Revised

Second
Edition

Multivariable Calculus for Independent Learners

Revised Second Edition

for INDEPENDENT LEARNERS

MULTIVARIABLE CALCULUS
This book covers essential topics in multivariable calculus for first-year undergraduate
engineering and science students. The main aim is to assist learners gain a better
understanding of these topics and to help them see and think mathematically on their own.

The materials are presented in an intuitive way, with less emphasis on the formal approach and

MULTIVARIABLE CALCULUS
mathematical rigour. The focus is on making the mathematical structures, thinking processes
and mathematical themes explicit. We incorporated several strategies that would invoke and
enhance learners use of their own mathematical thinking powers. By working through the book,
learners should be able to respond flexibly and creatively to new problems, make connections
between different mathematical ideas and reconstruct those ideas for themselves. Learners
are expected to develop their abilities to apply standard techniques to standard problems, as
well as to extend the use of these techniques to real-life problems.

The book is intended to complement the use of other materials or textbooks. It serves as a for INDEPENDENT LEARNERS
transition tool to take students from their current cognitive level, with their preference for rote
learning and similar low level thinking strategies, to a higher level with skills in formulating,
analysing and identifying correct procedures. These higher level skills are necessary for Revised Second Edition
successful growth in advanced learning. The activities provided herein can support individual
or group work, as well as promote students reflection which would increase the awareness
of their own thinking. It is in this way that the book would help in the development of their
independent learning.

We have organised each chapter in the following manner: Focus of Attention, Illustration
Examples with Prompts & Questions, Reflection & Thinking Tips, Structured Examples with
Prompts & Questions, Review Exercises, Further Exercises and Supplementary Questions.

The book will be of interest to mathematics educators, and students of engineering and science
majors.

The Authors

Yudariah Mohammad Yusof is an Associate Professor at the Department of Mathematics,

UTM, Johor. Sabariah Baharun is an Associate Professor at Malaysia-Japan International
Institute of Technology, whilst Roselainy Abdul Rahman is a Senior Lecturer at UTM International
Campus, Kuala Lumpur. Collaboratively, they have written and published considerably in areas
pertaining to teaching and learning in mathematics and, in particular, thinking mathematically
and problem solving.

Yudariah Mohammad Yusof

I S B N 978 - 9 6 7 - 3 4 9 - 0 9 4 - 3
Sabariah Baharun
ISB
Roselainy Abdul Rahman
9 789673 490943
CHAPTER 1 MULTIVARIABLES FUNCTIONS

1.1 Functions of Two Variables

In most real world problems, a quantity under investigation will depend (for its values), not
only on one variable, but on several other variables.

Focus of Attention
What is a function of two variables?
What is meant by the domain of a two variables function? The range?
What do you do to find the domain and range of a two variables function?

1.1.1 Notation and Terminology

The terminology and notation for functions of two or more variable is similar to that for
functions of one variable.
z = f (x, y )
w = g(x, y, z )
u = F (x1 , x 2 , , xn )

The function f is called a real-valued function of two variables or simply function of two
variables. We refer to x and y as the independent variables and z as the dependent variable.
Similarly, g is a function of three variables x, y and z and F a function of n variables.
Thus we say that,
The volume V of a circular cylinder of radius r and height h is a function of two
variables.
V = f (r , h ) = r 2h

r and h would be the independent variables and V the dependent variable.

The temperature at each point in a closed room is represented by
T = F (x , y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
x, y and z are the independent variables and T the dependent variable.

Note
Some relationships between several variables are not stated as an explicit formula for one
of the variables in terms of the others. For example,
z 2 + sin x = tan y
In such cases, it may be necessary to specify which, is the dependent variable.
As with functions of one variable, functions of several variables can be represented
numerically (using a table of values), algebraically (using a formula), and sometimes
graphically (using a graph).

1
 We evaluate functions defined by formulas by substituting the values of the independent
variables in the formula and calculating the corresponding value of the dependent
variable.

1.1.2 Domain and Range

A real-valued function, f, of x, y, z, ... is a rule for manufacturing a new number, written
f (x , y, z, ) , from the values of a sequence of independent variables (x , y, z, ) . For
example,

1. f (x , y ) = x - y Function of two variables

f (1, 2) = 1 - 2 = -1 Substitute 1 for x and 2 for y

f (2, - 1) = 2 - (-1) = 3 Substitute 2 for x and 1 for y

2. h(x , y, z ) = x + y + xz Function of three variables

h(2,2, - 2) = 2 + 2 + 2(-2) = 0 Substitute 2 for x, 2 for y, and 2 for z

Definition 1.1 Domain and Range

2
Let D . A real valued function f of two variables is a rule that assigns a unique real
number z = f (x , y ) to each ordered pair (x, y) in D. The set D is called the domain of the
function, and the set of values of z constitute the range of f.
The independent variables x and y are the functions input variables, and the dependent
variable z is the functions output variable.

In defining functions of two variables, we exclude inputs that lead to complex numbers or
division by zero. In general, the domain of a function of two variables is usually the entire
coordinate plane (x, y) x, y or a subset of the plane. The range of f is the set of
possible values of f.

Illustration
Finding domain and range of two variables functions
Evaluating two variables functions
Determining the domain and range

Example 1.1 Prompts/Questions

Given f (x , y ) = 1 - x + y .
(a) Evaluate f (-1, 2) , f (0, - 3) and f (r, s ) .
(b) Describe the domain and the range of f.
Which variables give the value of the
function?
How do you find the domain and range?
o Is there any restriction on the input
variables?
o Can you identify the set of all input
variables?
o Can you identify the set of all output
variables?

2
Solution
(a) By substitution,
f (-1, 2) = 1 - (-1) + 2 = 4

f (0, - 3) = 1 - 0 + (-3) = -2

f (r, s ) = 1 - r + s

(b) The domain is a set of all ordered pairs (x , y ) , for which 1 - x + y is defined. There is
no restriction on the independent variables. This means we can have all real values of x
and y as inputs. Thus the domain of f consists of all points in the entire xy-plane. This
normally can be written as
Df {(x, y ) x, y }
The range which is the set of outputs, is all single real numbers, that is
Rf {z z } or Rf : (-, )

Example 1.2 Prompts/Questions

Which pairs of variables are the input
Given f (x , y ) 2x 2 y 1. variables?
Which variable is the output variable?
i. Describe and sketch the domain. Is there any restriction on the input
ii. Determine the range. Write down at least variables?
How do you represent the set of all inputs
three possible values of f ( x, y). graphically?

Solution
(i) The domain is a set of all ordered pairs (x , y ) , for which 2x 2 y - 1 is defined. We
must have the restriction y 0 in order for f (x, y) to have real outputs. Thus the
domain of f consists of all points in the xy-plane that are on or above the x-axis. This can
be written as
Df = {(x, y ) y 0}

The graph of the domain:

y

y 0

The range is all real numbers greater than or equal to 1, that is Rf = {z z -1} .
Other forms of stating the range can be: [- 1, ) or 1 z .

3
Example 1.3: Specialising Prompts/Questions
What property of f define the
Find the domain and range of the following functions. function?
Sketch the graph of the domain and write down at least What are the restrictions on the
three possible values of f ( x, y). input variables? Output variables?
Which variables give the value of
(i) f (x, y ) 1 x2 y2 the function?
Compare (i) and (ii)
1 o What remains the same?
(ii) f (x , y ) o What has changed?
1 x2 y2

Solution
(i) The function is only defined for 1 - x 2 - y 2 0 . Thus, the domain of f is the set of all
ordered pairs on and inside the unit circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 . That is,

Df : {(x, y) x 2 + y 2 1}

The graph of the domain:

y

x
-1 1

-1

The range of f is the set of output values, 0 z 1.

Thus, three possible values of f (x, y) are . COMPLETE THE SOLUTION.

(ii) The function is only defined for 1 - x 2 - y 2 > 0 . Thus, the domain of f is
Df {(x, y) x 2 y2 1} and the range is z 1.

Thinking Tips: Specialising

In Example 1.3 (i) and (ii), notice that,
when we write down the three possible values, we are specialising, that is looking at
particular cases to make clear some common properties of the functions and thus we
become more aware of the set of input values to choose from.
by looking at the properties of the function, we can identify the restrictions on the input
values of the function and the effect on the output values.

4
 by seeking out what remains the same, we can recognize the type of functions that
require the same techniques in finding the domain.
However, by seeking out what has changed, we would be aware of the variations that
can come about and how these can affect the solution method.
As you do the following example, be aware of the scope of variations that is possible in the
function as compared to Example 1.3.

Example 1.4 Prompts/Questions

What property of f define the
x2 y2 4
Given f (x , y ) . function?
x 4
What are the restrictions on the
(i) Find the domain and range of f.
input variables? Output variables?
(ii) Sketch the graph of the domain.

Solution
The function f is defined if the radicand x 2 y 2 4 is nonnegative and the denominator is
not 0. The inequality x 2 y 2 4 0 or x 2 y 2 4 describe the points (x, y) that lie on and
outside the circle x 2 y 2 4 . While x 4 means that the points on the line x 4 , are
excluded from the domain. So the domain of f can be written as
Df {(x, y ) x 2 y2 4, x 4}
and the range is z .
Sketch the graph of the domain . COMPLETE THE SOLUTION.

Example 1.5 Prompts/Questions

Find the domain and range of z = ln(x 2 + y ) . Sketch What do you know about the
properties of the function?
the graph of the domain.
How does the information help you
to find the domain and the range?

Solution
The function f is defined only when the argument x 2 y 0 or y x 2 . This is the set of
points above the parabola y x 2 . Thus the domain of f is

Df {(x, y) y x2}
and the range is z .

5
Making Sense
Can you describe how do you find the domain and range of a two variables function?
..
..
How do you represent the input variables that make up the domain? The range?
..
..
What is meant by the graph of the domain?
..
..

Structured Examples 1.1

Finding domain and range of two variables function
properties of function conditions necessary for functions to be define
input and output variables restrictions on the variables

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
(a) Given z 16 4x y . Which pairs of variables are the
input variables?
i. Evaluate f (2,1), f ( 4, 3), f (0, 5) and
Which variable is the output
f (u, v). variable?
Is there any restriction on the input
ii. Find the domain and range. variables?
iii. Sketch the domain of f How do you represent the set of all
inputs graphically?

(b) Suppose z 16 4x 2 y 2 . Prompts/Questions

(i) Write down at least three possible values for Which variables did you look at
(x, y) . when you want to find the
(ii) Determine the domain and range. domain? The range?
(iii) Sketch the domain. Is there any restriction on the
variables?

6
(c) Let z 16 4x 2 y2 . Prompts/Questions
Compare 1(b) and 1(c).
(i) Describe and sketch the domain. What remains the same?
(ii) Determine the range. Write down at least three What has changed?
possible values of f (x, y). What condition is necessary for the
function to be defined?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
(a) Given f (x, y) x2 y2 4. Which variables did you look at
when you want to find the domain?
(i) Describe and sketch the domain. The range?
(ii) Determine the range. Write down at least Is there any restriction on the
three possible values of f (x, y). variables?

1 Prompts/Questions
(b) Suppose f (x, y ) .
2
x y2 4 Compare 2(a) and 2(b).
What remains the same?
(i) Describe and sketch the domain. What has changed?
(ii) Determine the range. Write down at least three What condition is necessary for the
possible values of f (x, y). function to be defined?

7
Question 3 Prompts/Questions
For the following functions, find and sketch the What conditions are necessary for
domain. Determine the range. the functions to be defined?
1 How does the condition affect the
(a) z
9 x 2 y2 input variables? Output variable?
1 Compare the solution methods of
(b) z (a), (b) and (c).
9 x 2 y2 o What is the same?
1 o What is different?
(c) z
2
x y2 9

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
For the following functions, find and sketch the What conditions are necessary for
domain. Determine the range. the functions to be defined?
1 Can you identify the set of input
(a) z
16 4x 2 y 2 variables? Output variable?
Compare (a) and (b).
1 o What is the same?
(b) z
16 4x 2 y2 o What is different?

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Find the domain and range of the following functions. What conditions are necessary for
Sketch the graph of the domain. the functions to be defined?
1
(a) f (x, y ) What are the input variables? The
x y 4 output variable?
1
(b) z xy
x
(c) z
y x2

8
Finding domain and range of transcendental functions
properties of function conditions necessary for functions to be define
input and output variables restrictions on the variables

Question 6 Prompts/Questions
Find the domain and range of the following functions. What do you know about the
Sketch the graph of the domain. properties of each function?
(a) z = x ln(x 2 + y ) How does the information help
(b) z = sin xy you to find the domain and the
2 2 range?
(c) f (x , y ) = ex +y
cos x
(d) f (x , y ) y

Answers
2 2
1(a) entire plane ; entire real line 1(b) entire plane ;( ,16]
2 2
(c) closed elliptic region 4x y 16 ; [0, 4]
except the circle x 2 y2
2
2(a) entire plane ; [ 4, ) 2(b) entire plane 2
16 ;
1
z z 0
4
3(a) entire plane 2 except the circle x 2 y2 9 ; 3(b) open disk x 2 y2 9;
1
,
1 3
z 0 z
9
(c) entire plane 2 except the closed circular region
x 2 y2 9 ; positive real axis
4(a) entire plane 2 except the ellipse 1
4(b) open elliptic region 4x 2 y2 16 ; ,
1 4
4x 2 y 2 16 ; z 0 z
16
5(a) entire plane 2 except the line y 4 x ; entire 5(b) entire plane 2 except the x-axis and the y-axis;
real line entire real line except 0
(c) entire plane 2 except the parabola y x 2 ;
entire real line
6(a) entire plane 2 except below the parabola 6(b) entire plane 2
; [ 1,1]
y x 2 ; entire real line
2
(c) entire plane 2 ; 1, (d) entire plane except the x-axis; entire real line

9
REVIEW EXERCISE 1.1

1. What is a function of two variables? How does it differ from a function of one variable?

2. What is the domain of a function of two variables?

3. Match the function with the graph of its domain.

(a) f x, y x 2y 1 A

(b) f x , y ln 3 x2 y B

(c) f x, y y2 x 2 C

2xy
(d) f x, y D
x2 y2

10
4. Describe and sketch the domain of the functions.

a) f (x , y ) = x b) f (x , y ) = x - y

c) f (x , y ) = x + y d) f (x , y ) = x + y

x 1
e) f (x , y ) = f) g (x , y ) =
y y - x2

1 h) f (x, y ) = ln(x - y )
g) f (x , y ) =
x -y

i) f (x , y ) = ln(1 + x 2 + y 2 ) h)

5. Describe the range of the functions.

a) f x, y 3x 2y2 b) f x, y 25 x2 y2

2 y2 2 d) f x, y tan x y
c) f x , y ex

6. Find the domain and range of the functions.

a) f (x, y ) x2 y2 4 b) f (x , y ) = 1 - y 2

1 1
c) z 2 d) g(x, y) 2
x y2 9 x2 y2
2 x
(e) f (x, y )
2
4 x y2

Answers
4(a) entire plane 2 (b) entire plane 2
(c) region on and above the line y x (d) region in the first quadrant
2
(e) entire plane except the x-axis (f) entire plane 2 except the parabola y x2
(g) the region below y x (h) the region below y x
(i) entire plane 2
5(a) entire real line 5(b) [0, 5]
(c) e 2 , (d) entire real line

6(a) entire plane 2

; [ 4, ) (b) the region between y 1 ; [0,1]
except the circle x 2 y2
2 2
(c) entire plane 81 ; (d) entire plane except the origin; positive real
1 line
entire real line except ,0
9
(e) the region inside the circle x 2 y2 4 ; entire
real line

11
FURTHER EXERCISE 1.1

1. Determine the domain and range for the following functions. Sketch the domain.

a) z = 4x 2 + 9y 2 b) z = x 2 - y 2

c) z = 9 - x 2 - y 2 d) z = 9 - 3x 2 - y 2
y y
e) f (x , y ) = f) f (x , y ) =
x2 x
1 1
g) z = h) z =
9 - 3x 2 - y 2 9 - 3x 2 - y 2 Prompts/Questions
2x 2 x What are the properties
i) z = j) z =
9 - x 2 - y2 9 - x 2 - y2 of the functions for
which they are defined?
xy x 2 - y2
k) f (x , y ) = l) f (x , y ) = What are the
x + y2
2
x -y
restrictions on the
xy variables?
(m) f (x , y ) 2
x 3x 2

2. Find the domain and range for the following functions.

a) f (x , y ) = ln xy b) f (x , y ) = e x +y
c) f (x , y ) = ex ln y d) A = rer +s
e) f (x , y ) = cos y f) w = cos (ex + ey )
sin xy h) g(x, y ) x2 sin(xy )
g) g (x , y ) =
y - x2
y
(i) f (x , y ) ln 1 x 2 y2 (j) f (x, y ) 2
x 1
1
(k) f (x , y ) sin
x y

Answers
2
1(a) entire plane ; nonnegative real axis 1(b) entire plane 2 ; entire real line
2
(c) entire plane ;( ,9] (d) closed elliptic region 3x 2 y 2 9 ; [0, 3]
2
(e) entire plane except y-axis; entire real line (f) first and third quadrant excluding the origin;
nonnegative real line
1
(g) entire plane 2
except the ellipse 3x 2 y2 9; (h) open elliptic region 3x 2 y 2 9 ; ,
3
1
z 0 z
9
(i) entire plane 2
except the circle x 2 y2 9; (j) first and fourth quadrant excluding the circle
entire real line x 2 y 2 9 ; entire real line

12
 2
(k) entire plane excluding the origin; entire real (l) D f x, y x y ; Rf z z
line
(m) entire plane 2 except the lines x 1 and
x 2 ; entire real line
2
2(a) the first and third quadrant excluding x-axis and 2(b) entire plane ; positive real line
y-axis; entire real line
2
(c) region above x-axis; entire real line (d) entire plane ; entire real line
2 2
(e) entire plane ; Rf : 1 z 1 (f) entire plane ; Rf : 1 z 1

x 2 ; entire
2
(g) entire plane 2
except the parabola y (h) entire plane ; [0, )
real line

(i) Df x, y x 2 y2 1 ; Rf zz (j) Df x, y x 1 ; Rf z z

(k) Df x, y x y ; Rf z 1 z 1

13
1.2 GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES
For the function of one variable, y f (x ) , we established a correspondence between
ordered pairs of real numbers and points in a plane. The graph is a curve in the xy-plane 2
consisting of all ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy the equation. Extending this idea, we now
establish a correspondence between ordered triplet of real numbers (x , y, z ) and the points in
space. This gives us the function of two variables z f (x , y ) , and the graph is a surface in
3 consisting of (x , y, z ) for (x, y) in the domain of f . Likewise, for function of three
variables w f (x , y, z ) , the graph is 3-dimensional inside 4 . This is difficult to visualize,
but we can use the level surfaces in 3 to gain insight on the behaviour of the function.

1.2.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate System

Recall: In the two-dimensional space 2 , there are two coordinate axes (the x-axis and the
y-axis) and they divide the xy-plane into four quadrants. We describe points by an ordered
pair (a, b) of real numbers.
Extending the ideas to three-dimensional space, 3 , we have three coordinate axes (the
x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis). The axes form a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate
system and we shall use the right-handed system. We adopt the following convention:
the positive x-axis is directed outward from the page, and to the left,
the positive y-axis points outward and to the right,
the positive z-axis points straight up.
There are three coordinate planes, the xy-plane, the yz-plane and the xz-plane which divide
the space into eight octants. The first octant is the one with x 0, y 0 and z 0 .
Each point is specify by an ordered triplet (a, b, c), where the coordinates a, b, and c
represent the distance from the origin along each of the three coordinate axes.

The three coordinate planes meet at the origin (0, 0, 0). Points on the x-axis have
coordinates of the form (x, 0, 0). Similarly, points on the y-axis have coordinates of the form
(0, y, 0). Points on the z-axis have coordinates of the form (0, 0, z).

To have a clearer perspective about the 3D coordinate system, consider the first octant
representing a typical classroom.

14
So we have,
Floor: xy-plane; equation is z = 0 .
Ceiling: plane parallel to the xy-plane; equation is z = 10 .
Front wall: yz-plane; equation is x = 0 .
Back wall: plane parallel to the yz-plane; equation is x = 40 .
Left wall: xz-plane; equation is y = 0 .
Right wall: plane parallel to the xz-plane; equation is y = 30 .

1.2.2 Graphs in Three-Dimensional System

The graph of a function f of two variables is a surface with equation z f (x , y ) . We can
visualize the graph of f as lying directly above or below its domain D in the xy-plane.
z
(x, y, f(x, y))

y
D
(x, y)

15
Definition 1.2 Graphs in 3-Space ( 3 )
The graph of a function f of two variables is the set of all points (x , y, z ) in three-
dimensional space, where (x, y) is in the domain of f and z f (x , y ) .

Example 1.6 Points in 3-D

Graph the following ordered triplets:
(a) (10, 20,10) (b) (12, 6, 12)
(c) (12, 18, 6) (d) (20, 10, 18)

Solution

Example 1.7: Imagining and Expressing Prompts/Questions

Suppose you are at 4,1,3 facing the xz-plane.
You walk 3 units forward, turn right and walk for
another 2 units. What are your coordinates now?
From the perspective of an observer on the positive
x-axis, are you in front of or behind the yz-plane?
What are the coordinate axes in 3-
space? The coordinate planes?
How do you plot an ordered triplet in 3-
space?
o Can you act out the movement?

Solution
Sketch the 3-D coordinate system... . COMPLETE THE SOLUTION

16
Thinking Tips: Imagining and Expressing
In graphing functions of two variables, we would be engaged in imagining what is not
physically present and manipulating those images.
We will need the ability to express our images in ways that could be communicated to
others such as in graphical, symbolic and numerical forms.

1.2.3 Sketching Graphs of Two Variables Function

It is sometimes quite difficult to see exactly what a graph of equation looks like in 3-space,
and it could be even more difficult for most of us to draw it. Of course, computers can
generate better graphs and help to stimulate our imagination which would allow us to see the
graph in our minds eye. But there are some free hand sketching techniques, though limiting,
that can be used to reconstruct rough sketches of the surfaces. Furthermore these skills can
help us in knowing and deciding whether computer-generated graphs are accurate.
There are two ways to picture the values of a function f (x , y ) :
a contour plot, or a collection of the level curves of the surface in 2-D, which have
equations of the form f (x , y ) c , where c is a constant;
the graph of the function, which is the set of points (x, y, z) in 3-D space satisfying
z f (x , y ) .

1.2.3.1 Level Curves

Focus of Attention
What is a level curve of f (x, y ) ?
How do you generate a family of level curves or contour plot?
How do the level curves help you to visualise the shape of the surface?

Graphing Level Curves

This approach is useful when faced with difficulties in drawing f (x, y ) in 3 dimensions. We
can think of contours in terms of the intersection of the surface that is given by z f (x , y )
and the plane z c . When the plane z c intersects the surface z f (x , y ) , the result is a
curve in space with the equation f (x , y ) c .
The intersection curve is called the trace of the graph f in the plane z c .
The projection of this curve on the xy-plane is called a level curve.
A collection of such curves is a contour map or contour plot of f.

17
1.2.3.2 Relationship Between Graphs of Surfaces and Level Curves

Definition 1.3
The level curves of a function f of two variables are the curves with equations f (x , y ) c ,
where c is a constant (in the range of f ). A set of level curves for z f (x , y ) is called a
contour plot of f.

To find the level curve for c, we solve f (x , y ) c , identify the equation of the curve and
then sketch the curve in the xy-plane.

Note
Notice that level curves are graphs in 2-space. Hence, it is essential that you are
familiar with standard equations and graphs of elementary functions of one variable.
We can also obtain traces in the vertical planes x a and y b .
The contour plots can show significant features of a function such as the number and
the location of all relative extrema and saddle points.

Illustration
Sketching level curves and contour plot
Range of function determine the values of the constant c
Level curves traces of f in horizontal planes projected onto the xy-plane
Contour plot family of level curves

Example 1.8 Prompts/Questions

Sketch the contour plot of How do you sketch contour plots?
o What do the values of c represents?
z 3x y o What are the level curves?
o How are these curves related to
using level curves at c 9, 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, 9 . contour plot?

18
Solution
The level curve of the function is defined by 3 x y c where c 9, 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, 9 .
Solving for y, we have the level curves of height c as straight lines y 3 x c . The
contour map is as shown below:

Traces at c 9, 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, 9 : Contour plot:

y
c = -6
c=0
c =6

x
c=-9
c=-3
c=3
c=9

Example 1.9 Prompts/Questions

Given f (x , y ) y x 2 . How do you sketch level curves?
(i) Find an equation for the level curve of f (x, y ) o What is a level curve?
o How do you determine the value of c ?
that passes through the point 0, 1 . o Do you recognise the curve?
(ii) Sketch the level curve in (i). o On which plane do you draw the
(iii) Find another level curve for f. Sketch it. curve?

Solution
First, find the value of c, determine the equation of the trace and then identify the level curve.
f (0, 1) 1 0 1 c 1 . So the trace in the plane z 1 is the parabola y x 2 1 .

Sketch the level curve in the xy-plane... . COMPLETE THE SOLUTION

Example 1.10 Prompts/Questions

Sketch the contour plot of f (x , y ) 4x 2 y 2 using
level curves at c 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .
How do you sketch contour plots?
o What do the values of c represents?
o What are the level curves?
o On which plane do you draw the
curves?
o How are these curves related to
contour plot?

19
Solution
The level curve of f at c has the equation 4x 2 y 2 c .
If c 0 , the graph is the single point (0, 0).
x2 y2
For c 0 we can rewrite the equation as 1 , which represents a family of
c 4 c
ellipses.
x2 y2
c 1: 1
14 1
x2 y2
c 2: 1
2 4 2
x2 y2
c 3: 1
34 3
x2 y2
c 4: 1
4 4 4

Traces at c 0 : Contour plot:

z y
c=5
6 c=4 c=3
4 c=2
2 x
4 c=1
0 y
2 2
4 c=0
x

Thinking Tips: Specialising, Imagining and Expressing

The choice of the values of c depends on the range of the function. Each substitution
of c will generate a particular level curve. If we stacked up sequentially all the level
curves generated, we can visualise the surface of the function.

Example 1.11 Prompts/Questions

Sketch at least 4 level curves of the functions. What is the range of f ?
(a) f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 How does the range help to
determine the values of c ?
(b) g (x , y ) x 2 y2 What standard curves do you know?
x 2 y 2 Can you use the level curves to
(c) h(x, y) e visualise the surface?
What is the same and different about the contour
plots? Do you think they will generate the same
surface? Give reasons for your answer.

20
Solution
The level curves of f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 at c has the equation x 2 y 2 c where c 0 , the
level curves of g (x , y ) x 2 y 2 at c has the equation x 2 y 2 c where c 0 , and
y 2
2
y 2
at c has the equation e x
2
level curves of h(x , y ) ex c where c 0 ,
Choose 4 values of c and identify the level curves. Complete the solution

(a) (b) (c)

Thus, what is the same and difference about these contour plots . COMPLETE THE
SOLUTION

Note

Stacking up is one way of visualising a surface. However, Example 1.11 above

illustrates that we may need to know the traces of the surface in other coordinate
planes to obtain a more accurate graph of the surfaces.

Example 1.12 Prompts/Questions

Suppose f (x , y ) y 2 x 2 . Sketch the level curves What are the traces/cross-sections at c ?
at c 6, 4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 6 . o Do you recognise the curve?
Can you guess the shape of the surface?

Solution
The level curves for z y 2 x 2 are the hyperbolas y 2 x 2 c . The contour plot of the
function is a family of hyperbolas centred at the origin.

21
 y

The level curves would stack up to produce the three-dimensional graph. So we can
reasonably expect the graph of the surface to be a hyperbolic paraboloid (saddle surface):
y

22
More Complex Examples
The following are examples contour plots of more complex functions generated using graph
utilities.

x2
f (x , y )
x 2 y2

f (x, y ) sin x

z ex y

f (x, y ) x y

Important Facts
Level curves have equations of the form f (x , y ) c . The graph of level curves for
z f (x , y ) are curves in the xy-plane (2-space), and the graph of z f (x , y ) is a surface in
3-space.

23
Making Sense
What is a trace of a function f (x, y ) ?
.
What is a level curve?
..
How do you graph a contour plot?
..
..
How does the contour plot or the family of level curves relate to the surface z f (x , y )
in 3-space?
..

Thinking Tips: Same and Different

When doing the following examples, do pay attention to the types of function, the
definition of the level curves and the techniques of sketching level curves.
Asking yourself what stays the same and what can change can help build your
understanding of the basic concepts of level curves.

Structured Examples 1.2

Sketching level curves and contour plot
Range of function determine the values of the constant c
Level curves traces of f in horizontal planes projected onto the xy-plane
Contour plot family of level curves

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Suppose z y x . Draw a level curve at z c What does z = 1 denote?
where c = 1. Do you recognise the curve?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Suppose z x y 4 . Sketch the level curves for How do you sketch level curves?
o What is a level curve?
c 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 . o On which plane do you draw the
curves?
o Do you recognise the curve?

24
Question 3
Suppose f (x , y ) x 2 y .
i. Identify at least 4 level curves.
ii. Sketch the contour plot of f.
Prompts/Questions
What is the range of f ?
How does the range help to determine the
values of c?
How are level curves related to contour plot?
What standard curves do you know?

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Identify a typical level curve of the functions. Sketch How do you determine the values of c ?
the contour plot. What is a level curve?
Do you recognise the curve?
(a) f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 1 Compare 4(i) and 4(ii).
What is the same?
(b) f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 2y 1 What is different?
Can you guess the shape of the surface?

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the contour plot of the functions. Can the constant c be any real numbers?
(a) f (x , y ) 9 4x 2 y 2 Can you identify the curve?
What standard curves do you know?
(b) f (x , y ) 9 4x 2 y 2 Can you use the level curves to visualise
the surface?
What is the same and different about the two contour
plots?

Question 6 Prompts/Questions
Sketch at least 4 level curves of the functions. What is the range of f ?
(a) f (x , y ) xy How does the range help to determine
the values of c ?
(b) g (x , y ) ln(xy ) State the equation of the level curves.
Compare (a) and (b). What is the same and different o Do you recognise the curve?
about the level curves? How are they related? What standard curves do you know?

25
Question 7 Prompts/Questions
y How do you sketch contour plots?
Consider the function f (x, y ) 2 .
x 1 o What do the values of c represents?
o What are the level curves?
i. Find the domain and range of of f.
o How are these curves related to
ii. Sketch the contour plot corresponding to the contour plot?
heights c 3, 2, 1,0,1,2,3 .

Question 8 Prompts/Questions
Given f (x, y ) xy x 3 . Sketch the level curve of What is a level curve?
o How do you determine the value of
f (x, y ) passing through the point (1,1). c?
Do you recognise the curve?

Question 9 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the traces of f (x, y ) 4x 2 y 2 for the What is a trace?
o How does it differ from a level
following planes. curve?
(a) x 1 Do you recognise the trace?
(b) y 2

Answers
1. a line 2. family of lines 3. family of parabolas
4(a)&(b) family of circles 5(a)&(b) family of ellipse 6(a) & (b) family of reciprocals
7(i) entire plane 2 except the lines x 1 ; entire real line 7(ii) family of parabolas
8. parabola 9(a) & (b) parabola

26
REVIEW EXERCISE 1.2
1. What is a contour plot?
2. Match the surface to its contour plot. State your reasoning.
i. A
z 10

y
x y 5

10
10 5 0 5 10
x

ii. z B

x y

iii. C
z 10

0
y

x y 5

10
10 5 0 5 10
x

iv. D

27
3. Given f (x , y ) x 2 4x y .
i. Find an equation for the level curve of f (x, y ) that passes through the point 0, 1 .
ii. Sketch the level curve in part (i).

4. Given f (x , y ) x y 2 .
i. For what values of c does the level curve f (x , y ) c defined?
ii. Describe the level curves for the values of c obtained in part (i).

5. Sketch the contour plot of the following functions.

x 3y
a) f (x , y ) 3 Prompts/Questions
2 4
What is a contour plot?
y z
b) x 1 How do you determine
2 3
the values of c ?
c) f (x , y ) y 2 How does the contour
plot help you to
d) f (x , y ) 4 y 2 visualise the graph of
the surface?
e) z x 2 y 2 1

f) z x 2 y2 1

g) z x 2 y2 1

h) z 2 x 2 y 2

i) z 1 x 2 2y 2

j) f (x, y ) x 3 y

Answers
3. a parabola 4. family of parabolas
5(a) family of lines (b) family of lines
(c). family of parallel lines (d) family of parallel lines
(e) family of circles (f) family of circles
(g) family of circles (h) family of circles
(i) family of ellipse (j) family of cubics

28
FURTHER EXERCISE 1.2

yx 2 xy 2
1. Given the function f (x , y ) .
x y
(i) Find the domain and range of f.
(ii) Sketch the level curves at c 2, 1,0,1,2 .

2. The figure shows a contour plot of the function f (x, y ) Ax By C . Determine the
values of the constants A, B and C. (The boxed number on each curve is the value of the
function to which it corresponds.)

3. Sketch the contour plot of the following functions.

a) f (x , y ) y 1 b) f (x , y ) x 2y
y ln y
c) z d) f (x , y )
x x
e) z y 4x 2 f) z x 2 4x y 2

g) z x 2 4x y 2 h) z 4x 2 y 2 1

j) f (x , y ) ey x
2
i) f (x , y ) cos x 2 y 2

k) f (x , y ) e x y 2 l) f (x , y ) ln(x 2 y 2 )
2

1 n) 8x 2 5y 2 z 2 9
m) f (x, y )
x 2 y2

o) f (x , y ) (y 2x )2 p) f (x , y ) y 2 x 2

Answers
1(i) entire 2 plane except the line y x (ii) family of reciprocal discontinuous at y x
2. A 1,B 1 2,C 0
3(a) family of parallel lines (b) family of parallel lines
(c). family of lines (d) family exponential curves
(e) family of parabolas (f) family of circles
(g) family of circles (h) family of ellipse
(i) family of circles (j) family of parabolas
(k) family of circles (l) family of circles
(m) family of circles (n) family of ellipse
(o) family of parallel lines (p) family of hyperbolas

29
1.2.4 Some Common Surfaces
Focus of Attention
What is the graph of the equation z f (x , y ) ?
What is a plane? How do you sketch planes in 3 ?
What is a cylinder? How do you draw cylinders in 3 ?
What are quadric surfaces? How do you sketch them?

Some Common Surfaces

We will focus on four types of surfaces in space which are planes, spheres, cylinders and
quadric surfaces. These are common surfaces that you will deal with extensively in later
chapters.

Planes
Standard equation: ax by cz d

Spheres
Standard equation: (x a )2 (y b )2 (z c )2 r 2

x 2 y 2 z 2 r 2

Cylinders
May consist of parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic cylinders. The equation depends on the
typical intersecting curve of the surface with parallel planes.

Parabolic cylinder

x 2 4cy

30
 Elliptic cylinder

x 2 y2
1
a 2 b2

Hyperbolic cylinder

x 2 y2
1
a 2 b2

Quadric Surfaces: 3-D analogs of conic sections

Standard equation: Ax 2 By 2 Cz 2 Dxy Exz Fyz Gx Hy Iz J

Six common types of quadric surfaces:

For simplicity, we only gave the equation for the quadric surfaces that are centred on the
origin. In general, these surfaces do not have to be centred there.

x 2 y2 z 2
Ellipsoid: 1
a 2 b2 c2
All traces in the coordinate planes and planes parallel
to these are ellipses. If a b c , the ellipsoid is a
sphere.

31
 z x 2 y2
Elliptic Paraboloid: 2 2
c a b
The trace in the xy-plane is a point (the origin), and the
traces in planes parallel to and above the xy-plane are
ellipses. The traces in the yz- and xz-planes are
parabolas.

z y2 x 2
Hyperbolic Paraboloid (saddle surface): 2 2
c b a
The trace in the xy-plane is a pair of lines intersecting
at the origin. The traces in planes parallel these are
hyperbolas. The traces in the yz- and xz-planes are
parabolas, as are the traces in planes parallel to these.

x 2 y2 z2
Elliptic cone: 2
a 2 b2 c
The trace in the xy-plane is a point (the origin), and the
traces in planes parallel to these are ellipses. The
traces in the yz- and xz-planes are pairs of lines
intersecting at the origin. The traces in planes parallel
to these are hyperbolas.

x 2 y2 z 2
Hyperboloid of One Sheet: 2 2 2 1
a b c
The trace in the xy-plane and planes parallel to these
are ellipses. The traces in the yz-plane and xz-plane are
hyperbolas. The axis symmetry corresponds to the
variable whose coefficient is negative.

32
 z 2 x 2 y2
Hyperboloid of Two Sheets: 1
c2 a 2 b2
There is no trace in the xy-plane. In planes parallel to
the xy-plane the traces are ellipses. In the yz- and xz-
planes, the traces are hyperbolas.

1.2.5 Sketching Common Surfaces

The following ways can be use to sketch the surface z f (x , y ) in 3-space:
using the traces of the surface in the coordinate planes and sometimes in parallel planes
using algebraic manipulation to identify the standard equation of the function.

1.2.5.1 Using traces to visualise and sketch a surface

A rough sketch of the surface can be obtained through the technique of drawing some traces.
We first find the intersections with the three coordinate axes. Then we draw the traces, the
intersections of the surface with the coordinate planes or in planes parallel to these. The
traces (or cross-sections) in x a , y b and z c planes provide a frame over which the
surface can be drawn.

Remark
Notice that the intersections are space curves. We can think of obtaining the traces as slicing
the graph with horizontal ( z c ) and vertical planes ( x a , y b ).

33
 Graphing Planes in 3
A plane is the graph of a linear equation in three variables x, y, z which satisfy
ax by cz d . A sketch of a plane can be obtained by first plotting the intersection
points with the coordinate axes, then sketching the traces in the coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0
or z = 0. These three lines bound a triangle in space. The triangle is a portion of the plane and
it gives a rough idea on what the plane should look like, its position and the orientation.

Illustration
Sketching planes in 3-space
Domain and range defined the surface
Traces curves of intersection in coordinates planes
Plane surface in 3-space

Example 1.13 Prompts/Questions

Suppose x 4 . Sketch the graph of the What is the domain & range of the function?
function. o Does your graph depict this information?

Solution
Two variables are missing in the equation,
namely y and z. So, there is no restriction on the
values of y and z. The plane consists of all
points of the form (4, y, z). The only
intersection point is with the x-axis at (4, 0, 0).
There is no triangular portion. Why?
Looking at the traces:
xz-plane, y 0 : x 4 , a straight line
xy-plane, z 0 : x 4 , a straight line
No trace in the yz-plane.
Thus, x 4 is a plane parallel to the yz-plane.

Thinking Tips
Recall the yz-plane.
o What is the equation that describes it?
o How does this differ from x 4 ?

Important Facts
In graphing equations, we need to be careful in translating what we know about into .
Always remember which coordinate system we are in. For instance, for the case of x 4 :
In we have a single coordinate system, so x 4 is a point in a 1-D coordinate system.
In , the graph of the equation x 4 consists of all the points that are in the form (4, y ) .
This is a vertical line in a 2-D coordinate system.
In , the graph of the equation x 4 consists of all the points that are in the form
(4, y, z ) . As seen in the above example, in a 3-D coordinate system this is a plane that is
parallel to the yz-plane and pass through the x-axis at x 4 .
34
Example 1.14 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the graph of the functions. Find the domain & range.
(i) y z 5 . o How does this information help in your
graphing?
(ii) x 3y 2z 6 Is there any restriction on the values of x?
What are the traces?
Compare the two graphs and describe what is the
Can you use these traces to build up a
same and different about them. picture of the surface?

Solution
(i) The variable x is missing. This means there is no
restriction on the values of x. Thus, the plane will
lie along the axis corresponding to this variable.
The intersections points are (0, 0, 5) and (0, 5, 0).
Looking at the traces:
yz-plane, x 0 : y z 5 , a straight line
xz-plane, y 0 : z 5 , a straight line
xy-plane, z 0 : y 5 , a straight line

i. graph of y z 5

(ii) There are no missing variables. The plane will

cut through all the coordinate planes.
Plot the points of intersection between the plane
and the coordinate axes.
Connect the points plotted above with line
segments. Shade the triangular portion of the
plane in the first octant.

ii. graph of x 3y 2z 6

What is the same and different about the two graphsCOMPLETE THE SOLUTION.

Making Sense
How do you know the graph of a function in 3-D is a plane?
..

How do you sketch planes in 3-space?

..

35
 How does knowing about the domain and range help you to determine the position and
orientation of the planes?
..

Thinking Tips: Same and Different

In doing the following examples, be aware of the variation in the expressions that describe a
plane in 3-space.
When you are able to construct your own examples, you will gain control and ownership over
the class of questions, and hence over the technique.

Structured Examples 1.3

Sketching planes in space
Domain and range defined the surface
Traces curves of intersection in coordinates planes or in parallel planes
Plane surface in 3-space

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Recall the equation of the coordinate planes.
Graph the following in three-dimensional space. o How does it differ from the given
(i) y 3 functions?
(ii) x 2 What is the domain and range of the
(iii) z 4 functions?
o Does your sketch depict this information?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Graph y 3 x in the following space. What is the domain and range of the
functions?
(i) two-dimensions o Does your sketch depict this information?
(ii) three-dimensions Compare (i) and (ii)
What is the same?
What is different?

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the graph of the functions. What are the traces on the coordinate
(i) x y 3 planes?
Can you use these curves to construct the
(ii) x z 3 surface?
Describe what is the same and different about these
two surfaces.

36
Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Is there any missing variables?
Sketch the graph of the functions. What do you do to sketch a plane?
(i) x y z 3 o What are the intersection points at
the coordinate axes?
x 3y o How do these points relate to the
(ii) f (x , y ) 3
2 4 traces in the coordinate planes?

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the graph of the functions. Compare (i) and (ii).
What remains the same?
(i) x y z 3 What has changed?
(ii) x y z 3 In which octant do you see the triangular
portion?

Question 6
Construct an example of a plane where the triangular portion can be seen in the fourth octant.

Answers
1(i) plane parallel to xz-plane
(iii) plane parallel to xy-plane
2(ii) a plane
3(ii) plane lying along y-axis
5(i) triangular portion in 7th octant
(ii) plane parallel to yz-plane
2(i) a line
3(i) plane lying along z-axis
4(i) &(ii) triangular portion in first octant
5(ii) triangular portion in 8th octant

37
 Graphing Cylinders in 3
In general, an equation composed with a combination of only 2 variables (such as x and y, or
y and z) forms a cylinder. The name of the shape is derived from the shape of the graph in
two dimensions. For example, y x 2 is a parabola in two dimensions and forms a parabolic
cylinder in three dimensions.

Illustration
Sketching cylinders in 3-space
Traces cross-sections in coordinates planes
Surfaces in 3-space parabolic, elliptic, hyperbolic

Example 1.15 Sketching a Parabolic Cylinder Prompts/Questions

What is the domain and range?
Let y x 2 . Sketch the graph of the function. Which variable is missing?
o How does this help in identifying the
traces?
How do the traces built up the surface?

Solution
First, notice z is missing. Lets examine various traces (cross-sections).
z 1 : y x2 parabola
z 0 : y x2 parabola

z 1 : y x2 parabola

and in general:
z k: y x2 parabola

The traces are all parabolas y x 2 at different height. Thus, the graph of y x 2 is a
parabolic cylinder that wrapped around the z-axis.
Sketch the surface.

Example 1.16 Graphing Circular Cylinders Prompts/Questions

Identify and sketch the surfaces represented by the Can you identify a typical trace?
equations. o Is there any restriction on the values
of the missing variable?
(a) x 2 y 2 1 The surface will lie parallel to a
(b) y 2 z 2 1 particular axis? Which axis?

38
Solution
(a) Note that z is missing. The graph
x 2 y 2 1 is a circular cylinder
wrapped around the z-axis.
Sketch the surface COMPLETE THE
SOLUTION

(b) Note that x is missing. The graph

y 2 z 2 1 is a circular cylinder
wrapped around the x-axis.

Sketch the surface COMPLETE

THE SOLUTION

Remarks
Be careful not to confuse this surface with a circle. In two dimensions it is a circle, but in
three dimensions it is a cylinder.

Example 1.17 Graphing Hyperbolic Cylinders Prompts/Questions

What are the traces?
Sketch the graph of the surface x 2 y 2 4 . The surface will lie parallel to which
axis?
Compare (a) and (b).
What is the same and different about the
traces?

Solution

(a) A typical trace on the xy-plane is a

hyperbola. The graph x 2 y 2 4
is a hyperbolic cylinder lying
parallel along the z-axis.
Sketch the surface COMPLETE THE
SOLUTION

39
Making Sense
How do you know the graph of a function in 3 is a cylinder?

How do you determine the traces of the function?

......
How do the traces help to reconstruct the surface?
..
The cylinders will lie parallel to a certain coordinate axis. How do you identify the axis?
..

Thinking Tips: Using Prompts and Questions

Do make use of the Prompts and Questions in the examples to help you identify the
important ideas in graphing cylinders.
You should make an effort to think about the answers.

Structured Examples 1.4

Sketching cylinders in 3-space
Traces cross-sections in coordinates planes
Surfaces in 3-space parabolic, elliptic, hyperbolic

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Identify the domain and range.
Let x z 2 . Sketch the graph of the function. Which variable is missing?
o How does this help in identifying the
traces?
How do the traces built up the surface?

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Identify and sketch the surfaces represented by the Can you identify a typical trace?
equations. o How do the traces help you to
(a) x 2 z 2 25 construct the surface?
(b) x 2 4y 2 36 The surface will lie parallel to a
particular axis? Which axis?
(c) x 2 z 2 25

40
Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the graph of the functions. How do you know these equations
represent cylinders?
(a) y (x 1)2
What aspects of the equation can change
(b) (x 2)2 (y 1)2 1 and still be describing a cylinder?
(c) x 2 4y 2 4

Question 4 Prompts/Questions

Consider the function f (x , y ) 1 y 2 . What is a trace?
o Can you identify the traces on the
(i) Describe the intersections of the graph f x c planes?
o How do the traces help you to
with the planes x c for constants c. construct the surface?
(ii) Draw and identify the graph of the function. Is the surface a cylinder?

Answers
1. parabolic cylinder 2(a) circular cylinder
2(b) elliptic cylinder (c) hyperbolic cylinder
3(a) parabolic cylinder (b) circular cylinder
(c) hyperbolic cylinder

41
 Graphing Quadric Surfaces
A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation in x, y, z. The free hand technique
of drawing some traces can be used to generate rough sketches of the quadric surfaces. As in
the sketching of planes and cylinders, the traces in x a , y b and z c provide a frame to
build up the shape of the surface.

Illustration
Sketching quadric surfaces in space
Traces cross-sections in coordinates planes
Quadric Surfaces elliptic paraboloid, cone, ellipsoid, hyperboloid of one sheet,
hyperboloid of two sheets, hyperbolic paraboloid

Example 1.18 Prompts/Questions

Identify and sketch the surface of z y 2 x 2 . What are the traces? Sketch them.
o Do you recognise the space curve?

Solution
Sketch the traces in the coordinate planes:
yz-plane: x 0 , z y 2 a parabola
xz-plane: y 0 , z x 2 a parabola
Sketch some traces in z c :
c 0 : z 0 , y x , straight lines
c 0 : y 2 x 2 c , a hyperbola
c 0 : x 2 y 2 c , a hyperbola

Identify the surface and sketch the graph:

z y 2 x 2 , hyperbolic paraboloid

42
Example 1.19 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the graphs of the following functions. What are the traces in the coordinate
planes?
(a) f (x , y ) 9 x 2 y 2 o Can you identify the curves?
x 2 y2 z2 How do these traces built up the surface?
(b) 1
4 9 16

Solution
(a) Look at the traces in the coordinate planes:

yz-plane, x 0 : z 9 y 2 , parabola

xz-plane, y 0 : z 9 x 2 , parabola

xy-plane, z 0 , x 2 y 2 9 , circle

parallel to xy-plane, z 9 : point (0, 0, 9)

f (x , y ) 9 x 2 y 2 (elliptic paraboloid)

(b) Find and identify the traces in the

coordinate planes:
y2 z 2
x 0: 1 , hyperbola
9 16
x2 z2
y 0: 1 , hyperbola
4 16
x 2 y2
z 0: 1 , ellipse
4 9
Traces in the planes z 4 :
x 2 y2
1 , ellipse
8 18

x 2 y2 z 2
1 (hyperboloid of one sheet)
4 9 16

Note
The order of the variables can change but the name of the surface remains the same. For
z2 x 2 y2
example, 2 2 2 1 is a hyperboloid of one sheet.
a b c

1.2.5.2 Using algebraic manipulation to identify surfaces

43
There is no hard and fast rule to understanding how the formulas generate the given shapes of
quadric surfaces. However, we can see patterns in the formulas (generating patterns in the
shapes) that help in identification. The following examples illustrate how we can identify
some common surfaces through algebraic manipulation where this will reduce a given
equation to its standard form.
Example 1.20 Prompts/Questions
Show that the graph of the equation What is the standard equation of a
sphere?
x 2 y 2 z 2 4x 6y 3 0 o How do you re-write the equation in
is a sphere. Find its center and radius. its standard form?

Solution
Completing the square in both variables x and y, we have
(x 2 4x ) (y 2 6y ) z 2 3

(x 2)2 4 (y 3)2 9 z 2 3

(x 2)2 (y 3)2 (z 0)2 16

Comparing this equation with the standard form, we see that the equation is a sphere with
center ( 2, 3, 0) and radius 4.

Example 1.21 Prompts/Questions

Can you reduce the equation into a
standard form?
Sketch the graph of z 1 x y .
2 2
o What are the restrictions on the
variables?

Solution
The graph of the given function is the graph of the equation

z 1 x 2 y2 .
Squaring both sides, we have
x 2 y2 z 2 1
which represents a sphere of radius 1, centred at the origin.
Since z 1 x 2 y 2 imposes the condition that z 0 , the graph is just the upper
hemisphere.
Sketch the surface . COMPLETE THE SOLUTION

44
More Complex Examples
The following are examples of more complicated graphs drawn using some graphing utilities.

Functions Surfaces

z ex

z cos(y 2 )

f (x, y ) ln(x 2 y 2 )

f (x , y ) xy

Making Sense

What are quadric surfaces?

Can you describe the techniques of graphing some common quadric surfaces by hand?

45
Thinking Tips: Organising and Characterising
Organising and Characterising are mathematical powers that we have and use to recall, link
and make connections between mathematical ideas.
You should use these powers to identify properties that are common to quadric surfaces and
distinguish these from other types of surfaces you have met earlier (planes and cylinders).

Structured Examples 1.5

Sketching quadric surfaces in 3-space
Traces cross-sections in coordinates planes
Quadric Surfaces paraboloid, cone, ellipsoid, hyperboloid of one sheet, hyperboloid
of two sheets, hyperbolic paraboloid

Question 1
(a) Let f (x, y ) x 2 y 2 .
(i) What is the domain and range?
(ii) What is the trace of the surface in the xy-plane?
(iii) Draw the trace.

(iv) What is the trace of the surface in the yz-plane

(v) Draw the trace.

(vi) What is the trace of the surface in the xz-plane?

(vii) Draw the trace.

(viii) Can you put together all the different traces to build up the surface?
(ix) What type of surface do you get?

46
(b) Let f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 2
Prompts/Questions
(i) Identify the surface and sketch the graph. Compare 1(a) and 1(b)
What remains the same?
What has changed?
What have you noticed about the graphs?
o Its position & orientation?

(ii) What happens if you changed 2 to +2 in the equation? Sketch the new graph.

(iii) Suppose the vertex of the surface is now at (0, 2, 0). Can you state the equation of
this surface? Sketch the graph.

(iv) Sketch an elliptic paraboloid with vertex at the origin and wraps around the x-axis.
State the equation of the surface.

Question 2 Prompts/Questions
(a) Let f (x, y) x 2 y 2 . How does this function differ from
Q1(a)?
(i) Sketch some traces in z c . o What are the restrictions on the
(ii) Sketch the traces in the planes x 0 and variables?
y 0.
(iii) Identify the surface and sketch the graph.

Prompts/Questions
(b) Suppose f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 . Compare 2(a) and 2(b).
What remains the same?
Identify the surface and sketch the graph.
What has changed?

47
(c) Can you give two more examples of the same shape? How are your examples different
from above?

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Sketch the following in 3-dimensional space. What are the traces in coordinate planes?
(a) x 2 y 2 z 2 0 Sketch them.
Can you reconstruct the surface using the
(b) x 2 y 2 z 2 0 traces?
(c) x 2 y 2 z 2 1

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Identify and sketch the graphs of the following How do you identify the surface?
functions. o Can you reduce the equation into a
standard form?
i. f (x, y) 9 x 2 y 2 o What are the restrictions on the
variables?
Compare (i) and (ii).
ii. f (x, y) 9 x 2 y 2 o What remains the same?
o What has changed?
(iii) f (x, y) 4 9 x 2 y 2

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Identify and sketch the graph of the function How do you identify the surface?
o Can you reduce the equation into a
f (x, y) 9 x 2 y 2 standard form?
o What are the traces on the coordinate
planes?

48
Question 5 Prompts/Questions
What standard equations of quadric
Describe the surface and sketch it. surfaces do you know?
o Re-write the equation in a standard
(i) x 2 y 2 z 2 8y 0 form.
(ii) x 2 2z 2 6x y 10 0

Answers
1(a) paraboloid b(i) paraboloid shifted 2 units
2(a) cone 2(b) cone
3(a) cone; (b) cone 3(c) hyperboloid of two sheets
4(i) hemisphere (ii) hemisphere
4(iii) hemisphere shifted 4 units 5. upper half of hyperboloid of one sheet
6(i) sphere shifted 4 units 6(ii) elliptic paraboloid shifted 1 unit

Reflection
To what extent are you clear on what you know about the relationship between one
variable and two variables functions?
.
...................................................................................................................................................
Are you happy with your progress so far? If not, why?
..
How much time have you spent on doing what had been planned?
..
..
How will you know if you have been successful?
..
What things encourage or discourage you from working on the topics?
..
..

49
REVIEW EXERCISE 1.3

1. How can you tell from the equation that the surface is a plane? A cylinder? A quadric
surface?

2. Describe how would you sketch a plane?

3. Describe how would you draw cylinders?

4. Describe how would you sketch quadric surfaces?

5. Match the equation with the surface.

i. x 2 y 2 z 2 9 A
z

3 3
x y

ii. x 2 y 2 z B
z

3 3
x y

iii. x 2 y 2 9 C
z

x y

iv. x 2 z 2 y D
z

x y

50
6. Graph y x 3 in the following space.
(i) two-dimensions
(ii) three-dimensions

7. Sketch the graph of the following functions.

Prompts/Questions
How do you sketch the
a) x 1 b) x z 1
surface z f (x , y ) ?
o What are the traces on
c) 3x 2y z 12 d) y z 2 the coordinate planes?
o Can you recognise the
e) y 2 4z 2 4 f) y 2 4z 2 4 surface by looking at the
equation?

g) z x 2 9y 2 h) f (x , y ) 4 x 2 y 2

i) f (x , y ) 4 x 2 y2 j) z 2 4 x 2 y 2

k) z 4 x 2 y2 l) z 1 4 x 2 y 2

m) x 2 y 2 2y z 2 0 n) x 2 4y 2 z 2 4

Answers
7(a) plane (b) plane
(c) plane (d) parabolic cylinder
(e) elliptic cylinder (f) hyperbolic paraboloid
(g) elliptic paraboloid (h) paraboloid
(i) hemisphere (j) hyperboloid of one sheet
(k) upper half hyperboloid of one sheet (l) upper half hyperboloid of one sheet
(m) hyperboloid of one sheet (n) ellipsoid

FURTHER EXERCISE 1.3

1. Describe the surface whose equation is given by x 2 y 2 z 2 2y 2z 2 0 .

2. Find an equation for the plane which intersect the coordinate axes at (8, 0, 0), (0, -4, 0) and
8
0,0, .
3
3. Identify the surfaces and sketch the graph of the following functions.

(a) z y 2 1 y2
(b) x 2 1
4

(c) y x 2 z 2 (d) x 2 y 2 z 2

(e) z 2 x 2 y 2 1 (f) z 2 x 2 y 2 1

51
 (g) y 2 x 2 z 2 1 (h) 4x 2 y 2 z 2 0

(i) x 2 y 2 4z 2 10 (j) z 2 x 2 y 2

(k) x 2 y 2 z 1 (l) x 2 y 2 z 1

(m) z 4x 2 y 2 x 2 y2
(n) z
4 9

4. Identify and sketch the following surfaces.

i. x 2 y 2 z 5 0

ii. 9x 2 4z 2 36 10

iii. 3x 2 4y 2 9z 2 1

iv. z 2 (x 5)2 (y 2)2 7

v. x 2 y 2 2y 0

vi. x 2 y 2 z 2 2x 2y 6z 9 0

vii. x 2 2x y 2 z 2 0

viii. 4x 2 y 2 4x 2y 120 z 2

1
v. z
1 x y2
2

Answers
1. sphere 2. x 2y 3z 8
3(a) parabolic cylinder 3(b) elliptic cylinder
(c) paraboloid (d) cone
(e) sphere (f) hyperboloid of one sheet
(g) hyperboloid of one sheet (h) cone
(i) ellipsoid (j) cone
(k) Paraboloid (l) hyperbolic paraboloid
(m) paraboloid (n) hyperbolic paraboloid
4(i) paraboloid 4(ii) elliptic cylinder
(iii) ellipsoid (iv) cone
(v) circular cylinder (vi) sphere
(vii) hyperboloid of one sheet (viii) ellipsoid

52
1.3 FUNCTIONS OF THREE VARIABLES
Basic ideas of functions of two variables can be extended to the study of functions of three
variables. Many of these ideas are similar but there are differences. For example, the graph of
a one variable function is 2-space, a two variables function is in 3-space thus we expect a
three variable function will be in 4-space. It is difficult to visualise graphs in 4-space.
However, we can draw the level surfaces of the graph to ascertain the properties and
behaviour of three variables functions.

Focus of Attention
What is a function of three variables?
How do you find the domain and range of a three variables function?
What is a level surface of a function f (x, y, z ) ?
How do you sketch a level surface?

1.3.1 Domain and Range

Definition 1.4
A function f of three variables is a rule that assigns to each ordered triple (x , y, z ) in some
domain D in space a unique real number w f (x , y, z ) . The range consists of the output
values for w.

Illustration
Evaluating three variables function
Determining the domain and range

Example 1.22 Prompts/Questions

Which variables give the value of the
Let f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2 . function?
o How does this differ from the
i. Evaluate f (1,2,1) , f (1, 0,1) , f ( 3,2,1) . function of two variables?
o Is there any restriction on the
ii. Determine the domain and range. variables?
What are the input variables? The
output variable?

Solution
i. By substitution,
f (1,2,1) 12 22 12 6
f (1, 0,1) 12 02 12 2
f ( 3,2,1) ( 3)2 22 12 14

ii. The domain is a set of all ordered triplets (x , y, z ) for which x 2 y 2 z 2 is defined.
x 2 y 2 z 2 0 for all points in space. Thus the domain is the entire 3-space.

Domain : {(x , y, z ) x , y, z )

53
 Range : 0 f (x , y, z )

Example 1.23 Prompts/Questions

Identify the domain and range of the following What condition is necessary for the
functions. Sketch the domain. function to be defined?

i. f (x , y, z ) x 2 y2 z 2 Is there any restrictions on the

variables?

ii. f (x , y, z ) 1 x 2 y 2 z 2 How do you represent the set of all

inputs graphically?
Compare (i) and (ii). What is the same? What is
different?

Solution
a). x 2 y 2 z 2 0 for all points in space. Thus the domain is the entire 3-space.

Domain : {(x , y, z ) x , y, z )
Graph of domain:

Range : 0 f (x , y, z )

b) We must have 1 x 2 y 2 z 2 0 in order to have a real value for f (x , y, z ) .

Rewriting the restriction, we obtained x 2 y 2 z 2 1 . Thus the domain consists of all
points on or within the sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 1 . That is,
Df : {(x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2 1}

Graph of domain . COMPLETE THE SOLUTION

Range : [0, 1]

54
Example 1.24 Prompts/Questions
Identify the domain and range of the following What do you know about the
functions. properties of each function?
(a) w xy ln z How does the information help you to
sin(x z ) find the domain and the range?
(b) f (x, y, z )
xy

Solution
(a) ln z is defined only when z 0 . Thus,
Domain : half-space z 0
Range : ( , )

(b) There is a division by zero if xy 0 , which occurs if x 0 or y 0 . Thus, the domain

is the entire 3-space excluding the yz-plane and the xz-plane. That is,
Domain : {( x, y , z ) x 0 and y 0}

Range : ( , )

Making Sense
How do you find the domain and range of a three variables function?
..
How do you represent the input variables that make up the domain? The range?
..

Thinking Tips: Extending

Notice how the concepts of domain and range has been extended from one variable functions
to two variables functions and now to three variables functions.
Analogously, it can be extended to functions of four or more variables.

Structured Examples 1.6

Finding domain and range of three variables function
properties of function conditions necessary for functions to be defined
input and output variables restrictions on the variables

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
Find the domain and sketch it. What conditions are necessary for the
(a) f (x , y, z ) z 6x y functions to be defined?
What are the input variables? The output
(b) f (x , y, z ) z 6x y variable?

55
Question 2 Prompts/Questions
Find the domain and range of the following What conditions are necessary for the
functions. Sketch the domain. functions to be defined?
1
(a) f (x , y, z ) 2 What are the input variables? The output
x y2 z 2 variable?
1
(b) f (x , y, z )
xyz

Question 3 Prompts/Questions
Find the domain and range of the following What do you know about the properties of
functions. each function?
(a) f (x, y, z ) ln(z y )
How does the information help you to find
(b) f (x, y, z ) ln(z y ) xy sin z the domain and the range?
(c) f (x, y, z ) exyz

Answers
1(a) entire 3-space; entire real line
2(a) entire 3-space except the origin; positive real axis
3(a) half-space above the plane z y ; entire real line
1 (b) half-space on and above the plane
z 6x y 0 ; nonnegative real line
2(b) entire 3-space except the coordinate planes; entire
real line except 0
3(b) half-space above the plane z y ; entire real line

3(c) entire 3-space; positive real axis

56
1.3.2 Level Surfaces
The graphs of functions of three variables consist of points (x , y, z , f (x , y, z )) lying in four-
dimensional space. They cannot be sketch effectively in three-dimensional frame of
reference, but we can obtain insight of how the functions behave by looking at its three-
dimensional level surfaces.

Level surfaces are the three dimensional analog of level curves. If f (x , y, z ) is a function of
three variables and k is a constant then f (x , y, z ) k is a surface in 3-space. It is called a
contour surface or a level surface.

Definition 1.5 Level Surface

A level surface of a function of three variables is a surface of the form f (x , y, z ) k , where
k is a constant. By allowing k to vary, the function f can be represented by the family of level
surfaces.

Remarks
The term level surface is standard. It need not be level in the sense being horizontal; it is
simply a surface on which all values of f are the same.

Illustration
Sketching Level Surfaces

Example 1.25 Prompts/Questions

Describe the level surfaces of the function. What is a level surface?
(a) f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2 How do you choose the values of k ?
2 2 2
(b) f (x , y, z ) x y z

Solution

(a) The level surfaces have equation of the form x 2 y2 z 2 k .

For k 0 , the graph is a sphere of radius k , centred at the origin.
For k 0 , the graph is the single point (0, 0, 0) .
For k 0 , there is no level surface.

57
b) The level surface have equation of the form x 2 y 2 z 2 k .
For k 0 , the graph is a hyperboloid of one sheet.
For k 0 , the graph is a cone.
For k 0 , the graph is a hyperboloid of two sheets.

Making Sense

What is a level surface?

...

How do you sketch a level surface?

...

Structured Examples 1.7

Sketching Level Surfaces

Question 1 Prompts/Questions
(a) Let f (x , y, z ) x y z . What is a level surface?
Sketch the level surface f (x , y, z ) 2 . Can you identify the type of surface?

58
(b) Let f (x , y, z ) 16 x 2 y 2 z 2 . Prompts/Questions
(i) Find the domain and the range. Is there any restriction on the variables?
(ii) Sketch a typical level surface of the How does the range help you to choose k?
function.

Prompts/Questions
(c) Let f (x , y, z ) 16 x 2 y 2 z 2 .
Compare 1(c) and 1(b).
(i) Find the domain and the range. What is the same?
What is different?
(ii) Sketch a typical level surface of the State the difference between their level
function. surfaces.

Question 2: Extending Prompts/Questions

The graph of a real-valued function of: What is the same and different about the
properties of these graphs?
single variable is a set of points (x , f (x )) in
How does the domain and range help in
2 . describing the graph of the function?
two variables is a set of points (x , y, f (x , y ))
in 3 .
three variables is a set of points (x1, x 2 , x 3 , x 4 )
in 4 .
(i) How would you define the graph of a real-
valued function f (x1, x 2, x 3, x 4 ) of four
variables?
(ii) How would you define the graph of a real-
valued function f (x1, x 2, x 3, x 4 , , x n ) of n
variables?

59
Question 3: Specialising Prompts/Questions
Given the following functions, for a suitable How do you choose k?
constant value k, sketch the graph of f at k. What do you notice about the level
graphs?
(i) f (x ) x 2 What about their dimension?
(ii) f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 How does the number of variables relate
to the dimension of the level graphs?
(iii) f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2

Question 4 Prompts/Questions
Suppose h(x , y, z ) 4 where What is a level surface?
y2
h (x , y, z ) x 2 , sketch the level surface. Can you identify the surface?
9

Question 5 Prompts/Questions
Find the level surfaces of the function What is a level surface?
f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2 .
Can you identify the surface?

Answers
1(a) plane; (b) sphere; (c) sphere 3(i) points; (ii) plane curves; (iii) surfaces
4. elliptic cylinder 5. k = 0 cone, k > 0 hyperboloid of one sheet, k < 0
hyperboloid of two sheets

60
Reflection
What looks like to be the biggest obstacle for you to understand this chapter?
.
Do you think it is worthwhile working through the chapter? Why?
..
..
What kind of help did you seek to understand the chapter? Why do you need this help?
..
..
Describe whether your perception of the task difficulty changes as you go through the
topics?
..
What might you do differently?
......
How will you achieve it?
..

REVIEW EXERCISE 1.4

1. What is the domain of a three variables function? The range?

2. What is a level surface? How does this differ from a level curve?

3. Let f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z . Find an equation of the level surface that passes through the
point (1, 0, 3). Hence sketch the level surface.

4. Find the domain and range for the following functions. Sketch the level surface at suitable
values of k.

a) f (x , y, z ) z b) f (x , y, z ) x y z

c) f (x , y, z ) y 2 z 2 d) f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 2

e) f (x , y, z ) 2x 2 2y 2 z f) f (x , y, z ) z x 2 y 2

g) f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2 h) f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2

i) f (x , y, z ) z x 2 y 2

61
5. Sketch the following surfaces.

(a) x 2 y 2 z 2 4 (b) x 2 y 2 z 2 4

(c) x 2 y 2 z 2 4

Answers
3. paraboloid 4 (a) entire space 3 ; entire real (b) entire space 3 ; entire real
line; plane line; plane
(c) entire space 3 ; positive real (d) entire space 3 ; real values (e) entire space 3 ; entire real
axis; circular cylinder greater than 2; circular cylinder line; paraboloid
(f) entire space 3 ; entire real 3
(g) entire space ; entire real (h) entire space 3 ; entire real
line; paraboloid line; cone line; hyperboloid of one sheet
(i) entire space 3 ; entire real line; 5(a) sphere; (b) elliptic cone; (c) hyperboloid of one sheet
cone

FURTHER EXERCISE 1.4

1. Find the domain and range for the following functions. Sketch the level surface at suitable
values of k.

a) f (x , y, z ) x 2
y2 z 2
b) f (x , y, z ) ln x 2 y 2 z 2
2 9
1
c) f (x , y, z ) z
x y2
2

2. Find an equation for the level surface of the function f (x, y, z ) x y ln z through
the point (3, 1, 1) .

3. Sketch the following two surfaces and their intersection in 3-D. Also sketch the projection
of this intersection in the xy-plane.

(a) z x 2 y 2 and z 16 x 2 y 2

(b) z x 2 y 2 and x 2 y2 1

(c) x 2 y 2 1 and y z 2

Answers
1(a) entire space 3 ; positive real (b) entire space 3 ; entire real (c) entire space 3 except the z-
axis; ellipsoid line; sphere axis; entire real line; plane
2. k = 2 3 (a) paraboloid & hemisphere; (b) cone & cylinder; circle
circle
(c) cylinder & plane; circle

62
Supplementary Questions: Multivariable Functions

1. Find the domain and range of the following functions. Sketch some level curves of the
functions for suitable values of c.

(a) f (x , y ) 2x 3y (b) f (x , y ) x 2 y

(c) f (x , y ) x 2 y 2 1 (d) f (x, y ) x 2 y 2 9

(e) f (x, y ) 1 x 2 y 2 (f) f x , y 4x 2 y 2

(g) f x, y xy (h) z 2 x 2 y 2 1

100
(i) T (x, y )
1 x 2 y2

2. Let T (x, y ) be the temperature on the surface of a thin metal plate at the point (x, y ) in
the xy -plane. The level curves of T are called isothermals curves because at all points
on such a curve the temperature is the same. Suppose that the plate occupies the first
quadrant and T (x, y ) xy .
(i) Sketch the isothermals curves on which T 1, T 2 and T 3 .

(ii) An ant, initially at 1, 4 moves on the plate so that the temperature along its path
remains constant. What path should the ant take and what is the temperature along
that path?

3. Sketch the graph of each function below.

(a) f (x, y ) 9 x 2 (b) f (x, y ) x 2 y 2 1

(c) f (x, y ) 3 x 2 y 2 (d) f (x , y ) 3 x 2 y 2

(e) z 4 y2 (f) z 4 9 x 2 y2

(g) z x 2 y2 2 (h) z 64 4x 2 y 2

4. Find the domain and range of the following functions. Sketch the graph of the domain of
f.

4 25 x 2 y 2
(a) f (x , y ) z
x 2 y 2 16 (b)
y

(c) f x, y e x
2
y 2 2 (d) f x, y sin x y

63
 (e) w 4x 2 y 2 4z 2 1
(f) w
x y z2 1
2 2

xyz
(g) f (x , y, z )
x y z

5. Consider the function 9x 2 4z 2 36 0 .

(i) Sketch a typical level curve of the function.

(ii) Hence sketch the graph of 9x 2 4z 2 36 0 .

6. z is a function of two variables given by z 4 (x 2)2 (y 3)2 .

(i) Find the domain and range of the function.

(ii) Sketch the level curves of the function for z 0, 1, 2.

(iii) Hence, sketch the surface defined by the function.

7. Sketch the level curves of z x 2 2x y 2 1 for z 0, 1, 4,9. hence sketch the

graph of the function.

8. Find the domain and range for the following functions. Sketch the level surface at
suitable values of k.

(a) f x, y, z 3x y 2z (b) f x, y, z x 2 z 2

(c) f x, y, z (x 2)2 y 2 z 2 (d) f x , y, z 25 x 2 y 2 z 2

(e) f (x , y, z ) z x 2 y 2 4

9. Sketch the level surface of f (x, y, z ) z x 2 y 2 2y 1 for k 2 .

10. Sketch the level surface of T (x , y, z ) 65 x 2 y 2 z at T 29 .

11. Sketch the level surface of W x, y, z x 2 y 2 z 2 at W 0 and W 1 .

12. Let f (x , y, z ) x 2 y 2 z . Find an equation of the level surface that passes through the
point (1, 0, 3). Hence, sketch the level surface.

64
Answers
1(a) entire plane 2 ; entire real
line; family of lines
(d) entire plane 2 except the
region inside the circle of
radius 3; positive real axis;
family of circles
(g) entire plane 2 ; entire real
line; family of reciprocals
2(i) family of reciprocals in the first quadrant
3(a) parabolic cylinder
(d) paraboloid
(g) cone
4(a) entire plane 2 except the
region inside the circle of
radius 4; z 0
2
(d) entire plane ; [-1, 1]
3
(g) entire space except on the
plane x y z 0 ; entire
real line
8(a) entire space 3 ; entire real
line; plane
(d) region inside sphere of radius 5; (e) entire space 3 ; entire real
real values less than 5; sphere
9. paraboloid
(b) entire plane 2 ; entire real
line; family of parabolas
(e) entire plane 2 ; real values
greater than 1; family of circles
(h) entire plane 2 ; entire real
line; family of circles
3(b) paraboloid
(e) plane
(h) upper half of ellipsoid
4(b) entire plane 2 except the
region inside the circle of radius
5 and x-axis; entire real line
(e) entire space 3 ; positive real
axis
5(i) ellipse
8(b) entire space 3 ; positive real
line; circular cylinder
line; paraboloid
12. k = -2, paraboloid
(c) entire plane 2 ; real values
greater than 1; family of circles
(f) entire plane 2 ; positive real
axis; family of ellipses
(ii) y 4/ x ; T 4
3(c) hyperbolic paraboloid
(f) hemisphere
4(c) entire plane 2 ; real values
greater than e 2
(f) entire space 3 ; (0, 1]
5(ii) cylinder
8(c) entire space 3 ; positive real
line; ellipsoid
65
Yudariah et.al.(2010)