanced faultwhichis of interestare the opencircuitfaults.Theycanarise
frombrokenconductor, maloperationof singlephaseswitchgear or theoperaiion of fuses.

During unbalancedfaults, the symmetryof the system is lost and the single phase
faultsno longerapplies.
usedfor threephasebalanced
representation

METHOD
COMPONENTS
SYMMETRTGAL

Fortescuediscovereda propertyof unbalancedphasorsand introducedthe methodof

comPonents.
symmetrical

n phasorsmay be resolvedinto (n-1)sets of balancedn-phasesystems. of differentphase

sequenceandoneset of zero-phasesequence phasorsystem'
or uni-directional

systemof phasors.
n-dimensional
Consider

Va = Va1 + Ya2 + Va3 * ... + Van

VO = VUt + VOZ + VOS * ... + Vbn

Vn = Vn1 I Vnz + Vn3 * "' + Vnn

Where Var , Vbr , etc. are phasorsof the first set of balancedn-phase
system.Phasorsare singlespaced.

Vaz,Vb2, etc.are phasorsof the secondset of balancedn-phase

system.Phasorsare doublespaced.

P a g e9
 Andso on.

phasorsystem.
V"n , Vbn, etc.arephasorsof the uni-directional

5-phasesystem.V. , Vb , Vs , V6 , Vs.
Takefor examplean unbalanced

Vat Vaz Vag

Vor Yaz Vcg

d1

Secondsetof Thirdsetof
Firstsetof BalancedPhasors
alanced Phasors Phasors
Balanced

Yaq

Vas

Fourthset of
4 Fifthset of
Zero SequencePhasors
alancedPhasors
V6 , V6 , V6.
Now consideran unbalancedthree phasesystem.

Va=Va1 +Ya2 +Va3

Vo=Voi+VOz+Vug

Vc = Vcl + Vc2 + Vc3

Vat

Vut
Negative
4",
Zero
Positive Sequence
Sequence Sequence

P a g e1 0
 intoninephasors.
phasorshavebeenresolved
Threeunbalanced
'a' phaseandreplaceV33 by V3g'
Choose phaseas the reference

Va=Va1 +VaZ +VaO

V b = o 2 V " 1 + a Y a 2+ V a O

V, = crV61* o'Vt2 + Vao

wherecx,= 1'0 l12O

components'
It is convenientto deletesubscript'a'forthe symmetrical

Va=V1+V2+Vg

VO = otvt + crV2 + Vs

V6 = gV1 * c-'V2 * Ve

Add equations1, 2 and 3

Vs+Vg+V"=Jlo

4
.'. Vs = 113(Va + V5 + V6s)
o' and add the resultingequationsto
Multiplyequation 2 by a amd equation3 by
equation1,

Va+crVO*otV"=3Vt

5
.'. V1 = 1/3 (Va + crV6 * o'V.)
add the resultingequationsto equation
Multiplyequation2 by a2 and equation3 by o and
1,

V"+ozVu+aVc=3Vz

... Y2 = 113(Va + o'V5 * oY.1

in matrixform'
1 to 6 canbe re-written
Equations

[v"l [t 1 1l[uol
luol=l''o2 a llu,rl
Lv.J lr d "') LvzJ

Page 11
 luol= [r 1 1l [u.l
lv. I
lr d "'l l"rl
113
L";l [r o2 "] LV.J

matrixequations
Re-write as
7 and8 respectively

lvrl = tAltvrl

[v.]= lnlt[vr] 10

Where Vp = phasecomponents

Vs = sequencecomponents

1 1l
[1
=lr o2
"l
[t d
"')

[1 1 il
A-1 = 1/3l1 d "'l
L1 o2 ")

Example
components.
Resolvethe following3-phaseunbalancedvoltagesintotheirsymmetrical
vc
Va =,11O
va
Vu = 1 .5l '9 o

Vc = 0.5l+120

Solution:

V"=1+j0

Vo=o-j1'5

Vc = 0.5(-0.5+j0.86)
= -0.25+ j0.433
Va1= 1/3[Va + crVn* o'V.]
 (0- j1.5)+ ( - 0.5- j0.866)
1 / 3t(1+ j o ) + (-0 .5+j 0 .8 6 6) ( - 0.25+ j0.433) l

113(2.798+ j0.75)= 0'965t15'

Va2= 1t3va*o'Vo+oVs]
( - 0.25+ j0.a33) l
) 1.5) + ( - 0.5+ j0.866)
1 /3 t(1 ) + (-0 .5-j 0 .8 6 6(-j

= 1 / 3( - 0 . 5 4 8+ j 0 . 3 1 8 =
) 0 . 2 t 12 1 5 0

vaO - 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc)

= 1 i 3i ( 1 + j 0 ) + ( 0 - j 1 . 5 )+ ( - 0 . 2 5+ j 0 . 4 3 3 ) l

1 1 3(0 .7 5- j 1 .0 6 7 )= 0 .4 34t- 55o

Vbi = .^2Y^1

= 1 1 2 4 0 x 0 ' 9 6 5 1 1 5 = 0 ' 9 6 51 2 5 5 '

V52= crVsl

= 1 112Q" x 0'211 1150 = 0.2112270'

Vbo= Vao

= 0.434 Z-55

V61 = aV31

= 1 2 1 2 0 ox 0 . 9 6 5 1 1 5 " = 0 ' 9 6 51 1 3 5

Vc2 = o2V^2

= 1 1240" x A.211 1150' = 0'211l39O'

Vco= Vao

= 0.434 l-55o

Figure1 showsthe sequencecomponentsof the phasevoltages.

P a g e1 3
 vc
,n

t.V.
\ \
\
\ \
\v/ c \ \
\

Vaz
v\
tt- -.
\ .*\
-tt--(t
va2 17'cz --t'
\
\

4---"'-- t.
Vro

I
t va
I
I
I
I
I
ll
Y'a2 \ Vao
,,
(
\
\r./
ubt Voo
Vco

Vnr Fig.1
Symmetrical
Vozf
Components
\

\ Vg
Voo

P a g e1 4
 TRANSFORMATION
COMPONENT
, SYMMETRICAL

Fig.2
etc.)
(equallyspaced,fully transposed,
three phaseimpedances
Take a set of symmetrical
unbalanced
carrying phasecurrentsIa,IaondIc'
equations'
We maywritethefollowing

Y^=ZsIs+2615+Zmlc

V6=Zfls+ZsI6+ZmIc

Y"=Z^I^+Z7nl6 + ZsIc

where Zs = slf imPedancePerPhase

t2m = mutualimpedancebetntveenanyphasepair
Or, in matrixform

[v"-l lz" zm z^1 ltrl

=*l lt'l
luol=lt, zs z"
Lv"l lz^ zm ) LI"l
components.
V andI phasorsintotheirsymmetrical
Resolving
1
[r 1 1l lvol [2. zm z,"l |.1 1 l [t'l
lr o2 "llu'l=lt, zs z, ll1 a2 "llt,' I
I,' j
d orl Lurl lz^ zm z. I L1 a "'I LIzJ
LJ

P a g e1 5
Re-arrange

lvol [1 1 1l [., zn z^]11 1 1l [trl

lu.,l=lr o2 "l lr^ zs t, ll1 a2 "l lt,'l
LurJ lr d " ) Lr^ zn z, J Lr d "') LIrl
'l
lvol [t I 1 [r, zm ,^f 11 1 1l [t'l
lu,l= trzlt d "'l l.^ zs t. ll1 a2 " I lt,'I
Lurl [r o2 " ) lr^ zm t' J L, d "') LIr]
* 22^ Zs + 22^ Z" + 22^
[u'.]= [t' - zn
lv, |
1t3
lzs'
Zm + & " + o 2 z ^ 7^+&*+ *r"l
Z^ + azZ^ + oZ" l
LVrl lz" zm zm + a2z" + &^
[1 1 1l[r.l
lt o2 "llt, l
[r d "') LIrJ
o I["]
luol [tz,*o2z^) - Z^)
0
{2" o lllr I
lv,l= | -
(2" z.)l Lirl
Lvrl L o 0

lvol lro o ol [t'l

lv.,l=lo 21 ol lt, l
11

Lvrl [o s zz) LIz]

where Zt = Zs - Zm

Zz=Zt-Zm'

Zo=7s+ZZm
state the symmetricalcomponent
Therefore, if the system is symmetricalin its normal
isolatedsequencenetworksare
impedancebecomesiLgonaf (equation11) and, therefore,
networkswiil become interconnected
obtainedwith impedanceszt, zz and zs. These three
roadingis introduced. The mannerof
when an unbarancesuch as' a raurt oi unbaranced
interconnection i.e. the additionarsystemconnections.
wiil dependon the new constraints:

P a g e1 6
 DATA
PLANTIMPEDANCE
sequence
and negative
plants'thepositive
i.e.non-rotating are
lmpedances
Forstaticnetworks phase
and the
of the transformers normal
the same.Theseare the leakafeimpedance
impedance of the transmissioncircuits.

impedance of overheadlineandcablecircuitsis determined by the returnpath

Zerosequence
sheaths. The zerosequence
of the zerosequencecurrentsthroughearth,earthwiresor cable being
is generally greaterthanthe positiveand negaiivesequence impedance,
impedance overhead
varuein the caseof
usuallyof the orderof t*-oto threetimesthe positivesequLnce
lines.
currents havean avairabre pathand.can.flow, theywillagain
Fortransformers, if zerosequence
no pathe:ists,an open circuitmust be shownfor
seethe leakager"""tun." in eachpnase.-tt currentin any
the particularwindingsin the ="ro ,"qr"nce network. Theflowof zerosequence
providea pathfor the frowof barancing zero sequence
windingis possibre it otherwindings
o"nrv
currents.
The magnetising impedance z^
considerthetransformer circuitin Figure3 0verreaf.
equivarent
+ Zs ol about 10%'
is of the orderof ZOOOo/o, comparedto the ieafageimpedanceZrp in
impedan." iinoredind ftrf transformercan be represented
Therefore, magnetising +
(-2,, zr")'
""n-b" impedance
the positive n"g"iiir" i"qr"n"" networkibya series
"no

ZLo = primarywindingleakage
imPedance
Zi" = secondarywindingleakage
imPedance
7m = magnetisingimPedance

Circuit
Equivalent
Fig.3 Transformer

impedanceis identicalto the positive

ln the zero sequencenetwork,althoughthe leakage the zero.sequencemagnetising
sequencevatue (when zero ,rqu"n.3' o"tn ir arLit"ot"; and can be muchlower'In
impedance is dependentuponthe transfirmercore constiuction shellcoredtransformers'
banksoi ,ingr! phasetransformers and in three-phase
three-phase
the zerosequencemagnetising impedanc"'ls targeand c-anbe ignoredas in the positiveand
corety-petransformers' however'thezerosequence
negative ,"qu"n.",n"li,ork.. ti tnree-timb of the flux path'
flux mustbe completed throughthe oil oi tant<.owing to the highreluct?l:."However' thisis
impeda.nce G oitn" order-ofonlyf dOVg to 400%'
zerosequence magnetising when a deltawinding ls
studies,particurarry
stiil high enought,l u"-n"lrectedin mostfaurt
oresent.

P a g e1 7
 considerzerosequencecircuitof transformer
Therefore, Zt. The mode
as a seriesimpedance
of Zt to the externalcircuitis determined
of connection by takingaccountof eachwinding
arrangementandits connectionor othenvise to ground'
'b'
lmaginarylinks'a' and (seeFigure4) areusedto derivethe connections. ll zerosequence
ian flow
curr6nts into and out of a winding,for example a solidlyearthedstar winding,the
terminal
winding is connected to the external that
circuit, is link'a'isclosed.

21 'a'

o-rCffiH
a

o
,n' o'o'

Fig.4

lI zerosequence in the windingwithoutflowingin the externalcircuit,for

currentscan circulate
a deltawinding,the windingterminalis direlflyconnectedto the zerobus,that is link
'b ' i sc l o s e d .
"*.pf"

Example1

Connections
Transformer

ZeroSequence Equivalent
CircuitConnections

'18
Page
Thezerosequence impedanceof a neutralearthing Znis32* Thereasonforthis
impedance
fromFigure5 below'
canbe readilyunderstood

h
I
IIJ ltt"
J.--Zero
SeouenceCircuit

lmPedance
Fig.5 NeutralEarthing

At the neutralpointthe zerosequence Io in thethreephasescombineto give3Ioin the

currents
Tfrezerosequence voltageat the neutralpointis givenby
neutralearthingimpedance.

VO = 1/3 (Vrn + Vnn + V"n) = Vn

ButVn = 3hZn

Vo = 3IoZn

Z o = V o = 3Zn
-
I0

Example2

: Connections
Transformer

21 3R

ZeroSequenceEquivalent
Connections
Circuit

Page'19
The positivesequence impedance of synchronous machinesis thenormalmachine reactance.
Thereare threedefinedvaluesof positivesequence impedances,namelythe synchronous
and subtransient
transient impedances and theyare usedaccordingto whethersteadystate,
valuesof currentarerequired.
or initialshort-circuit
transient

Unlikethenon-rotating networks, the negative sequence impedance of the rotatingplantsis not

equalto the positive
sequence impedance. lt relates
to mrnfat synchronous speedtravelling in
the oppositedirectionto the rotor, lts valueis usuallylessthanthat of the positivesequence
impedance.

In the zero sequencenetwork,the windingconnection and earthingarrangement must be

considered as for transformers.Any earthingimpedance will be seen by each phaseand
therefore will be obtainedif threetimesthe impedance
the correctvoltages in
valueis included
the zerosequence network.

sequence
Typicalturbo-generator reactances
are:

synchronous reactance = 1 . 0p . u .
reactance
transierit = h'l
v.
6 n rr
rs }J!s.

reactance
subtransient = 0 . 1 0p , u .
negativesequence impedance= 0 . 1 3p . u .
zerosequence impedance = 0.04p.u.

UNBALANCEDFAULTS
OF SEQUENCENETWORKSTO REPRESENT
CONNECTION

(a) For any givenfaultthereare six quantitiesto be consideredat the fault point;Vs, V5,V6,
Is, Is, Is. lf any three are known(providedthey are not all voltagesor all currents)or if
any two are knownand two othersknownto havea specificrelationship, then a
relationship betweenVr, Vz and Vs and Ir,12snd Io con be established.

are calledthe circuitconstraints.

These relationships

Fromthe circuitconstraintswe can determinethe mannerin whichthe isolatedsequence

networkscan be interconnected.
'a'
(b) The relationshipsare derivedwith phase as the referencephase and the faults are
selected to be balanced relativeto the reference phase. This yields the simplest
interconnection of the
of the sequencenetworks. lf this is not done the interconnections
sequence networks require additionaltransformationswhich are achieved by the
introductionof phase shifting transformers. This will be apparent in the case of
simultaneous aboutthe
faultswhereit is not possiblefor boththe faultsto be symmetrical
reference phase.

Page20
ShuntFaults
Line-to-ground faults,line-to-line to groundfaultsand threephasefaultsall
faults,line-to-line
fallintothe categoryof shuntfaults'
zerosequence
(a) Figure6 showsa systemwith.afaultat F. The positive,negativeand the positive
for
networksof the ,yit"r are shownin Figure7. The fault terminals
sequencenetworkare Fr and Nt, and the corresponding faultterminals the negative
for
lt is at theseterminals
andzerosequencenetworksareFz,N2and Fo,No respectively.
of the networkrwilloccur. ln the derivationof sequence network
thatthe interconnection with fault
it is convenient to showthe sequence networks as blocks
interconnections,
terminalsF andN for externalconnections(Figure8)'

at the faultterminals, to imaginethree

it is convenient
(b) To derivethe systemconstraints at thepointof
shortconductors of zeroimpedance connected to the threelineconductors
fault (Figure9). The terminalconditionsimposedby the differenttypesof faultswill be
appliedto theseimaginary leads,the potential to groundof whichwill be V", Vb andv'
andthecurrentsIg,16?hdIs'

Fig.9

Page21
 Svstem
Fio. 7 SeouenceNetworksof Faulted

Fo
+ve -ve Zero
Sequence Sequence
Sequence Network
Network Network No

Yage zz
Lineto Groundon Phase'A'
A+ J^. 'l+ ^ainl .
AL lOUll PVll lt .

Va=0

16=I.=9

We knowfromsection(2.2)that

Va=Vt+Vz+Vo

But Va=0

."Vt+V2+Vs=Q

We knowfrom section(2.2)that

Io = 113(Ia + Iu + Ic )

But 16= Is = 0

.'. Io = 113Ia

Also,11= 113(Ia + crlu * otl") = 1l3la

IZ= 113(Iu+ cr2IO+ glc) = 1l3Ia

.'. 11= IZ = IO = 1l3Ia

Equations3 & 4 are the CIRCUITCONSTRAINTS.Theysuggestthat the sequencenetworks

are connectedin series.
 Zp
Lineto GroundFaultthroughFaultlmpedance

At faultpoint:

Vs = IaZl

Ib=Ic=0

We knowfromsection(2'2)that

iO = 1/3(Ir + 16 + 1";

.'. Io = 1l3Ia,sinceI5 = Ic = 0

SimilarlY,

Tt = 113(ia + crlo * o'I") = 1l3ra

Iz= 113(I" + cr2lo+ olc) = 1l3la

.'.11= IZ = IO = 1/3Ia

We know

Va=Vt+V2+Vs

But V" = laZrfromconstraint2

.'. Vt + V2 + Vs = I^Zt

ButI" = 3Iofromequation3
4
.'. Vt + V2 + Vs = Io(3Zt)

Eq u a t i o n s 3 &4 su g g e ststh e fo ||o winginter connections'

Page 24
 'C ''
L in et o L i n eF a ulot n P h a se s'B 'a n d
At faultPoint:

Vo=Vc 1

Ia=O 2
I5
e
In+Ic=0

?_r-J
J
We knowIo = 1/3(I" + I5 + 1.; =

equations
Substituting 4,
2 & 3 intoequation

Io=o

SimilarlY,
-
It = 1/3(Ia + als + o2I") 1/3 (ct-o2) tn

Tz= 113(Ia T o'Is * olc) = -1l3 (cr-o2) to

." It+Iz= Q

We know Vt = 1/3 (Va + aV5 + o2V")

equation1 intoequation7,
Substituting

Vt = 1/3(V" - Vo)

vz= 113(V"+ o2v5* crvc)= 1/3(Va Vo)

similarly

.'. Vr = Vz
in parallelbut the
5, 6 & 8, the positiveand negativeseouencenetworksare
Fromequations
networkis unconnected'
zerosequence

tr^
tz

'B'and 'C'throughFaultlmpedanceZr
Lineto LineFaulton Phases

P a g e2 5
At pointof fault,

Ia=0 1

Io+Ic=0 z

I5
Vo-V.=IoZt

Io = 1/3(I.+ 16+ Ic) = 0

It = 113(Ia + gIO * otl.) = 113(a - o2) to

Iz= 113(I, + cr2lo+ olc) = - 1 1 3( a - o 2 )t o

Io= o

11+12=Q

We knowIo = Io * o'\ + cctz)

4 in 5
equation
Substituting

I5 = (cr2 - cr,)It

VU= VO* o'V1+ crVZ

Vc= V0 + ctVt * o2V2

- 7
.'. V5- Vc = (oz-o)Vt - (o2 cr)Vz

Substituteequation3 & 6 into 7,

- o) V2
(o2 - o) lt4 = (cr2- cr)V1 - (cx,2

." V1 - Vz = ItZt

4 & 8 suggestthefollowinginterconnections'
Equations
Zt

'B' 'C'
Lineto Lineto GroundFaulton Phases and

P a g e2 6
At fault point:,

Vb=Vc=0 1

ra-u I

I6

.'. Vj = 1/3(va + crVo* o'v.) = 1/3Va

Yz= 113(V"+ o'Vo * crV")= 1/3Va

Vo = 1 /3(V " + V o + V c) =
.113Y^
. ' .V1 = V Z= V O = 1 l 3 Y a

Ia=(Ir +12+ Io)=0

networks
thatthe sequence
Fromequation3 & 4, it canbe concluded in parallel.
are connected

'B' 'C' Zt
Lineto Lineto GroundFaulton Phases and throughFaultlmpedance

At faultPoint:,

I
ra-v

Vb = V" = (ls +16) Zi 2/'

Ig

.',Ia = 11+ i2 + IO = 0

Io = 1/3(I" + 16 + Ic) = 1/3 (Ip + 1";

."Io+Ic=3Io

V o = 1 / 3 ( V " + V 6 + V " ) = 1/3(Va+ 2Vo)

Page 27
Vr = 1/3(Va + aV6 + ozV") = 1 1 3 l v a
+ 1 a 2 + s) Vul 1/3(Va- Vo)

Vz = 113(Va+ o'Vo * crVc)= 113

Va + 1 a 2 + cr)Vol 1/3(Va- Vu)

.'. Vt = Vz

Vo - Vt = 113(2V5+ V6) = Vb

= (ts + 16)Z1 6

4 in 6
equation
Substitute

Vo-Vt=3loZr

." Vi = Vs - Is3Z1

Eq u a t i o n s 3 ,5 a n d T su g g e stth e followinginter connections'

Page28
1. SERIESFAULTS(orOpenCircuitFaults)

(a) Figure1 showsa systemwithan opencircuitPQ. Thepositive, negativeandzero

sequencenetworks system
of theopen-circuited areshown in Figure2. Unlike the
caseof shuntfaults,thefaultterminalsfor interconnectionare P andQ, therefore
theneutral.Thesequence
notI nvolving equivalent network blocks(Figure 3)will
haveterminalsP and Q for Terminal
interconnection. N is also indicatedin the
blocksalthoughit is notusedfor interconnections.

(b) Theterminalconditions imposedby differentopencircuitfaultswillbe applied

acrosspointsP andQ on thethreelineconductors (seeFigure4). Therefore the
faultterminalcurrentswillbeI4, Is ?nd16flowingfromP to Q on the three
conductors,andtheterminal potentialswillbethepotentialacrossP andQ, i'e'V.
- V",,Vb- Vb" V. - V"'. Theywillbe representedby Va,Vbandvgrespectively.

Vr!

lva I
I
Lvo'
lvb I
,Ic I V"'

lvc

Figure4

Page29
 Fio. 1 SinqleLine Diaoramof Two MachineSvstemwith Ooen CircuitFault

PositiveSequenceNetworkof Svstem

Fiq. 2 SequenceNetworksof FaultedSvstem

P^
+ve -ve Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Network Network Network
Qo
1 . 1 OpenCircuitFaulton Phase'A'

At faultpoint: P o
Val lva
-1
1-
Ia=0 VSlva 16 lVb'
.<-.
v- v^t r v b I ; , v' v^ '
V[=Vg=0 t

l+l
Vs

= 1 1 3v 6
... v0 = 113(u" + vb + vc)

v1 =113(va+vb+g2vc) = 1 1 3v a

vZ = 113(v" + cr2vg + Y.; = 1 1 3v a

- v2 = v0 = 1/3va 3
''. v1

Ia=11 *IZ+ IO=0 4

in
Fromequations3 and4 it can be concludedthat the sequencenetworksare connected
parallel.

t'Pl Nr
Sequence
lut G
Network 4O

'B' 'C'
1.2 TwoOpenCircuitFaultson Phases and

At faultPoint: PO 'tVa'
Var Ia
a+
Ib=Ic=0 V 6 l v_-4
a Is
! VO'
v C . io-l]-
v^l -
lv^'
vC
Va=0 rc r

'q--

... r0 - 1i3 (ia * Ib * Ic) = 1/3 Ia

t4 1/3 (I + crls + cr.2l.;= 1731,

Ta= 1/3 (Ia * o'Io + crlc) = 1i3 Ia

." 11
- 12 - IO = 1/3Ia

P a g e3 1
 \

Va=V1 *v2+ V0=0

thatthesequence
3 and4 it canbe concluded
Fromequations areconnected
networks in
series.

2. FAULTS
SIMULTANEOUS

Therangeof faultswe haveconsidered onlya singlefaultat onefault

so far involves
components
location.symmetrical canbe usedto analysetwo (ormore)faultseitherin
in a system'
or at differentlocations
the samelocation

when deriving the sequencenetworkinterconnections for singlefaults,thesequence

components of the reference phase''a'.phase
currentsandvoltagesareall sequence
to be the referencephase.sincethesequence components of theother
beingselected causing
thephasesubscript'a'Was omitted without
twophaseswerenotinvolved, faults'
confusion.In the derivationof sequence networkconnections for simultaneous
phases,sequence components of more than
whenthefaultsareon different
especially
of phasesubscripts willcause confusion'
f,n; On";r areemploy"O.fn" omission lt is
the sequence components willbe phase subscripted accordingly'
Therefore,
however,
essential, io nnattyexpressthe constraintsof allfaultswithrespectto thesame
referencePhase.

P a g e3 2
 Anotherpointto watchoutfor is thatwhenconnectingthe sequence it mustbe
networks,
thatcannotbe provedis introduced.
faultconstraints
ensuredthatno additional Thisis
generally
achieved by making direct at
connection one faultlocationandemploy 111ratio
coupling
transformer (section
at theother,if necessary 2.1). When thefaultconstraints
involvephaseshiftedsequence therewillbe a needfor phaseshifting
quantities,
coupling
transformer (section2'2)'
'A' Locaiions
2.1 TwoEarthFaultson Phase at Different

At F"
At F,
rr -
- Yl
rc
-
0 ----------- I
Ib = Ic = 0 -----------------1
I'b

-----------------2 V"'=o 2
Va = 0
=I32=136 1a1' = 1a2' = IaO'
[1
Vs1' + V"2
'\* V"o'
= 0
Va1 +YaZ + Vag
.!- ----l
I
Ia'1
Fl **, I
I
u"' I
*,f I
I
I
I
u"' *r'lu"''
l
*rl I
I
I
I

I u"o
I
*o,lu"'o I
I
l-------r

!
WRONGINTERCONNECTIONS
:
constraints
thiswouldassumefollowing
connections--- are notcorrectbecause
= Val', Vag = Vag'
Vs2 = Vs2', Val

mustbe used'
1/1transformers
.'. lnterposing

P a g e3 3
 u.,
,.',,1 lx::' I"'2

*,1u"' ,lu"', Iu.',

Ir'o

lu"o *o,lu''o lu"'o

CORRECT INTERCONNECTIONS
TMNSFORMERS
USING1/1INTERPOSING

2.2 CrossCountryFaults
'A' Phaseto Groundat F and'B' Phaseto Groundat F'

At F, At F"

Ib=Ic=0 ----------------- 1 Is'= l"'= Q -----------------1

----------------- 2 Vb'= 0 ----------------2

Va=0

!a1 = la2 = Iao Ib1' = Ib2' =-IbO'

Vat + Vaz + V a o = 0
Convertto 'a' phasesequence
currents.
,
*'I"1'="cla2'=Ia0'
t
of Is1' = q,'Ia2' = ocla0'

Vb1'+Vb2'+Vbg'=0

Page34
 'A' voltages'
Convertto phasesequence
ntV"l+a.Ys2'+Vao'=o
orVsl' + nzV"2' + ccV"g' = Q

in volvephaseshiftedsequence the sequence

quantities'
sincethe faultconstraints as shown below'
transformers
i"qulru phaseshifting
networkconnection,

u"'
*,1

u"' ,lu"',
*,1

u'o u"o
*ol *o,l

'A'
and
Circuit Lineto GroundFaulton Phase o
2.3 Open P
Ia V"l lu"' Ia'
)---l
| <- \va
/ l-
Ib'
Iu Vul lVo'
lc V"!
.-r lv"
Tr
rc

+ Tr* Ia+
Tl
Tl
IC rb Ia'

Page35
(a) OpenCircuitFault
At faultPoint:

Ia=0 -----------------1
Vb=Vc= 0 -----------------2

Ia1 + la2 + Iao=0

,,/a1 = !a2 = va0

(b) Lineto GroundFault

:
flllnv''
point
-----------------3
Va'= 0
-----------------4
Ib + Ib' = Q
-----------------5
Ic+ Ic' = Q

Fromequation3,

V a 1 ' + V a 2 ' +V a g ' = 0

l.hat/
4 and 5, it canbe shownas in section(5.1.1)
Fromequations
= (IaO + IaO')
I
(Iat + Ia1') = (IaZ + Ia2)

are shownbelow
The sequencenetworkinterconn""tlolt
ral
Is1 + Ia'1
1Q

<-
va1
lu"''

Ia2 + la'

u^'
v",I I I
lu"',
lu,',
[s6 + Ia'0

vao
u"ol
lu"o

Page36
 AREVA

APPLICATIONOF NON.DIRECTIONAL
OVERCURRENT AND EARTHFAULT
PROTEGTION /

T&D - - 4LX - England

EnergyAutomation& lnformation- St LeonardsAvenue Stafford ST17
Tel : 144(0)1785223251-Fax +44(0)1785212232
. - - 4LX
 A.REVA

and Earth
Overcurrent
Non-Directional
FaultProtection
 Overcurrent Protection: Purposeof Protection

) Detectabnormalconditions
) lsolatefaultYPartof the sYstem
) Speed
r Fastoperationto minimisedamageand danger
) Discrimination
r lsolateonly the faultYsection
) DependabilitY / reliabilitY
) SecuritY/ stabilitY
) Cost of protection/ againstcost of potential
hazards

Overc urrent P rotection Co'ord i nation

l-/\-
-/
r-n-
1tL,
{7
rz F3

) Co-ordinateprotectionso that relaynearestto

fault oPeratesfirst
) Minimisesystemdisruptiondue to the fault
 Fuses

Overcurrent Protecfion Fuses

) Simple
) Can providevery fast fault clearance
o <1Omsfor largecurrent
) Limit fault energy

FaultCurrent
Prospective
OvercurrentProtection Fuses ' disadvantages

) Problematicco-ordination

t Irr approx 2 x I.t

) Limited sensitivity to earth faults
) S i n g l e p h a s ing
) Fixed characteristic
) Need replacingfollowing fault clearance

Tripping Methods
/ OvercurrentProtection Direct Acting AC Trip

> AC seriestrip
I commonfor electromechanical
9lerelays

OvercurrentProtection Direct Acting AC Trip

i--
I
I

i(
I
I
t---

) Capacitordischargetrip
r usedwith static relayswhere no secure DC
supplyis available
 OvercurrentProtection DC Shunt Trip

SHUNT
T R I PC O I L

) RequiressecureDC auxiliary
r No trip if DC fails
\

Overeurrent P rotection
 Overcurrent Protection Pri ncrpfes

) OperatingSpeed
o Instantaneous
. Time delayed
) Discrimination
r Currentsetting
r Time setting
r Gurrentand time
) Gost
. Generallycheapestform of protectionrelay

Overcurrent P rotection I nstantaneous Relays

) Currentsettingschosenso that relayclosestto

fault operates
) Problem
o Relieson therebeinga differencein fault
'level
betweenthe two relay locations
r Cannotdiscriminateif Irr = Irz
 Ov ercurrent P rotection Defin ite (ln dep enden

AppliedCurrent
(RelayCurrentSetting)

Overcurrent P rotection Defin ite

) Operatingtime is independentof current

)> Relayclosest to fault has shortestoperatingtime
) Problem
r Longestoperatingtime is at the sourcewhere
fault levelis highest
 Overcurrent Protection IDMT

Is AppliedCurrent
(RelayCurrentSetting)

)> InverseDefiniteMinimumTimecharacteristic

Overcurrent Protection DiscIypc O/C Relays

) Currentsettingvia plug bridge

) Timemultipliersettingvia disc
movement
) Singlecharacteristic
) Consider2 ph & EF or 3 ph
plus additionalEF relay
 OvercurrentProtection Static Relay

)> Electronic,multi characteristic

elements
) Integralinstantaneous

Overcurrent Protection Numerical Relay

and stages
) Multiplecharacteristics
) Currentsettingsin primaryor secondaryvalues
) Additionalprotectionelements
 Co-ordination

Overc urrent P rotection Co-ord i nati on Pri ncip Ie

) Relayclosest to fault
must operatefirst
) Otherrelaysmust have
adequateadditional
operatingtime to
preventthem operating
) Currentsettingchosen
to allow FLC
) Considerworst case
conditions,operating
modesand current
flows
OvercurrentProtection Co'ordination Example

Overcurrent P rotection IEC Characterisfics

>Sl f = 0.14
(Tmt-1)
>Vl f = 13.5
(it:1t
>El f = 80
F-t
> L T l f = 120
G:TJ
Over curr ent Pr otection Op erating Time S_gttagj

Relayoperatingtimes can
be calculatedusing relay
characteristiccharts
Publishedcharacteristcsare
drawnagainsta multipleof
currentsettingor Plug
SettingMultiplier
Thereforecharacteristics
can be usedfor any
applicationregardlessof
actualrelaycurrentsetting
e.g at 10xsetting(or PSMof
10)Sl curveop time is 3s

Overcurrent Protection Current S etting

) Set just abovefull load current

r allow 10%tolerance
) Allow relayto resetif fault is clearedby
downstreamdevice
r considerpickup/dropoff ratio (resetratio)
. relaymust fully resetwith full load current
flowing
.PU/DO for static/numerical = 95%
oPU/DOfor EM relay= 90%

) e.g for numericalrelay,Is = 1.1x IFL/0.95

 Ov ercurrent P rotection Current S etting

) Currentgrading
r ensurethat if upstreamrelayhas started
downstreamrelayhas also started

F#"rr
r Set upstreamdevicecurrentsetting greaterthan
downstreamrelay
e.g.Is*. -- 1.1 x Is*,

Overcurrent Protection Grading Margin

) Operatingtime differencebetweentwo devicesto

ensurethat downstreamdevicewill clear tauL{
beforeupstreamdevicetrips
) Mustinclude
. breakeropeningtime
r allowancefor errors
o relayovershoottime
. safetymargin

GRADING
MARGIN
 Overcurrent Protection Grading UgryA_:

) Traditional
r breakerop time
. relayovershoot -
. o allow. For errors
. safety margin
r Total
) Calculateusingformula

Overcurrent P rotection Grading Ag!g!I:

between relayg
I ) Formula
r t' = (2Er+ Ect)U100+ tcb + to + ts
. Er = relaytimingerror
. Ect = GT measurement error
. t = op time of downstreamrelay
, . tcb = CB interuptingtime
. to = relayovershoottime
r ts = safety margin
) Op time of DownstreamRelayt = 0.5s
o 0.375smarginfor EM relay,oil CB
o 0.24smarginfor static relay,vacuumCB
 Overcurrent P rotection Grading Agg!!:

) GradingMargin= 0.4Tf+ 0.15soverwhole

characteristic
) Assumefuse minimumoperatingtime = 0.01s
) Use El or Vl curve to gradewith fuse
)>Currentsettingof relayshouldbe 3-4x ratingof
fuse to ensureco-ordination

Overcurrent Protectio n Grading tb!g!!:

relay (h unstream fuse

Irunx

> 1.1757, + 0.1

Allowancefor CT CB
andrelayerror
or
) Tr = 2T. + 0.33s
 Overcurrent Protection Time Multiplier Setting

) Usedto adjust the

operatingtime of an
inversecharacteristic
) Not a time settingbut
a multiplier
) CalculateTMSto give
desiredoperatingtime
in accordancewith the
gradingmargin

Time Multiplier Setfingl- Calculation

) Calculaterelayoperatingtime required,T'"o
r considergradingmargin
r fault level
) Calculateop time of inversecharacteristic
with TMS= 1, Tr

> TMS = Tr"o/T,

overcurrentProtectionco-ordination- Procedure

) Calculaterequiredoperatingcurrent
) Calculaterequiredgradingmargin
) Calculaterequiredoperatingtime
) Selectcharacteristic
) CalculaterequiredTMS
) Draw characteristic,check gradingover whole
curve

Gradingcuwes shouldbe drawnto a common'

voltagebaseto aid comParison

Overc urrent P rotection Co' ord i n ation Examp Ie

Is=5Amp Is = 5 AmP:TMS= 0.05,S'

) GraderelaYB with relaYA

) Co-ordinateat max fault levelseen by both
relays= 1400A
) Assumegradingmarginof 0.4s
OvercurrentProtection Co-ordination Example

IruRx
= 1400Amp

Is=5Amp Is = 5 Amp;TMS= 0.05,Sl

RelayB is set to 200Aprimary,5A secondary

RelayA set to 100A.'. lf (14004)= PSMof {4
r e l a y A O P t i m e = t = 0 . 1 4 x T M=S 0 : 1 4 x 0 . 0 5= 0 . , 1 3
-1)-
{Io.o2 ( 1 4 0 . 0-21 )
RelayB Op time = 0.13+ gradingmargin= 0.13+ 0.4= 0.53s
RelayA usesSl curveso relayB shouldalso use Sl curve

Overc urrent P rotecti on Co-ord i nation Examp Ie

IFtvtRx
= 1400Amp

RelayB Op time= 0.13+ gradingmargin= 0.13+ 0.4= 0.53s

RelayA usesSl curveso relayB shouldalso use SI curve
RelayB set to 200A .'. lf (1400A)= PSMof 7
refayB OP time TMS= 1 = 0.,!3]--{IN. = 0.',4 = 3.52s
-1)
(Io.o2 -11
(7o.o2
RequiredTMS = Required Op time = 0.53 = 0.15
Op time TMS=1 3.52
Set relay B to 200A,TMS = 0.15,Sl
 LV Protection Ca'ordination
11kV

CB
2 x 1.SMVA
11kV/433V
5.1%
ACB CrZ61

Overcurrent P rotection
LV Protection Co'ordination
1000s

100s

10s

1.0s

0.1s

0.01s
0.1kA
 LV Protection C o-ordi n ation
11kV

KCGG142
2 x 1.5MVA
11kV/433V
5.1o/o

ACB

LV P rotection Co-ordination
1000s

100s

10s

1.0s

0.1s

0.01s
0.lkA
 BlockedOC Schernes

a
#-o -
\-l

IR3

Lt-"tockt>
,rzffir>start
I

ry
IF'l' I
?)
@ 6r"n"ient backfeed

Delta/Star Tran sform ers

 Overcurrent Protecti on
TransformerProtection - 2-1-1Fault Current

TurnsRatio
) A phase-phase fault on = {3:1
one side of transformer
produces2-1-1
distributionon other
side
) Usean overcurrent
elementin eachphase
(coverthe 2x phase)
> 2A & EF relayscan be
used providedfault
current> 4x setting

TransformerProtection - 2-1-1Fault Current

) I"o, = EA-@t2Xt=^h EA'nnXt

) Istar= 0.866EA-nlXt
) I"o..= 0.866 ltsa

) Io"ro = I","./{3 = lrr" !2

) I,,n"= rr.,
 Overcurrent Protection
TransformerProtection- 2-1-1Fault Current

F"*@*x1cn-\- i\
@ @@M

GradeHV relay
with respectto2-
1-1for O-A fault
Not only at max
fault level

Use of High Sefs

 In stanta neous P rotecti on

)> Fast clearanceof faults

r ensuregood operationfactor,It )) I" (5 x ?)
) Gurrentsetting must be co-ordinatedto prevent
overtripping
) Usedto providefast tripping on HV side of
transformers
) Usedon feederswith Auto Reclose,prevents
transientfaults becomingpermanent
r AR ensureshealthyfeedersare re-energised
) Consideroperationdue to DC offset - transient
overreach

lnstantaneousOC on Transformer Feeders

) Set HV inst 130%IrLV

l> Stablefor inrush
) No operationfor LV
fault
) Fast operationfor HV
fault-
) Reducesop times
requiredof upstreanr
relays
 EarthfaultProtection

Earth Fault Protection

) Earthfault currentmay be limited

) Sensitivityand speedrequirementsmay not be
met by overcurrentrelays
e UsededicatedEF protectionrelays

current
r Can be set to valuesless than full load current
) Co-ordinateas for OC elements
r May not be possibleto provideco-ordination
with fuses
 Ov ercu rrentP rotection
Earth Fault Relay Connection - 3 Wire Sysfem

) Combinedwith OC relaYs

Overcurrent P rotection
Earth Fault Relay Connection - 4 Wire Sysfem

) EF relaysettingmust be ) lndependentof neutral

greaterthan normalneutral currentbut must use 3
OG relaysfor phaseto
neutralfaults
 EarthFault RelaysCurrent Seftrng

) Solidearth
o 30% Ifu' ro"d Resistanceearth
adequate r setting w.r.t earthfault
level
o specialconsiderations
for impedance
earthing- directional?

Overcurrent P rotection
Sensffive Earth Fault RelaYs

) Settingsdown to
0.2%possible

impedancJearthnetworks
)> For tow settingsca\not use residualconnection,use
dedicatedCT
) Advisableto use core balanceCT
> CT ratio relatedto earthfault currentnot line current
) Relaystuned to systernfrequencyto reject3rd
harmonic
 Core BalanceCT Connections

Needto take carewith core

balanceCT and armoured
cables
Sheathacts as earth return
path
Mustaceountfor earth
currentpath in eonnections
- insulatecablegland

>Nilt.-@d-J@tu
TYPESOF PROTECTION

FUSES

The simplestformof overcurrent protectionis thefuse.Thefuseis capableof operating

in lessthan 1Omsfor verylargevaluesof current,thusconsiderably timiting
iautienerg!.
However, it doeshavea numberof disadvantages, namely;
. Canbe difficultto co-ordinate
. lts characteristicis fixed
. Needsreplacing following faultclearance
' Haslimitedsensitivity to earthfaults
sinceit is ratedabovethe fullloadcurrentof the
feeder
' Operation of singlefuseresultsin a condition refereed
to as singlephasing.Single
phasingcanbe disastrous for rotatingplantsuchas motors.
'Pre-arcing
Thefusecharacteristic is splitintotwosections,
the Time'andthe 'Arcing
Time'.The additionof thesetimesis referredto as the 'Total
Operating
Time'.

ArcingTime
PreArc
Time Prospective
Foult
Current

Totol
O peroting
Time

PRINCIPLE OF OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

The purposeof overcurrent protection,
as withotherformsof protection, is to detect
faultson a powersystemandas a result,initiatethe openingof switchgear in orderto
isolatethe faultypartof the system.Theprotection mustthusbe discriminative, thatis
to sayit shall,as far as possible,
selectand isolateonlythe faultypartof thesystem
leavingall otherpartsin normaloperation.

Discrimination
canbe achievedby overcurrent,
or by time,or by a combination
of
overcurrent
andtime.

DISCRIMINATION BY CURRENT
Discrimination by currentreliesuponthefactthatthefaultcurrentvarieswiththe
positionof the fault. Thisvariationis dueto the impedance of variousitemsof plant,
suchas cablesandtransformers, betweenthe sourceandthe fault.Relaysthroughout
the systemare set to operateat suitablevaluessuchthatonlythe relaynearestto the
faultoperates.
Relayswhichadoptthisprinciple of operation are generally
termedlnstantaneous
overcurrent relays. .\
(Wherethe faultleveldoesnotvarygreatlybetweentwo relaylocationthenthe\e of
instantaneous overcurrent relaysis not possible).
DISCRIMINATION BY TIME

Page1
lf the faultlevelovera systemis reasonably constantthendiscrimination by currentwill
not be possible.An alternative is to usetimediscriminationin whicheachovercurrent
relayis givena fixedtime delaywiththe relayfarthestawayfrom the sou-rcehavingthe
shortesttimedelay. Operating timeis thussubstantiallyindependent of faultlevelbut
the maindisadvantage is thatthe relaynearestthe sourcewill havethe longesttime
delayandthisis the pointwiththe highestfaultlevel.
Relayswhichadoptthisprinciple of operationare generallytermeddefinite
(independent) time overcurrent relays.
NOTE: When applying definitetimeovercurrent relayscaremustbe takento ensure
thatthe thermil rating of the measuring
current elementis not exceeded.

TIME

Top

AppliedCurrent
Ig
(RelayCurrentSetting)
DISCRIMINATION BY BOTHTIMEANDCURRENT
Dueto the limitationiimposedby the independent useof eithertimeor current,the
hasbeendeveloped.with thischaracteristic
characteristic the
inversetimeovercurrent the higher
timeof operationis inverselyproportionalto the currentapplied,i.e.;.basically
relayoperates. Thy:, the actualcharacteristicis a
the currentapplied,the fasteithe of the
functionof bothtimeand currentsettings, therebygainingthe advantages
pi"uio"t mentioned methodsandeliminating some the disadvantages'

TIME

Ig AppliedCurrent
(RelayCurrentSetting)

Page 2
PRINCIPLES OF CO.ORDINATION
The principleof co-ordinationrefersto the procedure of settingovercurrent relaysto
ensurethatthe relaynearest the faultoperates firstand all otherrelays have adequate
additionaltimeto preventthemfromoperating. lf the relaynearest to the faultfailsto
clearthe fault,andthe co-ordination is correct,thenthe nextup-stream relayshould
operateand so on towardsthe source, thusisolating the minimum amount of plant.
to as 'grading'.
The principleof co-ordinationis oftenreferred
Whenperforming any co-ordination exercisethe followingneedto be considered:
. RelayCharacteristics
. RelayCurrentSetting
. GradingMargin
. TimeMultiplier Setting

RelayGharacteristics
Therearenumerous however
characteristics, or
theyallconfirmto eitherBS142/lEC
ANSI/IEEEstandards.The 8S142/lEC incorporates
standard the following
characteristics:
. StandardInverse
. VeryInverse
. Extremely lnverse
. LongTimeInverse

thefollowingcharacteristics:
TheANSIiIEEEstandardincorporates
. Moderately
lnverse
o VeryInverse
. Extremely
Inverse
. ShortTimeInverse
. lnverse

The8S142/lECstandardcurvesaremainlyadoptedin the UK andthe mostcommonly

in moredetailbelow:
usedonesareexplained

Standardtnverse- Thischaracteristic
is commonly knownas the 3/10characteristic,
i.e.at tentimessettingcurrentandTMSof 1 the relaywilloperatein 3 secs'

curyecanbe definedby the mathematical

The characteristic :
expression

+r -- - - - -0- . 1 4
({s2 I
lr ,rt
tTl
l's )

where | = aPPliedcurrent
l, = settingcurrent
l/1, = multiPleof settingcurrent

is widelyappliedat all systemvoltages- as

The standardinversetimecharacteristic
on EHVsystemsandas the mainprotection
backup protection on HV and MV
sYstems.
distribution
are usedwhen:
ln general,the standardinversecharacteristics /
requirements
Thereare no co-ordination withothertypesof protective
equipment(urther
of
outon the system,e.g. Fuses,thermalcharacteristics motorsetc'
transformers,

Thefaultlevelsat the nearandfar end! of the systemdo notvarysignificantly'

Page3
Thereis minimalinrushon coldloadpickup. Coldloadinrushis thatcunent
occurswhena feederis energised outage.In generalthe relaycannot
aftera prolonged
be set abovethisvaluebutthe currentshoulddecreasebelowthe relaysettingbefore
the relayoperates.

Very InverseTime - Thistypeof characteristic is normallyusedto-obtain greatertime

whenthe limitingoveralltimefactoris verylow,andthefaultcurrentat any
selectivity
pointdoesnotvarytoowidelywithsystemconditions.lt is particularly suitable, if thereis
a substantial of faultcurrent
reduction as the distancefrom the power source increases.
The steeperinversecuryegiveslongertimegradingintervals.lts operating timeis
approximately doubledfor i reductionin settingfromfigures7 to 4 times relay
the
.iir"nt setting.Thispermitsthe sametimemultiplier settingfor severalrelaysin series'

0!|]
ilfll0
I[,",h,,attrfiil[ dglil]gd
n0 i
0ruta0Di0tl
l]letn8lllnti0nl
n]im
,13.5
t-
L-r'\
tT I
i-:- - 1i
LI. )
ExtremelyInverseTime - Withthischaracteristic the operatingtimeis approximately
to the squareof the current.The longoperating timeof the relay
inversely[roportional
,i p1"[ of loadcurrentmakethe relayparticularly suitablefor gradingwithfuses
""rues of feederswhichare iubject to peak currentson switching in,
andalsofor protection
pumps,waterheaters
refrigerators, etc',which remain
suchas feederssupplying
connected evenaftera prolonged of supply'
interruption

constantanddiscrimination
is practically wit-h.low
Forcaseswherethe generation
impedanceper linesection,an
i.ppirg timesis difficlltto obtain,becauseof the low is
extremely inverserelaycanbe veryusefulsinceonlya smalldifference current
of
necessary to obtainan adequatetimedifference'

for thisrelayis withautoreclosers in lowvoltagedistributioncircuits'

Anotherapplication beforethe
is set to operate
nrln" .^dlorityof faultsare of i transientnature,the relay of
blowing the
normaloperating timeof the fuse,thuspreventing perhapsunnecessary
fuse.

Uponreclosure, recloserlocksitselfin the closedpositionand

if the faultpersists,_the
aliowsthe fuseto blowto clearthe fault'
since
plantagainstoverheating
is alsowidelyusedfor protecting
Thischaracteristic
is usuallyan l2tfunction'
overheating

Page4
 curvecanbe definedby the mathematical
Thischaracteristic :
expression

t- r \z
lr I
1_l
- ,,
I

LI"J

hasa longtimecharacteri-sticandmay
Long Time Inverse- Thistypeof characteristic
(wlricnnormallyhave
of neuiralearthingresistors a 30 sec rating)'
be usedfor protection
timeat 5 timescurrentsettingis 30 secsat TMSof 1'
in" i"luy operating

Thiscan be definedbY:

120
t-
I/Is - 1

CurrentSetting of
described as eithera percentage or multiple
The currentsettingof a relayis typically
the currenttransformer primaryor secondary rating'
lf the CT primaryrating li to the normil full loadcurrentof the circuitthenthe
pointas
percentage settingwilirefer directlyto the primarysystem.Thisis an important
"quuf
400 ampbutthe cT ratio
if,for example,the nor*"1 primaryfullloadcurrentwas,say, not
ulnp set at 190"/"-,would
was 500/5then a relaywith settingrangelO-2QOo/o 9f.? of full load
a "fullload"setting;the actui settingwouldin fact be 125%
represent
current.
andthe cT ratioandis
The choiceof currentsettingthusdependson the loadcurrent 10%)- assuming of
normallycloseto but above-the maximumtoaOcurrent(typically
the maximumforeseeable load' lt shouldbe
coursethe circuitis capableof carrying -neither
to be usedas an
designednor intended
stressedat thispori,-in"t the relayis faultconditions'
overloadrelaybut as'a protective ielayto protectthe systemunder
It is alsoimportant to considerthe resetting of the relay' The relaywillresetwhenthe
(Depending on relaydesign)andif the
currentis reducedto 90%-95%of thesetti-ng
resetafterstartingto operate
normalloadcurrentis abovethisvaluethe rllay willnot
;;;;; throughfaultconditions whichare clearedby otherswitchgear'
The settingfor a typicalovercurrent reiiy witha relet ratioof 95%canbe determined
usingthefollowing:

l s = 1 . 1x l e r / 0 . 9 5

Where: ls = Setting
lrr-= FullLoadCurrent

Grading Margin t:'i?:i'l"t'*i

mentioned,
As previously discrimrnatiT^1t^i:,::t:::::
to obtaincorrect
timeintervar
This
rerays.
oftwoallacent
operation orgrading
iliJ#'#il'J;iil
margindependsupona numberof factors:

a) The circuitbreakerfaultinterrupting time

b) The overshoot timeof the relaY
c) Errors
;i Finalmarginon completion of operation(safetymargin)
Thediscriminating,utuy only de-energised
be when.thecircuitbreakerhas
"no* -
interrupted
completely
"un
ine fauttcurrent.ft [ normalpracticeto usea valueof 50
Page5
 if it is knownthatthe
timebut obviously
100ms for circuitbreakeroverallinterrupting
switchgearis slowerthanthis time,this mustbe takenintoaccount.

Operating of the relaymaycontinuefor a shortiimeafterthe relayis de-energised

until
anystoredenergyis dissipated. Forexample, discelementwillhavestored
an induction
kineticenergy(or inertia)and a numericalrelaymayhavestoredenergyin capacitors.
Althoughthesefactorsare minimised by design,someallowance is usuallynecessary.
It is commonto usea figureof 50 ms.

NOTE: timeis notthe actualtimeduringwhichsomeforurard

The overshoot
takesplanbutis the timethatthe relaywouldhavetakento travel
operation
the samedistancehadthe relayremained energised.
Travel

Overshoot
Travel t1 = relayde-energised
t3 - t1 = actualovershoottime
-
t2 t1 = overshoot timeusedin the
of margin
calculation

Time

All measuring devicessuchas relaysandcurrenttransformers are subjectto some

Oegreeof err-or.The timecharacteristic of eitheror bothof the relaysinvolvedmayhave
poiitiu"or negativeerrors. Currenttransformer errorsare mainlydue to the -
magnetising lt should
c-haracteristic. be noted the CT errorsdo not affectdefinitetime
overcurrent relaYs.
marginto ensure
A safetymarginof 100ms is normallyaddedto the finalcalculated
Thisadditional
correctdiscrimination. timeensuresa satisfactorycontactgap (or
is maintained.
equivalent)

ln the past,a fixedmarginof 0'4 secswasconsideredadequatefor correct-.

discrimination. with fastermodernswitchgearand overshoot
lower timesa figureof
and underthe bestpossibleconditions0'3 secsmaybe
0.35secsis quite- reasonable
feasible.

However, ratherthanusinga fixedmarginit is betterto adopta fixedtimefor circuit

breakeroperation and relayovershootJnd addto thisa variabletimevaluewhichtakes
so when
andthe safetymargin.Thisis particularly
intoaccountrelayand cT
"rrort currentwherethe relayoperatingtimeis
f r"Oingat lowvatuesmultiplesof setting error'
ionj"r-unoa fixedtotalmaiginmaybe of the sameorderas the relaytiming

A fixedvalue0.25secsis chosenwhichis madeup of 0'1 secsfor circuitbreaker

operating timeand 0'1 secfor safetymargin'
time,0.05secsfor relayovershoot --
the variabletimevalue,it is assumedthateachIDMTrelaycomplies with
ln considering
to Britishpracticein BS 142. The errorfor a
basicassignJderrorclass7.5 according
class7.5 relayis tT.Soh,but allowance shouldbe madefor the effectsof temperature'
frequencyanddeparture fromthe reference conditionsas laiddownin the BS. A more
practicalapproximation is to assumea totaleffective errorof 2x7'5i'e.15% andthis
is to apply'tothe relaynearestthefaultwhichis considered slow. To thistotaleffective
reiayerrora further10%is addedto allowfor overallcT error,
Page6 .
 equation
to adoptthe following
Thusit is proposed the gradingmargin
to determine
betweenIDMTrelaYs:

t' = 0.25+ 0.25secs wheret = normaloperatingtimeof

relaynearestthe fault

As far as definitetimeovercurrentrelaysareconcerned, the fixedvaluewillremainthe

samebutthe relaysare assumedto complywitherrorclass10 i.e.x 10%. Forthe
reasonsstatedpreviously, a practicalapproximation is to assumea totaleffectiveerror
of 21%withthe relaynearestthefaultconsidered slow. As previously CT
stated, errors
willhavelittleeffectof the operatingtime,thusit is proposed to the
adopt equation:

t' = O'25+ 0'25secs

gradingexercisecan be performed quite

Forthe majorityof systemsan overcurrent
adequatelyusinga fixedmarginof 0.4secs. lt is onlywhena numberof stagesare
involvedanooiricuttiesare beingencountered thatit maybecomenecessary to
margintimesin moredetail.To summarise,
investigate eachsystemis differentand
should-be to laydownrigidrulesregarding
treatetas so, it is not possible grading
marginsandeverygradingexercisewillultimately be a compromiseof some form'

GradingOvercurrentRelaysWith DownstreamFuse
it willbe necessary
Forsom]eapplications relayswithfuses.When
to gradeovercurrent
thefuseis downstream of the relaythefollowing can
formula be the
usedto calculate
gradingmargin:

GradingMargin= 0.4Tf+ 0.15soverthewholecharacteristic.

timeof 0'01seconds
fuseoperating
Theaboveformulaassumesa minimum

Generally lnversecharacteristic
a Extremely
for thistypeof application shouldbe
- 4 x rating
chosento grade*it'n tf'" fuseandthe currentsettingof the relayshouldbe 3
of fuseto ensureco-ordination.

TimeMultiPlierSetting
Thetimemultiplier is a meansof adjusting
setti-ng the operatingtimeof an inversetype
lt is nota timesettingbuta multiplier'
characteristic. - -\
to calculate the requiredTMS (Treq),
calculate the time
operating of the nearest\
ln order
downstream protection deviceat the maximum faultlevelseenby bothdevices,addto
thisthe gradingmargin,calculate the operating timeof.theupstreamdeviceat thisfault
levelwit[ a TMSeqJatto one (Tl ) andthenusethe followingfor formula:

TMS=Treq/T1

Plotting Of Characteristic
on log/loggraphpaper
to showthe standardinversetimecharacteristic
It is convenient
withthe'y' aXiSscaledin secondsandthe'X'aXiSin termsof "multiples of current
canbe appliedto any relay,irrespectiveof
setting".By doingthisthe characteristic
settingrangeand nominalrating'

HIGHSETOVERCURRENT

Page 7
Wherethe sourceimpedanceis smallin comparison withthe protectedcircuitimpedance,
the useof highset instantaneous unitscanbe advantageous
overcurrent (forexampleon
longtransmission feeders),
linesor transformer

Theapplication of an instantaneousunitmakespossible a reduction in thetrippingtimeat

highfaultlevelsandalsoallowsthediscriminating curves behind the high set unitto be
loweredtherebyimproving overallsystemgrading.
to notethatwhengradingwiththe relayimmediately
It is important behindthe highset
units,the grading intervalshouldbe at
established the setting
current of the highsetunit
and not at the maximumfaultlevelthatwouldnormally be used for grading IDMTrelays.

to ensurethatthe relaydoesnotoperatefor
Whenusinghighset unitsit is important
faultsoutsidethe protected The
section. relaysare normallyset at 1'2 - 1'3timesthe
maximumfaultlevelat the remoteend of the protected
section.

applieswhenusinginstantaneous
Thisparticularly unitson the HV sideof a transformer
unit
whenthe instantaneous shouldnot operate
for faultson the LV side.

CT errorsand slighterrorsin
The 1.2 - 1.3factorallowsfor transientoverreach,
transformer impedance and line length.

Transientoverreach occurswhenthe currentwavecontainsa dc component.Althougha

relaymayhavea settingabovethe rmsvalueof current,the initialpeakvalueof current
to operatethe relay,if it hashightransient
dueto the dc offsetmaybe sufficient
overreach.
is definedas
transientoverreach
Percentage 1 1- | , 2 x 100
l2
Where:

11 = relaypick-upcurrentin steadystatermsamps
12 = rms'valueoi currentwhichwhenfullyoffsetwilljustpickup the relay

ModernRelayshaveintegralinstantaneous elementswhichhavelowtransientoverreach'
ine Oegreeof transientoverreach is normallyaffectedby the timeconstantof the
measured faultcurrent.Forexample,a typical transientoverreach
-constants of a numerical
overcurrent relayis lessthan5% for time up to 30 ms and lessthan 10%for
timeconstant up to 100ms. Thisallowstheinstantaneous elements to be usedas high
to transformers
set unitsfor application andlong feeders. The lowtransientoverreach
at which is
discrimination
allowssettingsto bejust abovethe maximumfaultcurrent
elementsare alsosuitablefor useas low set elements in
required.The instani"neous
conjunction withauto-reclose systems
on distribution

EARTHFAULTPROTECTION
phase
Earthfaults,whichare by far the mostfrequenttypeof fault,willbe detectedby
overcurrentunitsas preuiously describedbutit is possibleto obtainmoresensitive
by utilisinga relaywhichrespondsonlyto the residualcurrentin a system.
protection
(orzerose-qrencej
i1esidual currentonlyexistswhena currentflowsto earth.

The residualcurrentcan be detectedeitherby connecting a CT in an availableneutralto

earthconnectionor by connecting lineCT'sin parallel.By usingthisparallelconnection
rneearthfaultrelayii completelyunaffected by loadcurrentswhetherbalancedor
unbalanced. The parallelconnection canbe extendedto includeeithertwoor three
unitswithoutanyeffecton the earthfaultrelay.Two elementsare often
cvercurrent
rcnsideredsufficientas anyinterphase faultmustaffectat leastone of the relays,
Page8
 in the
of 2-1-1currentdistribution
mustbe givento thepossibility
however,consideration
system(referdelta/star protection
transformer )'
system,4 CT'swillbe requiredto
It shouldbe notedthaton an LV 4 wiredistribution
the4th CT beingplacedin the neutral
ensurestabilityunderall loadconditions,
is abovethe
connection.ThisfourthCT canbe omittedif the earthfaultrelaysetting is not
spillcurrentcausedby unbalanced loads,butas the of
degree unbalance
maximum
normatty known(accurately)the inclusionof the4thCT is recommended'

TimeGrading

for gradingis similarto thatfor phasefaultrelays'

Theprocedure
thatfusescannotdiscriminate
to appreciate betweenphasefaultsandearth
It is important sensitivesettings)
relatively
faultsandtherefor"giuoingof eartnraili ierays(whichhave
withfusesis notPossible'
the earthfaultlevelis
when the systemcontainssomeneutralearthingimped.ance, out at thisfaultlevel' As
constantoverthewholety.G* ,na g"raOihg is carried
practically
advantage
particular is usingIDMTearthfaultrelays
thefaultlevelis constantthereis no
overdefinitetimeearthfaultrelays'

SensitiveEarthFault RelaYs
not
where tne earffrpathresistivity is highwhichmaybe the caseon systemsthatdo
that
utiliseearthconductors, the earthfaultcurrentmaybe limitedto suchan extentproblems
maynot UeiensitiveLnough' To overcome these
normalearthfaultprotection that
a verysensitivereiayis required, -inirrelaymustfSvrea verylow burdenin order
butthe
sensitiveproteitioncannot be graded wiih
the effectivesettingis not increased. """y witha,definitetime
otherconventional systemsand it is normatto applythisprotection dueto
i preventunwanted operation
delayof up to 10 or 15 secs.ThistimeJefaVwif to ensurethatthe
transientunbalance underphasefaultcondiiions'Caremustbe taken load
maybepresent under normal
relaysettingis aolve anyresidualcurrentthat or unbalanced
in CT characteristics
conditions.fnis mayO"'Ou"to slightdifferences thatthe relaywill
leakage(capacitive) currentsin thep1*uV tVt1"l'^l: jtder to ensure ratioshouldbe
of the currentmeasuring unit'the do/pu
resetafterthetransientoperation
high,i.e..aPProximatelY 99%' ..___.-

SYSTEMS
INTERCONNECTED
feeders'lf
Theforegoinghas basically lookedat gradingqfq""d,Y*as appliedto radial can
pathsand rings,the grading
the systemis inteiconnecteo anoinvotiespa"rallel
becomeirlcreasingly morecomplex'

Forexample,the operation circuitbreakermaynot itselfresultin the

of a particular
in the othercircuits'
distribution
isoration of the faurtyprant,but mayaffectthe faurtcurrent changethe operating
to
The affectof thismaybe to startotneiretaysope_rating.or intur"onnected systemsthefault
of reraysthathaveatreaiys-tJri.o.-on ,ulh
parameters to obtaincorrect
be foundimpossible
leveldoesnottendto varyu"ry *r.n'"nJ it .uy undermaximum and
discrimination for allfaults.fne sysiemmustOelookedat in detailoftendirectional
andthe bestcompromise reached'Very
minimumfaultconditions
o v e r cu rre n tre |a yi n g ca n h elptoover com ethepr oblemsslight|y.

Page9
 RRENTWORKEDEXAMPLES
OVERCU

EXAMPLE
GRADING
LAYOUT
SCHEMATIC

6600/415V
1600KVA
5% IMPEDANCE
MCGG82
cT
3000/5
LARGESTFUSE

GALCULATEFAULTLEVEL

IgnoresourceimPedance'
=
full loadcurrentI11= 16oo/(fix o'415) 2226t'
Transformer
= = 445204
Maximumfaultcurrent= I1/Zxsng 222610.05

FUSECHARAGTERISTIC
PTLOT

710A FuseCharacteristic
Current(A) Time ( S)
2000 300
3000 60
4000 18.9
5000 7.0
8000 1.1
10000 0.50
20000 0.02
25000 0.01
44520 0.01

Page 1
IVERCURRENTWORKED EXAMPLES

/ICGG82RELAYSETTINGS

IS
iETTINGCURRENT
'he whensettingthe relaypickup current:
factorsmustbe considered
following

. Transformer for overloading'

fullloadcurrentplussomeallowance
:.Resettingofre|ay(95%ofsettingcurrentforMCGG).
correct
;. Relaypickup currentshouldbe 3 to 4 timesfuseratingto ensure
grading.
the minimum
overloading,
factors1 and2 andallowing10%transformer
)onsidering
rickup currentis :
= = 25774
s = IRxl'1i0.95 2226x1'1/0'95
=
n termsof the CT ratiothis is : 257713000 0'BG
= 2130A
factor3 the settingcurrentshouldbe at least: 3 x710
lonsidering
=
n termsof the CT ratiothisis : 2130/3000 0'71

1x710 = 2840A
=
n termsof the CT ratiothisis : 2840i3000 0'95

selectIs = 0'90 => 2700Aprimary'

Therefore

SELECTCHARAGTERISTIC
The Extremeryrnversecharacteristicis alsoan I2t
Thefusehasan I2lcharacteristic. inverse
to gradewiththe fuse. The extremely
and is thereforeserected
characteristic,
is givenby :
characteristic
B0xJMS
f = r -12
tT I
l-i-l - 1
LtsI
wherel = faultcurrent
Is = relaysettingcurrent
TMS = timemultiPlier setting

APo1347

Page 2
 WORKEDEXAMPLES
]VERCURRENT

SETTING
SELECTTIMEMULTIPLIER
gradingmarginis givenby :
fusethe required
rvhengradinga relaywitha downstream

\largin= 0.4k+0.15
tr = florninal
,vhere time
fuseoperating
-hereforethe required timefor the relayis givenby :
relayoperating
' - .= t f + m a r g i n= t f * 0 . 4 1 +
19.15

the fusecharacteristic
..,Jsing tablecan be drawnup :
datathe following

CURRENT (A T I M E( S RELAYTIME(S
2000 300 120
3000 60 24.15 84.15
4000 18.9 7.71 26.61
5000 7.0 2.95 9.9
8000 1.1 ,q,59 1.69
10000 0.50 0.35 0.85
20000 0.02 0.158 0 . 17 8
25000 0.01 0.154 0.164
44520 0.01 0.154 0.164

Jsingthe Extremely witha settingcurrentof 2700Aanda Time

Inversecharacteristic
at variousfault
timeof the relaycan be calculated
Setting= i, th" operating
r,lultiplier
:urrents.

= . g .F o r l r = 8 0 0 0 4

t=
80 x TMS
'Tt2

Il -Il - l I ^
LtsI
80x1'
--------.-;-
l-aooo l'
| "--- | - 1
12700)
80
2.962- 1

= 1 0 . 2 8s

r::1 349

Page3
 EXAMPLES
WORKED
IVERCURRENT

the operating
iimilarly for otherfaultcurrentsandthefollowing
timescanbe calculated
ableis the result:

CURRENT (A) T I M E( S )
3000 341
4000 66.96
5000 32.9
8000 10.28
10000 6.29
20000 1.48
25000 0.94
44520 0.30

:romthistableandthe previousoneit can be seenthatfor a TMS= 1 an ample

yradingmarginhasbeenachieved.However timescanbe
the relayoperating
anCrtittachievegrading.Thiswillreducethe damagecausedby the fault
iecrea-sed
;urrentandassistwithgradingupstream protectivedevices.

as follows:
TMS can be calculated
fhe required

lequiredTMS = Operating]ifle.
Required
Timefor TMS= 1
Operating

CURRENT(A) R E Q U I R E D RELAY REQUIRED

RELAY T I M EF O R TMS
T I M E( S ) TMS 1 = (S)
3000 84.2 341 0.24
4000 26.61 66.96 0.40
5000 9.90 32.9 0.30
8000 1.69 10.28 0.16
10000 0.85 6.29 0.14
20000 0.178 1.48 0.12
25000 0.164 0.94 0.17
44520 0.164 0.30 0.56

ThereforeselectTMS = 0'575
A tablecanbe drawnup to showoperatingtimesat variousfaultcurrentsusingthe
=
extremely formutawTtna settingcurrentof 2700Aand a TMS
inversecharacteristic
0.575.

APo1348

Page4
 RRENTWORKEDEXAMPLES
OVERCU

CURRENT (A) TIME(S)

3000 196
4000 38.5
5000 18.94
.8000 5.91
10000 3.62
15000 1.54
20000 0.85
25000 0.54
30000 0.38
40000 0.21
44520 0.17

Thesecan be plottedontoLog/Loggraphpaper.

CHARACTERISTIGS
TIME/CURRENT
NOTESON PLOTTING
deviceas a
It is alwaysadvisableto plotout the time/ currentcurvesfor eachprotective
visualcheckthatco-ordination hasbeenachieved.

1. PlotTime/ Currentcurvesat a commonvoltage.

2. plottimeaxisfrom 0.01s as IDMTrelaysdo notoperatemuchfasterthan

20 ms.

3. Markrelevant currentsie. maximum for variouspartsof the system

faultcurrents
for faultcurrents
as wellas relaypickup currents.Do not plotcharacteristic
greaterthanmaximum faultcurrentas thesepointsare meaningless.

r)c1350

Page5
)VERCURRENTWORKEDEXAMPLES

gradingwittt ?{CIAfuse
Exemple'f: Over-s-urrent

*
&

F-

0.01-
1o(Xl

Page6
OVERCURRENTWORKEDEXAMPLES

Exanip{e{ : OuEreurrent
Endingwith7i0A fus.s

.s!
g

s,0.f
"!060 1Sfl00 1oilCI00

Curren,t tA @ 4{5V}
}VERCURRENT
WORKEDEXAMPLES

gr*dingwith ?{0.Afuee
Exarnple1 : -Overcurrent

,s,
6t

Page8
 RRENTWORKEDEXAMPLES
OVERCU

GRADINGEXAMPLE

FAULTLEVEL150MVA
MCGG82
cT RATIO100/ 5

11000/415.V
1250KVA
6%
DELTAI STAR

MCGG82
cT RATIO2000i 5

OF FAULTLEVELS
STEP1 : CALGULATION

A. HV FaultCurrent

HVfaultlevelgivenas 150MVA

Thereforemaximum can be
faultcurrenton the 11 kV sideof the transformer
calculated
:
hv = 150/ 1^/ax t ti = 7873A
Iraurt

B. LV FaultCurrent

= 1( I 150 = 0'8067ohms
Zsource

Usinga baseMVA o'f1.25l\4VA

= 1( | 1.25 = 96.8ohms
Z+a"e

on a Perunitbasis
Therefore

Z"our""= 0.8067/ 96'8 = 0'00833p'u'

AP01352

Page9
 RRENT
)VERCU EXAMPLES
WORKED

'he :
can be calculated
faultcurrenton the LV sideof thetransformer
maximum

= 1 | (Zsowce*Ztransformer)
faultlv
= 1/(0.00833+0.06)
= 1 4 . 6 3p . u .

:
\t 11 kV the basecurrentcan be calculated
=
o a r " 1 1 k V= 1 2 5 C I 1 ( . l g x 1 1 )6 5 . 6 A
= 14'63x 65'6 = 960Aat 11 kV
lenceIfaultlv
:
\t 415Vthe basecurrentcan be calculated

415V = 1250| ({3 x 0.415)= 17404

535s

lence Ifaultlv= 14'63x 1740 = 254404

STEP2 : SETTTINGOF LV RELAY

A. Set RelayPickUPCurrentIs
fullloadcurrent
transformer
Calculate
=
road= 1250/ ('i3 x 0'415) 1740A
Irurl
andtakeintoaccountthatrelayresetsat 95%of setting'
Allow10%overloading

H e n c eI s = 1 7 4 0x 1 . 1 0| 0 ' 9 5 = 2 0 1 3 A
=
ln termsof the CT ratiothisis :201312000 1'0065

SelectIs = 1.Q=> 2000APrimary

B. SelectCharacteristic

As no downstreamprotection selecta StandardInverse

detailshavebeensupplied
Characteristic.
Settino
C. SetTimeMultiPlier
faultcurrentis required'
timeof 0.5 s at maximum
Assumean operating

APo1353

P a g e1 0
 WORKED
OVERCURRENT PLES
EXAM

Calculate timeat the maximum

the operating faultlevelwitha TMS = 1 usingthe
:
formulafor the standardinversecharacteristic

0 . 1 4x T M S
-n n^
IFaultCurrentl''"
| -l

I SetcurrentI
Hence
0.14
f=
7zs++o1o'02
- II
LroooJ
= 2.68s

the required
However timeis 0.50s.
operating

TMS =
Required Operatinq
Required Tifne.
Timefor TMS= 1
Operating

TMS = 0.5/ 2.68 = 0.186

Required

S e l e c t T M S= 0 . 1 5

Opeatingtimeat 25440A willthereforebe :

t = 2 . 6 8x 0 . 1 5 = 0 . 4 0s

Setthe Hi Setto infinitY.

timesat variousfaultcurrents.
inverseformulato findoperating
Usestandard

MULTIPLE PRIMARY CURRENT OPERATING OPERATING

OF CURRENT AT AT 11KV T I M EF O R T I M EF O R
4 1 5 VA M P S AMPS TMS=1 TMS=0.15
SETTING
2 4000 151 10.03 1.50
A
- 8000 301 4.98 0.75
6 12000 452 3.84 0.58
8 16000 603 3.28 0.49
10 20000 755 2.97 0.45
12 24000 905 2.75 0.41
12.72 25440 960 2.68 0.40

Page 1 1
)VERCURRENTWORKEDEXAMPLES

iTEP 3 : SETTINGOF HV RELAY

\. Set RelayPickUPCurrentIs

i he pickup currentof the HV relaymustbe setabovethatof the LV relaysto ensure

;o-ordination.

l-heLV relayis setat 20004 => 75.54at 11kV

lhereforeset HV relay10%aboveLV relay:

s=75.5x1.1 =B3A

n termsof the CT ratiothisis: 83/100= 0.83

IhereforesetIs = 0.85 => 85APrimary

3. SelectCharacteristic
to gradewithLV relay.
Selectstandardinversecharacteristic

Settinq
C, SetTimeMultiPlier

Calculatethe relayoperating LV faultcurrent

timeat a faultcurrentof 960A (maximum
to HV side)anda TMS = 1
referred

+L --
0 . 1 4x T M S
._002
I FaultCurrentl'''
tt- 4
I SetcurrentI

Hence
+L - -
0.14
1-ooo10'02
4
L85j
2 . 8 1s

delta/ star
A gradingmarginof 0.40secondsis required.Howeverbecauseof the
.o"n6grrJtion caremustbe takento ensuregradingundera 2-1-1
oi the transformer
currentdistributiondue'toa phaseto phasefault'

APo'1355

Page12
 EXAMPLES
WORKED
OVERCURRENT

timeof the LV relayat 0.866timesthe maximumLV faultlevel

Hencethe operating
mustbe calculated.

0.866x25440 = 22030A

Hence
r =
+-
0.14x0.15
t-
zzoso10'02 ,l
1-
L2ooo
I
0.427s

Thereforefor the HV relayat a faultcurrentof 960 A an operatingtimeof at least

0.827s is required.

time = 0 . 4 2 7+ 0 . 4 0 = 0 . 8 2 7
oPerating
Required
=
ThereforerequiredTMS = 0 . 8 2 71 2 . 8 1 0 . 2 9

SelectTMS = 0.30
time = 0 . 3 0x 2 . 8 1 = 0 . 8 4 3s
ThereforeoPerating

The Hi set can be setto 1200/oto 130%of the maximumLV faultrevel.Thiswillgive

fastcrearing HV bushingsand partof the way intothe
timesfor faurtson the transformer
transformer.
of the IDMTsettingcurrent'
The Hi set is set in multiples

H i S e t = 1 . 2x 9 6 0/ 8 5 = 1 3 ' 5t i m e s

selectHi Set = x 14' => 1190A

Therefore

P a g e1 3
 WORKEDEXAMPLES
)VERCURRENT

timesat variousfaultcurrents'
Jsestandardinverseformulato findoperating

M U L T I P LO
EF CURRENT OPERATI NG OPERATING
SETTING AT 11KV T I M EF O R T I M EF O R
AMPS TMS=1 TMS=0.3
2 170 10.03 3.00
4 340 4.98 1.49
o 510 3.84 1.15
B 680 3.28 0.98
10 850 2.97 0.89
12 1020 2.75 0.83
14 11 9 0 2.58 0.77

elementwilloperatein
\bove 14 timessettingcurrent(1190A) the instantaneous
20ms.

APo1357

P a g e1 4
 WORKEDEXAMPLES
OVERCURRENT

2 - Onercurrent
Exanrp,le gradingacrcssa,trnsf-urmer

s
c
E
tr

P a g e1 5
 WORKEDEXAMPLES
VERGURRENT

ExampleZ - Svercurrentgrading acrq$sa fransforrner

:i-r 100154, sl
i i ls = fi.85l:n= EFA{11k\1}
I i TM$=0.3

, I
I.VMCGG }.Lj
zooo/s&sr I ll
s ls=1ln=2Q004i415V)
1b = 75-54{11k\4 |
F
=
TMS 0"1
F* '!l]

1
ili
it

P a g e1 6