PROCESSES OF FOSILIZATION

1. Permineralization - occurs when organic material, such as bones or wood,

absorb and hold minerals before decaying themselves. This results in a
drastically different and more stable composition of fossil than the original
organic material. Most popular and most dinosaur bones are result of
perminaralization
2. Authigenic Preservation - A mold occurs when organic material is buried
by sediment. Eventually, the organic material decays, leaving a trace
outline of the original organism. In this manner, no organic material
remains; include fossils of footprints or of textures from things such as
feathers or leaves. Sometimes sediment inside a clam will fossilize, giving
an imprint of the clams insides. These are called Steinkerns.
3. Replacement - similar to Permineralization in that a foreign mineral
assumes the shape of the organic material. However it is also similar to
Mold fossilization in that the organic matter is already deteriorated. The
result is a foreign mineral being molded into the shape of the original
organism. Some of the most interesting examples involve metals such as
iron pyrite replacing the form of an invertebrates shell mold.
4. Recrystallization - occurs when organic material isnt chemically stable
enough after deposition to maintain its composition. This is most often found
amongst invertebrate shells, which will change from aragonite to calcite.
5. Carbonization - occurs when enough pressure is placed upon organic
material that the carbon is left behind in the rock. Examples are
characteristically black and in the shape of the animal that was deposited.
6. Desiccation - occurs when an animal dies in extremely dry and arid
locations, such as deserts or some caves. Essentially, these conditions
create an aseptic environment, where it is highly unlikely that it will be
able to decay; very rare, due to the fact that they require that the remains
be undisturbed by scavengers and that the environmental factors leading
to desiccation remain constant and its almost identical to
mummification, although it is conducted by natural conditions and are
typically from further back in time.
7. Unaltered Preservation - Amber is tree sap that has hardened after many
millions of years. Insects and small animals would manage to get
themselves caught in the sap and preserved in almost pristine condition.

MECHANISMS THAT PRODUCE CHANGE IN POPULATIONS

Population Selection and Change
Population - community of individuals where mates are usually found
 Gene pool - all the alleles in a population
Species - a population of organisms whose members can interbreed under natural
circumstances reproduce fertile (viable) offspring. The species is the basic unit of all
breeding populations.

Sources of Variation in Species

1. Mutation - change in DNA structure; change in a single triplet of a DNA chain, often
with no consequence.
e.g. The amino acid Glutamic acid that changes to valine by one molecule in one triplet is the
cause of this disease: CTC to CAC. The sickle-shaped cells cannot carry sufficient
oxygen and block capillaries, the small blood vessels that carry oxygen to the cells. Consequences
are fatigue, stunted growth, fever, and death by the 20s

Mutations are random, frequent, and occur at a constant rate. Mutations are important to
evolution if they involve changes in gametes (sex cells). These are passed on to the next
generation. Mutations are usually deleterious; most Down syndrome victims miscarry. New
forms are usually poorly adaptive to an environment, so that they may not have a chance at all to
reproduce. Mutations may also prove neutral, or they may yield even better (more adaptive)
phenotypes. If they occur in sex cells, they will be selected and passed on to the next generation.
They add variation to a gene poolall the alleles in a population have a better chance to survive
in several niches (microenvironments).Bottom Line: No mutation, no change, no evolution.

2. Segregation - separation of the DNA strands in sex cells at meiosis

3. Independent Assortment - what occurs when genes on different chromosomes
segregate to gametes independently of one another. Genes on the same chromosomes
do not segregate independently of one another.
4. Recombination - the exchange of genetic material between pairs of chromosomes
during the first stage of meiosis.

Sources of Variation in Gene Pools

1. Gene Pool - All the alleles in a population

2. Natural Selection - Evolutionary change based on differential reproductive success
of individuals within a species. Generally, the differential reproductive success is the
product of environmental pressures.
e.g. In 1982, another population of large finches, G.
magnirostris (No. 1, left photo) arrived on the Galapagos
Islands and ate three times as many seeds as G. fortis (No. 2)
and the smaller finches. Smaller finches again went into steep
decline (no. 3 and 4). Then in 2003 and again in 2004, another
drought struck, increasing the mortality rate of the larger
finches. This left the seeds for the smaller finches, who increased their population at the expense of
the larger species.
 Types of Natural Selection
Directional Selection - Selection characterized by a generation-after-generation shift in a
population in a specific direction.
e.g. Beak size among finches in 1977; bipedalism among hominins (from Lucy to us)
Stabilizing Selection - Selection characterized by a generation-after-generation in a
population toward a mean (average).
e.g. long-term stabilization of finch size and beak length, especially induced in the
droughts of 2003 and 2004.
Natural Selection and Sickle Cell Anemia

As noted above for sickle cell anemia,

mutation often has deleterious effects.
However, natural selection has a part in
tropical areas where malaria predominates.
Homozygotes for sickle cell anemia are
selected againstthey die off. Homozygotes
for normal red blood cells are subject to
elimination by malaria. But heterozygotes
with sickle cells are immune to malaria and so
are more likely to survive than homozygote
with normal red blood cells.

Sexual Selection
Intersexual Selection - Traits that make males more attractive to females
(Peacock wooing peahen, top).
Intrasexual Competition - Sexual selection that make males better able to
compete for sexual access to females (as in this gorilla fight).
Sexual Dimorphism or physical difference of males and females of the same
species, play a role in both species. Peacocks (male) are showier than peahens;
male gorillas are twice the size of females.
Kin Selection - Behavior which increases an individuals chances of his/her genes
being propagated into the next generation.
Altruism - Behavior characterized by self-denial or self-sacrifice to benefit
others; seen especially among close kin.
Inclusive Fitness - An individuals own fitness and his or her effect on the
fitness of any biological kin.
Grooming - behavior among these Japanese macaques is one example of
altruistic behavior, though it extends to non-kin as well.

3. Gene Flow - The process in which alleles from one population are introduced into
another population.
 Evolution - Change in allele frequency is one part of definition of the term. They
involve:
Gene flow - Exchange of genes among populations through interbreeding
Breeding populations - populations within a species that to some extent are
genetically isolated from other species
Demes - same definition as breeding populations with emphasis on smallest
of such populations

Sources of Gene Flow

Migration of new populations into existing ones

Interbreeding without migration
Removal of natural barriers between populations
Removal of reproductive barriers.

Mating as a Factor of Gene Flow

Non-Random Mating - A preferential form of mating

Consanguineal Mating - Mating between biological relatives.
Incest Tabu - The prohibition against mating with close relatives, especially
primary relatives (father-daughter, mother-son, and brother-sister
Cross-Cousin Marriage - A practice often observed, even required, between
offspring of brother and sister. Gene flow is limited
here
In this diagram, one sees the men marrying their female
cross cousins who are both their mothers brothers and
fathers sisters daughters. This is common among
Indians of Brazilian Amazonia.

4. Genetic Drift - Random changes in a small population that

are the products of chance. A process in a small population whereby the frequency of
alleles in the junior generation will differ from that of the senior generation due to
sampling error. Sampling Error - When a sampling error does not accurately
represent the population from which the sample was taken. This requires some
background in statistics.
Founder Effect
When a population splits, each population will show a non-representative sample
of the genes
Fission - Splitting up of population to form new populations; usually
populations are small
 Founder Effect - Genetic differences between population produced by the
fact that genetically different individuals established (founded) the
population of 300 original North American Hutterites (a rural religious
group of Anabaptists), only 90 individuals contributed genes to future
generations. Most of todays 35,000 Hutterites trace their ancestry to those
90

Source of new alleles is mutation

Other sources of variation include

Natural selection, based on survival value of traits

Gene flow, based on interbreeding
Genetic drift, based on fission and sampling error

MECHANISM OF SPECIATION
Modes of Speciation

1. Allopatric Speciation - speciation that

occurs in geographically isolated
populations; separation due to different
geographical events; other place
speciation

2. Reproduction Isolation - Two group of individuals evolved from same parental

population do not interbreed.

3. P
eripatric Speciation - a small subset of a large population becomes isolated at the
periphery of the original population's range. Over generations, the small group
becomes reproductively isolated from the original population; near place speciation;
founder effect

4. Sympatric Speciation - a species splits into two groups that diversify and
become genetically isolated while remaining in the same place; same place speciation

e.g Polypoidy in Plants

Autopolyploidy
(chromosomes in the new species all from the same ancestral species)
 Allopolyploidy (chromosomes in the new species come from two different
(but related) ancestral species)

5. Parapatric Speciation - Individuals are more likely to mate with their geographic
neighbors. This also results in a reduced gene flow within the population; no specific
barrier to gene flow; the mating behavior is NOT random; beside place speciation
SPECIES AND SPECIATION

Reproductive isolation - The biological properties of organisms that prevent interbreeding are
called reproductive isolating mechanisms (RIMs)

Two general categories of reproductive isolating mechanisms:

o Pre-zygotic - those that take effect before fertilization.

o Post-zygotic - those that take effect afterward.

Pre-zygotic

1. Ecological isolation - Populations may occupy the same territory but live in different
habitats and so not meet.
Example. Anopheles maculipennis group consists of six mosquito species, some of which are involved in
the transmission of malaria.
2. Temporal isolation - Different groups may not be reproductively mature at the same
season
Example: Dendrobium and cicadas
3. Ethological (behavioral) isolation - Patterns of courtship are different. Complex
courtship rituals then take place, with the male often taking the initiative and the female
responding.
4. Mechanical isolation- Differences in reproductive organ prevents successful
interbreeding. Copulation is often impossible between different animal species because of
the incompatible shape and size of the genitalia. In plants, variations in flower structure
may impede pollination.
5. Gametic isolation - Incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevents fertilization
Example: the sea urchins
Post Zygotic
1. Hybrid Inviability - Fertilized eggs failed to develop past the early embryonic stage;
pre-zygotic mechanisms are absent or break down so that interspecific zygotes (fertilized
eggs) are formed. These zygotes, however, often fail to develop into mature individuals.
2. Hybrid sterility - Hybrid zygotes sometimes develop into adults, such as mules (hybrids
between female horses and male donkeys), but the adults fail to develop functional
gametes and are sterile.
3. Hybrid Breakdown

Related Animals That Can

But Do Not Interbreed in the Wild
Lions and tigers have interbred in captivity and reproduced viable
offspring (top left); this couple calls the hybrid liger. But they dont
interbreed in the wild
Shades of Gray: Dogs and wolves can interbreed and reproducein
captivity and in the wild. Recently, Canis familiaris has taxonomically
been lumped with Canis lupus (wolf dog, lower left)

Counterexample: Related Animals whose Offspring are Sterile

Female horses and male donkeys can interbreed,

But their offspring (mules)cannot reproduce fertile
offspring. This cartoon shows a male donkey
attracted to a female horse (mare). The mule (right)
will not reproduce. Mules are bred for their strength
and their even temperament