PVPVol.

448-1, Computational Technologies for

Fluid/Thermal/Structural/Chemical Systems with Industrial Applications
Volume 1
ASME 2002

FLOW VISUALIZATION OF THE EVOLUTION OF TAYLOR INSTABILITIES AND

COMPARISON WITH NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
M.J. Braun Vladimir Kudriavtsev
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering CFD CANADA
Univeristy of Akron, 45 English Ivyway
Akron Ohio 44325 Toronto, ON M2H 3M3
mbraun@uakron.edu vvk@cfdcanada.com
Rajka Krstic Corder
Spectral Instruments, Inc.
420 N Bonita Ave.
Tucson, AZ 85745

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
The authors are presenting in this paper combined General Overview
experimental and numerical results that bring up some less
Historically, the very first investigations of fluid
explored aspects the Taylor fluid instability. In fact the paper
instability between rotating cylinders were done by Couette
will concentrate on issues that explore flow formations on the
[1890] and Mallock [1896]. The aim of their experiments was
road to the fully developed Taylor instability (500-1800 rpm).
to rather determine the viscosity of water by measuring the drag
The experimental investigation uses the Full Flow Field
exerted by a rotating cylinder on another concentric cylinder at
Tracking{FFFT) method, developed at the University of Akron,
rest, than to study fluid instabilities. Nevertheless the authors
to visualize the flow in longitudinal cross sections and at the
were first to notice the onset of flow instabilities due to an
same time correlate flow pattern observations to torque
increase in the speed of rotation of either the inner or outer
measurements. The experimental results indicate that incipient
cylinders. Lord Rayleigh [1916], derived the first simple
flow instabilities appear at lower speeds than the ones predicted
condition for the appearance of instability by neglecting the
by the critical Taylor number, and include formation of
viscous forces in the fluid and introducing rotationally
incipient Taylor cells that occupy only a part of the gap. The
symmetric disturbances. He concluded that the inviscid flow
cells are separated by axially flowing narrow rope-like flowing
remains stable only if the square of the circulation expression
streams that twist in a corkscrew fashion around the
increases with the increasing radius, and proposed the first
circumference, while separating the incipient cells. As the
stability criterion for the case when both cylinders are rotating.
rotational velocities increase the Taylor cells keep growing
The work done by G. I. Taylor in 1923 represents the first
until they occupy the entire gap. Three-dimensional CFD
methodological approach to experimental and analytical
studies were also performed for the matching set of conditions
explanation of the appearance and development of flow
and for the higher rotational velocities (above <1500 rpm),
instabilities between rotating concentric cylinders. Taylor aimed
where experimental studies were not possible. The torque
his experiments towards obtaining a stability threshold by
computed by the numerical model was compared with the
measuring the torque, and comparing his results with Rayleigh's
experimentally obtained torque and the two results compare
work. He further remarked that the experiments done by
very favorably. Numerical simulation studies allowed an in-
Couette [1890] and Mallock [1896] were not suitable for
depth study of the flow mechanisms and trajectories inside the
confirming the correctness of Rayleigh's criterion since they
fully formed vortical Taylor instabilities. Computational
were concentrated on the determination of viscosity of water
studies were performed using CFD-ACE+ software package
and showed that the Rayleigh's criterion is only approximately
(CFD Research Corp , Huntsville, USA).
satisfied in a viscous fluid. In fact, he stated that the actual
motion is much more stable for the viscous case due to the
viscous forces which damp small disturbances and thus stabilize
the flow. Von Karman [1934] has also explained the onset of

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instability by creating a model where he balanced the centrifugal
forces with those induced by the pressure gradient. In the more
general theory, viscous forces can also be a cause of instability
in certain types of flow, such as Poiseuille flow, Couette flow,
flow over an airfoil, and the physical mechanism of the tandem
effect of damping and viscous forces as instability generators
was described by Prandtl [1922].
Previous Experimental Work
There is a rather large body of literature that has investigated
the numerous aspects of the Taylor instability. We shall review
here only some of the most seminal contributions. Our survey
revealed that one can generally partition the pertinent
experimental studies into three different groups. The first one
deals with visualization of different modes of instability
occurring at different angular velocities between concentric
cylinders. Only few researchers combined the flow
visualization and torque measurements in order to get added
insight into the physics of the flow, and the exact transition
points between different modes of instability. The second group
is considering certain special aspects of instability modes, such
as the Taylor wavy vortex or flow at larger Taylor (Reynolds)
numbers (transition to turbulent flow). Finally, a small third
group considers the flow between eccentric cylinders. The
torque measurements done by Donnelly [1958] for the case
when the inner cylinder is rotating and the outer is at rest,
showed also the appearance of Taylor vortices both in narrow
and wide gap geometries. The onset of instability was
characterized by a discontinuity in both the magnitude and the
slope of the effective viscosity curve when measured versus the
angular speed of the inner cylinder. Donnelly and Fultz [1960]
visualized the flow for the wide gap geometry (R1/R2=0.5) for
the case when both cylinders are rotating. Flow was visualized
by injecting ink through the holes of the inner cylinder and
viewing the flow through the outer glass cylinder. The purpose
of the experiment was to obtain the stability diagram, and to
compare it to the theoretical results of Chandrasekhar [1958].
It was found that the experimental results were in a very good
agreement with the theory. Different modes of instability were
investigated by Coles [1965]. He observed more than 70
transitions which have been found in the speed range up to
about 10 times of the first critical speed. The flow
visualization method involved usage of aluminum paint
pigment suspended in oil, while a light source of diffuse
nature, was placed inside the inner cylinder. He also defined a
so called 'catastrophic transition' for the case when the outer
cylinder has larger angular velocity than the inner one.
Donnelly and Schwarz [1964] applied the ion technique in
order to determine the critical Taylor number, wavelength and
waveform, and compared the values of experimental and
theoretical critical Taylor numbers. Frene and Godet(197l)
studied the transition from laminar to Taylor vortex flow and
determined that a first critical flow instability occurs when the
critical Taylor number is 412 ( Tcr,1 = R1 cr ( c ) c ).
R1
Debler, Funer and Schaaf [1968] obtained quantitative
2 Copyright 2002 by ASME
information about the torque values, starting from the laminar
mode, and ending with the axisymmetric wavy vortex flow.
They obtained two points of transition on the torque-speed
curve, and showed that for the wide gap geometry, Taylor cells
that were axisymmetric remained so up to many multiples of
( Tcr ,2 = R1c 2 cr ( c) 2 ). For the small gap geometry
(R1/R2>0.85) they found that the axisymmetric Taylor cells
change into asymmetric mode around (1.4 Tcr,2.) Burkhalter
and Koschmieder [1973] studied visually the waveform of
vortices in singly periodic flow by using aluminum powder in a
fluid lit by a diffuse beam of light. They showed that the
wavelength of vortices for the infinitely long cylinder with
wide gap geometry does not vary with the Taylor number as
long as the flow is singly-periodic (80 Tcr,2 ), and that the wave
number is decreasing with increasing Taylor number. Cole
[1976] considered the transition from laminar to Taylor vortex
flow, and the annulus-length effects. To detect the flow
transitions he measured the torque and tried to correlate with
the visualized flow, but his installation did not permit him to
do both of them simultaneously. Benjamin and Mullin [1982],
visualized different types of steady flow for speed ranges
between the first transition and appearance of the wavy
vortices. King et al. [1984], studied experimentally and
numerically the wave speeds in wavy vortex flow by means of
laser Doppler velocimetry and measured the speed of azimuthal
waves. Bust et al. [1985], also considered amplitudes and
wavelengths of wavy Taylor vortices. They showed that the
amplitude of wavy vortices increases very quickly with
increased Reynolds number soon after the initial formation of
wavy vortex flow. Kataoka(1986) studied flow instabilities in
'circular' Couette flows and determined that a critical Taylor
instability appears at a modified
Tcr,3 = [ 4R 12c 4 ( R 22 R12 ) ][ cr ( )] =3390. Kataoka et
al. [1987] observed the higher instability of the wavy vortex
flow using an electrochemical technique. The working fluid
had electrolytic properties and the experiment was performed
under diffusion-controlled conditions. Fenstermacher, et al.
[1979] considered the transition to the 'chaotic' Taylor vortex
flow and provided subsequent regimes of transition from wavy
vortex flow to turbulent flow.
THE EXPERIMENTAL INSTALLATION
The experimental apparatus was designed with the
scope of obtaining simultaneously flow visualization and
torque measurements that can thus be correlated. A sketch of
the apparatus is shown in Figure 1. The inner rotating shaft
upper end (l) is supported by two precision ball bearings and is
directly connected to a variable speed motor. The outer,
stationary larger diameter cylinder (5) is bored in a transparent
Plexiglass enclosure (4) whose outside shape is
parallelepipedic. The Plexiglass parallelepiped (4), is attached
at its lower end to a matching metal end cap (7). This cap
contains the ball bearing within which the end of the inner
cylinder assembly (5) and (6)) rotates, and is mounted on a
 oscilloscope that allows visual observation, as well as direct
measurement of the torque. One may mention here, that the
Sub-assembly
strain of the brake has been calibrated against voltage by means
#8
of a specially constructed device that allowed calibration of a
displacement as small as 0.0002in. These displacements have
then been converted to equivalent torques, and the calibration
curve thus generated allowed evaluation of torque versus
voltage.
The Vision system
The system is shown in the schematic of Figure 2. The system's
light source beam is provided by an Argon-Ion
Continuous Wave Lexel 95 laser (1), The system of
controllable mirrors and lenses creates a thin (0.0625in) plane

Figure 1. Cross Section of the Test Section

hydrostatic air bearing (9), made out of Teflon. The lower part
of the air bearing (10), is placed on the metal base (11) which
in turn is attached to the installation frame. The air bearing role
is to lift (float) the entire sub-assembly (#8), and drastically
diminish parasitic mechanical friction which would bias the Figure 2. Schematic of the Vision System
torque measurements. In this configuration the sub-assembly
sheet of light (2), that passes through the test section (13) and
#8, will be entrained 'almost' freely by the rotating fluid
defines a precise 'flat' volume of investigation in the gap (15),
induced torque. The inner cylinder diameter is 1.742 in, while
while the fluid outside this volume remains in the dark. The
the outer cylinder diameter is 1.995 in; thus creating a ratio of
motion of the fluid is visualized by means of the seed particles
R1/R2 of 0.87. The ratio of the clearance to the inner cylinder
that were mixed in the fluid. The first cylindrical lens (3)
radius, is c/R1= 0.0725. The cylinders are 12.18 in long. The
transforms the laser beam into a sheet of light and has the focal
aspect ratio of this apparatus, as defined in the literature, is
length 70 mm. The second lens (4), of focal length 85mm,
(length/clearance) =96.28, thus qualifying it as a narrow gap
controls the divergence in the horizontal plane. A third
geometry. This geometry then allows the adoption of the
cylindrical lens (12), of focal length 500mm, allowed the light
infinitely long cylinder assumption with its implied
sheet of the desired thickness and width created by the first two
consequence of neglect of the end effects (assumption used in
lenses to remain collimated in the investigation zone (15). An
our numerical work.
electronically controlled stroboscope disk (5) is inserted in the
The torque measurement device is essential to the purpose of
system after the first two lenses. The stroboscope allows
this investigation. A cantilever beam made out of spring steel
external mechanical pulsing of the laser beam at adjustable
is attached to the metal box (7), that rotates freely on the air
frequencies. By choosing the strobing frequency at multiples of
bearing of Figure 1. The beam is instrumented with a full
60 Hz, a series of complete luminous imprints of light
bridge strain gauge, and its free end touches a specially
reflected by the particles crossing the field of view were
installed pin-brake. The fluid entrained in motion by the
created. The image acquisition system consists of the TV
rotating shaft imparts its friction to the outer Plexiglas box that
Pulnix TM-740 camera (14) and a Panasonic (variable speed
rotates freely on the air bearing. The torque thus exerted on the
playback) VCR. The front end of the TV camera is made up of
box rotates the sub-assembly (#8) of Figure 1. The steel spring
a series of interchangeable extension rings attached to an 85
beam mounted to stop this motion deforms, thus changing the
mm Nikor lens. This video camera system functions as a long
resistance of the strain-gauge bridge, causing the deformation
distance microscope, whose magnification was controlled by
of the spring steel measured by the attached strain gauge. The
the insertion, or removal of extension rings.
voltage output generated by the bridge imbalance is fed to an

3 Copyright 2002 by ASME

 The experiments were performed with a working
fluid, that was a blend of silicone oils with the properties given
in the Table 1 below. The blend of oil was designed to yield a
refractive index (RI) of approximately 1.49. This RI matches
the RI of the Plexiglass test section, thus allowing the laser
light sheet passage without additional deflection or distortion.
The average temperature of the oil during the experiments was
70F, and all properties are given for that temperature.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The visual observations, and the torque measurements
were done concomitantly such that a direct relationship could
be drawn from their correlation. This procedure enabled the
establishment of the characteristic flow transitions, as well as
the identification of the characteristic speeds for the typical
flow patterns before, during, and after the respective
transitions.
For the figures to be discussed in the next section the
longitudinal cross section shown in the photos (marked A) and
Table 1. Working Fluid Properties.
PROPERTY VALUE
Viscosity 99cP=99*10-3 kg/(m.s)
Density 1048 kg/m3
Relative density 1.048
Refractive index 1.4905
overlays (marked B), were obtained from images caught in
frozen motion. All photographs were obtained at a cross-
section located 6 in from the top of the outer cylinder (Figure
2), where flows patterns are free of end effects caused by the
upper and lower horizontal lids (boundaries). The overlays
indicate the direction of rotation, the direction of the axial
motion of vortices and the direction of the axial flow generated
by the appearance of the instability.
Critical Speeds: the First and the Second Transition.
Experiments were carried out to confirm the theoretically
defined critical speed of the inner cylinder at which flow
transitions and eventual instability occur. According to the
theory reviewed in the Introduction, the appearance of critical
Taylor instability is marked by various magnitudes of the
Taylor number which, depending on the author, has different
formulations (Tcr,1, Tcr,2 and Tcr,3. The theoretical critical
speeds thus obtained, were in order 1375, 1379, and 1424,
respectively. The experiments presented herein showed that the
critical speed of inner cylinder at first instability occurs at 1380
4 Copyright 2002 by ASME
rpm. At this speed the vortices occupy the entire gap, (Figures
9, 10, 11), and the torque curve exhibits its first slope
inflection as shown by Figure 3. This indicates quite a
reasonable agreement between Tcr indicated by the experiment
versus the ones predicted theoretically. Then, with the
experimentally determined critical velocity of the first
transition at 1380 rpm, the weak wavy vortex flow should
occur between a lower limit of 1421 rpm and a upper limit of
1512rpm. In the experiments presented herein it was found that
the weakly wavy vortex appears at about 1500 rpm, This result
is in good agreement with the envelop of the previous
experimental work.
The Road to first instability and beyond
The thrust of this section is to detail the various stages
through which the flow progresses on its way to the
development of the Taylor instability as shown in Figures 4
through 11. At the same time we shall place the visualized flow
regimes in the context of the torque curves of Figure 3.
The first zone identified is that of a laminar flow that
ranges approximately between 500 and l000 rpm. Figure 4
presents the flow in a zone, 6 in from the top of the cylinder,
when the angular speed of the inner shaft is 500rpm and the
ratio of the torque to the critical torque is 0.371. The flow
seems to be stratified, as indicated by the tracer particles that
congregate along the longitudinal generator at a radial position
approximately mid-way between the rotating shaft and the
stationary cylinder. It is postulated herein that there may be an
equilibrium between the centrifugal and drag forces acting on
the tracers and these forces reach equilibrium in the region
showed by the photograph. The particles reached a sort of
terminal radial velocity and they remain in that position up to
about the 1000 rpm. According to the particle traces on
overlays, Figure 4c the trajectories of the particles are parallel
with each other indicating that the flow is laminar, of Couette
type and basically two dimensional. As the speed is increased to
1000 rpm the torque ratio increases to 0.766, and the spread of
the particles in the radial direction increases past the central
region, Figure 5. Starting at about l000 rpm there is a
qualitative change in the general motion of the particles and a
first cluster of particles (probably embryos of flow instability)
appears in the structures shown by Figure 6. The flow enters a
transition phase where apparently it is starting to loose its two
dimensional configuration, as well as its laminar
characteristics. The particles are starting to segregate into
'clumps', which represent the beginning of the formation of the
core of the Taylor vortices. These vortices still do not occupy
the entire gap, and form either adjacent to the outer cylinder,
 Figure 3. Experimental Curves Depicting Torque Development With Angular Speed For Concentric Cylinders With
Inner Cylinder Rotating.
or adjacent to the inner cylinder. The dark region marked by
(4), represents the boundary of the more developed vortex (2).
One can also identify the embryo of the axial flow (3) in-
between the vortices which proceeds to develop as the angular
velocity is increased to 1200 rpm, Figures 7, and 1320 rpm
respectively, Figure 8. All these formations are part of the
region that in the torque chart of Figure 3 is identified as
'transition a'. In Figure 8, the vortices under the influence of an
axial stream (2) and the upper and lower horizontal boundaries
(ends of the cylinder) are moving axially down (vortex (1 and
4) attached to the inner cylinder and vortex (3) attached to the
outer cylinder, while the axial flow (2) is going towards the
upper boundary in order to satisfy the continuity constraints.
As the speed is gradually increased, to 1350 rpm, and then to
1380 rpm, Figure 9, just before the appearance of the fully
blown first Taylor instability, the corkscrew pattern is lost and
the vortices are starting to fill the entire gap. The vortices are width equal to the distance between outer and inner radiuses. A
not yet strongly defined but their core and its evolution is
clearly visible. According to the VCR tape recordings, vortices
(1) and (3), shown in Figure 9, rotate in opposite directions,
while the so called vortex boundary (2) represents an inflow
boundary (fluid is moving towards inner cylinder) and
boundary (4) an outflow boundary (fluid is moving towards
outer cylinder). As the speed is increased past 1380, a period of
transition is entered, 'transition b" as labeled in Figure 3, and
the vortices in this area are known in the literature as
'rectangular vortices', due to their rectangular shape (see
Kataoka [1986]). The torque ratio is in the region of 1.05 to
1.12. This flow pattern continues through the angular speeds of
1400 and 1500 rpm when it seems that particles start to
oscillate.
COMPUTATIONAL SETUP
The computational domain is designed to allow several cells to
form in the longitudinal direction. The geometry is composed
of six circumferential, three-dimensional cells, Figure 12. Each
cell in turn contains two adjacent circumferential volumes
spanning 180 deg. each. It is a known fact that when the full
cell is formed it has the same width and height with the cell
rotational velocity boundary condition is specified at the inner
cylinder surface and no-slip conditions are specified on the
outer/stationary cylinder wall. On top and bottom surfaces
symmetry boundary condition were specified. It should be noted
here that these consecutive cells shown in Figure 12 are chosen
somewhere far away from the either end of the 12.18 in long
cylinder used in the experimental setup.

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Figure 4. Flow patterns in the gap at 500 rpm Figure 6. Flow patterns in the gap at 1100 rpm

Figure 5. Flow patterns in the gap at 1000 rpm

Figure 7. Flow patterns in the gap at 1200 rpm

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Figure 8. Flow patterns in the gap at 1320 rpm Figure 10. Flow patterns in the gap at 1400 rpm

Figure 11. Flow patterns in the gap at 1500 rpm

Figure 9. Flow patterns in the gap at 1380 rpm

7 Copyright 2002 by ASME

 superimposed on the computed torques. The favorable result
can be seen in Figure 13. Following this positive comparison
the authors generated torque values variation beyond 1500 rpm,
a domain that was not probed experimentally. That result can
also be seen in the same figure. Indeed one can see clearly that
the first Taylor transition obtained experimentally (Tcr=1380) is
very near to the one determined numerically.
ceiling

Figure 12. Outline of the computational geometry

botttom
Figure 14. Full trajectory of a tracer in a Taylor cell at
Torque vs RPM 1576rpm

10
Three Dimensional Details In The Taylor Vortex Annular
8 Cell (1567 rpm)
This section presents some original details of three
T, lbf in

6 CFD dimensional flow patterns inside the already established Taylor

4 EXP cells. Extracted flow trajectories were evidenced by injecting a
numerical tracer. Figure 14 presents the trajectory of such a
2 tracer injected in a Taylor cell. In Figures 15 we show particular
Tcr
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Inner wall
RPM

Figure 13. Comparison between the experimental and

numerically calculated values of torque
15a
NUMERICAL STUDIES Outer wall
The paper has presented heretofore, experimentally, the
development of flow instabilities with increase in rotational
speed, leading to the first Taylor transition. The road started
with low velocity (Couette flow) regime and proceeded onward
in angular speed increase until the full Taylor vortex flow Ceiling
regime was reached. Computational setup is shown in Figure 15b
12. Inner cylinder surface rotates and outer is stationary. We
solved for steady-state incompressible flow with properties
shown in Table 1 and utilized third-order upwind approximation
scheme. All analysis were performed using CFD-ACE+
software package. For the purpose and validation of the
numerical work presented here we chose to look first at the Bottom
computed torque generated by the analytical/numerical model.
The scope was to compare the numerically calculated torque Figures 15a, 15b. Details of the particle trajectory
with the experimentally measured one. Since the torque is a from Figure 14.
macro bulk measurement, a close degree of coincidence between
the two will testifies towards the overall quality of the computer details of the full motion seen in Figure 14. In Figure 15a one
simulation and allows an increased level of confidence in can see typical flow movement starting at approximately 120
predictive simulations at parameters beyond those used in the deg at the bottom of the inner cylinder surface and then slowly
experimental work. Thus we took data measured experimentally proceeding along the bottom surface in the radial direction (due
from 500 rpm to 1500 rpm (see also Figure 3) and to centrifugal forces) towards the outer cylinder surface. After

8 Copyright 2002 by ASME

it reaches the outer cylinder surface it moves along this surface,
Figure 15b, towards and reaches the cell ceiling, after which it
continues along the ceiling surface from the outer cylinder
surface and towards the inner cylinder surface. The flow tracer
completes its travel from the cell bottom to the cell ceiling
in one full turn. Further numerical experiments show that the
tracer particle will return to bottom surface in the next full
turn.
a) b) c)
Figure 16a, b, c. Frontal projections of tracer
trajectories.
The following Figure 16 presents in a frontal cross
section on a comparative basis the trajectory of tracers that
depend on the point of injection. Thus Figure 16a and 16b
present the two dimensional projection of the 3-D trajectory
presented in Figures 15. Here one can see the tracer traveling
from inner to the outer wall clockwise and counterclockwise
respectively when the particle is injected near one of the lateral
walls. By comparison, when the tracer is released in the middle
of gap, the particle follows a circular trajectory concentric and
superimposed with itself. This is actually remarkably accurate
confirmed by our experimental results shown in Figure 4, where
Figure 17a Longitudinal velocity Distribution
1567 rpm
Figuer 17b Matching Radial Velocity Distributions
the particles have clustered in the middle of the gap.
Associated cells with distributions of longitudinal
and centrifugal velocities are shown in Figures 17a and 17b.
Again, note that at the center of each cell the velocities are
almost zero. This is in good agreement that shows the particles
clustered in the center of the cells in Figures 6, 7, 10, 11. The
lack of motion in the center of cells causes particles that have
traveled so far to remain stationary or rotate in place at very
small velocities. Cells have squared shape, which is consistent
with experimental observations presented earlier. Corresponding
longitudinal velocity maps (for lower Couette flow velocities)
are shown in Figures 18 (a,b). We can observe that velocity
cells are already formed, however velocity magnitude is very
small (1E-7..E-5 m/s). Another important detail that we see
twice as much cell formations, if we compare with Figure 17a.
On Figure 18a we drove a line through the center of each cell.
Longitudinal velocities along this line are all equal to zero,
which explains why particles assemble in in-line formation
during the experiments (Figures 4 and 5).
CONCLUSIONS
The material presented in this paper details experimentally the
evolution of flow from simple laminar, almost solid-like
motion of Figure 4, through the embryonic formation of Taylor
cells with associated rope-like formations rivering in between
the cells, to the fully formed Taylor first instability cells.
Figure 18a Longitudinal Velocity Distribution (100 rpm)
Figure 18b Longitudinal Velocity Distribution (1000 rpm)
The authors measured concomitantly the torque and associated
it to the respective flow configurations. The CFD-ACE+ code
used here modeled successfully Taylor cells, transition and
instabilities and the torque. Modeling shed additional light on
the three dimensional patterns of flow inside a fully established
cell. The code results were also validated through torque
comparison shown in Figure 13. As a result the authors plan to
extend their numerical work to higher Reynolds number with
full confidence and further detail the mechanisms associated
with Taylor cell formation and transitional flow instabilities.
9 Copyright 2002 by ASME
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