Chapter 1 (Plate Tectonics)

Plates

Plates are made up of cool rocks with an average thickness of 100km.

Plate Tectonic:

Plate tectonic is a model in which the outer shell of the earth is divided into a
number of thin and rigid plates that are in a relative motion with respect to one
another.

Plate tectonic is a consequence of the gravitational body forces acting on the solid
mantle and crust.

The relative velocities of the plates are of the order of a few tens of millimetres per
year.

Plate Boundaries

A large fraction of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and mountain buildings occur

at plate boundaries.

Sea Floor Spreading Processes

At ocean ridges, two adjacent plates diverge from each other in a process known as
sea floor spread. As the plates diverge, the hot mantle rock ascend to fill the gap
regarding these behave like a fluid because of solid state creep processes. As the
hot mantle rock cools, it becomes rigid and accretes to the plate to make a new
plate area. So ocean ridges are known as accreting plate boundaries. In accreting
plate boundary, as the plates move away from the ocean ridge, they continue to
cool and lithosphere thickens and subsides.

Accretionary Process Rate

The accretionary process is symmetric process in first approximation so that the

rate of plate formation on two sides of ridge is approximately equal. The rate of
plate formation on one side of ridge is half-spreading velocity (u). Two plates
spread with a velocity of (2u). Rates of seafloor spreading vary in time. The
variation in seafloor spreading is the primary cause for changes in sea level on

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geological time scales. The rate of seafloor spreading in the Cretaceous was about
30% greater than at present and sea level was about 200m higher than today.

Surface of the Earth

The surface of the earth is essentially constant so that there is a complementary

process of plate consumption. This occurs at ocean trenches.

Subduction

In subduction process, two adjacent plates converge and one descends beneath the
other. So, ocean trenches are known as convergent plate boundaries.

As the oceanic lithosphere moves away from an ocean ridge, it cools thickens and
become more dense because of thermal contraction. Then the lithosphere becomes
gravitational unstable with respect to hot asthenosphere beneath so the surface of
plates at ocean trenches bends and descends into the interior of the earth in a
process known as subduction. The descending lithosphere (with angle of dip of
about 45 degree) continuous to sink as long as it remains denser than the
immediately adjacent mantle rocks, at any depth.

So; gravitational body force on the descending lithosphere play an important role
in driving plate tectonics. This gravitational body force directly is transmitted to
the surface plate and pulls the plate toward the trench. So this body force is trench
pull.

A large fraction of the relative displacement between the descending lithosphere

and the overlaying mantle appears to be accommodated by great earthquake of this
type.

The velocity of subduction

It is about 0.1 m/yr which the great earthquake with a displacement of 20m would
be expected to occur at intervals of 200years. If the velocity of subduction is more
than seafloor spreading, the size of ocean decreases.

The depth of Earthquake at subduction zone

660 km.

2
Lithosphere

Lithosphere is the part of the Earths interior that comprises the plates. The rocks
that make up lithosphere are cool and rigid so the interior of the plates do not
deform significantly as they move about surface of the earth. Because lithosphere
acts like elastic which transmit elastic stresses directly to the surface of the earth
without significant deformation.

Lithosphere thickness

Lithosphere thickness in ocean is about 100km and in continents is almost 200km.

However in totally lithosphere is thin and allow broken up into the plates.

Lithosphere rigidity

This characteristic of lithosphere allows behaving as elastic guide (stress guide) to

transmit the elastic stresses during geologic intervals. It allows also bending when
it is subjected to a load. For example, the load applied by Hawaiian island resulting
in a region of deeper water around the island.

The elastic bending of the lithosphere under vertical loads can also explain the
structure of ocean trenches.

Sources for the stresses in the lithosphere

1- Gravitational body forces that drive the motion of the surface plates
2- Changes of temperature (thermal stresses)
3- Erosion and sedimentation
4- Glaciation and deglaciation
5- Plate interactions such as continental collisions

For example, western united states. The relative velocity between Pacific
and North America plates is 47mm/yr in California which a large fraction of
this is accommodated by displacement on the San Andreas Fault.

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Solid-State Crip processes

Relax stresses in the lower, hotter part of the lithosphere. This is a thermal
lithosphere.

Faults at ocean trenches

Major faults at ocean trenches separate descending lithosphere from adjacent

overlaying lithosphere. These faults are the sites of most great earthquakes. For
example; Chilean earthquake in 1960 and Alaskan earthquake in 1964. These
earthquakes have 20m downdip motion and have length 350km along the trench.

The earthquakes in the upper boundary of seismic zone of the descending

lithosphere are associated with compression. The earthquakes within the
descending lithosphere are associated with tension.

Asthenosphere

The solid rocks beneath lithosphere are hot and are able to deform freely.

Wadati-Benioff Zones

The planar zones of earthquakes associated with subduction.

Volcanic line

Volcanic line is parallel to the most ocean trenches. These volcanos occur about
125 km from the descending lithosphere.

Magma

Magma is the melted rock and is produced near the boundary of descending
lithosphere and creates volcanos because they can rise about 125 km to the surface.
If those volcanoes created by magma stand on the sea floor, they form an Island
arc. For example, Aleutian Island in the north pacific.

What if the trench lies adjacent to a continent?

The volcanoes grow above the land surface. For example, western United States
that volcanic line extends from Baker in the north to the Shasta in the south in
California. This volcano is the site of violent volcanic eruption.

4
The Earth surface Crust

The Earth surface crust is divided into continents and oceans. Oceanic crust is in
average depth of 4 km and continents rise above sea level. The reason of the
different in ocean and continent crust is the difference in the thickness of the
crusts. Thickness of oceanic crust is 6 km and continental crust about 35km.
seismic studies have been used to determine the thickness of the oceanic crust.

Crustral rocks via mantle rocks

Crustral rocks have different composition from that of mantle rocks and less dense.
They are gravitationally stable with respect to the hot and heavier mantle rocks
beneath. The boundary between crust and mantle is Moho discontinuities.

The average age of ocean floor

100 Ma (10 years) because of cycling.

Oceanic crusts via continental crust at an ocean trench

Although oceanic crust is gravitational stable with respect to the mantle beneath, it
is thin so it can not impede subduction of gravitational unstable oceanic lithosphere
with respect to the mantle beneath. Continental crust is gravitational stable and it is
thick so that it is not sub-ducted at an ocean trench.

Cycle of continental crust (Delamination)

In some cases, the denser lower continental crust along with the underlying
gravitational unstable mantle lithosphere can be recycled into the interior of the
Earth in a process known as delamination. Although the light rocks of the upper
continental crust remain in the continent.

Delamination can occur in continental collision zones and behind subduction

zones; for example Himalyas and Alps which is the result of collision between the
Eurasian and African plates.

The average age of continental crust

1 Ga, 10 years

So, rocks of continental crust are older than rocks of oceanic crust.
5
Continental drift

As the lithospheric plates are moving across the surface of the Earth, they carry the
continents with them. The relative motion of continents is referred to continental
drift and changes during geologic time. The similarity in shape between west coast
of Africa and the east coast of South America is the result of continental drift.
Continental drift is a part of plate tectonic.

Waneger (1946) hypothesis about continental drift

There existed a single super continent (Pangaea) with the evidence of:
1- Similarity in continental margins (seafloor spreading explain this)
2- Correspondence of geological provinces and fossil types
3- Continuality of structural features (ex; mountain ranges)
He suggested that tidal forces and the forces associated with the rotation of the
Earth, cause the breakup of this single super continent and continental drift.

Harry Hess (1962) hypothesis about creating ocean

He hypothesised that seafloor was created at the axis of a ridge and moved away
from the ridge to form an ocean in a seafloor spreading.

Therefore seafloor spreading cause breaking up of a continent and a new ocean

ridge forms. The ocean floor created is formed symmetrically at this ocean ridge
creating a new ocean. Ex. Atlantic Ocean.

Mantle characteristics

The propagation of seismic shear waves showed the mantle is a solid and behave
like a fluid by gravity studies. The viscosity of mantle is about 10 that is
very large viscosity; so that it cause the mantle behave as fluid. Solid-state creep
explained the viscosity determined from observations of postglacial rebounds. At
melt temperature thermally activated creep processes allow mantle rock to flow at
low stress levels in about 10 . So mantle rocks in the interior of the Earth are near
their melt temperatures and flow in response to gravitational body force.

The study of glacier loading and unloading shows the fluid behaviour of the
mantle. When an ice sheet forms, its weight forces mantle rock to flow from
beneath it and the Earths surface subsides and when the ice sheet melts, the mantle
6
rock returns and the Earths surface rebounds. Rebounding of the surface of the
earth takes about 10,000 years.

Hydrostatic Equilibrium (Mountain ranges)

By considering mantle as a fluid, measurement showed that mountain ranges had

low-density roots that provide a negative relative mass that is equal the positive
mass of the mountain.

Ice

It is a crystalline solid, and gravitational body forces in glaciers cause ice to flow
because its temperature is near its melt temperature.

Thermal Convection

Holmes (1931) hypothesised that thermal convection has capable of driving mantle
convection and continental drift. If a fluid is heated from below or within and is
cooled from above in the presence of a gravitational field, it becomes
gravitationally unstable and thermal convection can occur. The power of mantle
convection depends on the mantles viscosity and this depends on mantle
temperature.

Post-Glacial rebound

The hot mantle rocks at depth are gravitationally unstable with respect to the
denser and colder lithosphere rocks. The result is thermal convection in which the
colder rocks descend into the depth and the hotter mantle rocks ascend toward the
surface.

How mantle is heated

The Earths mantle is heated by the decay of the radioactive isotopes uranium. The
heat generated by the radioactive isotopes decreases with time as they decay.
About 80% of the heat lost from interior of the earth is due the decay of the
radioactive isotopes and about 20% is due to the cooling of the Earth (secular
cooling)

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Paleomagnetic studies

It supports continental drift and motion of plates. When magma solidifies and
cools, their iron component is magnetized by the Earths magnetic field. This
remnant magnezitation provides a fossil record of the orientation of this field at
that time.

The studies of the orientation of this field can be used to determine the movement
of rock relative to the Earths magnetic poles since rocks formation. Keith
Runcorn (1956) showed that rocks in North America and Europe gave different
position for magnetic poles. He concluded that the differences were the result of
continental drift between the two continents.

Rocks in a single surface plate that have not been deformed locally show the same
position for the Earths magnetic poles.

Isotherm

It is a lower boundary of lithosphere, the surface of constant temperature with

value about 1600k.

Transform faults

The rigid plates slide past each other along transform faults. The ocean ridge is not
a continuous accretional margin; rather it is a series of ridge systems offset by
transform faults. The ridge segment lies nearly perpendicular to the spreading
direction whereas transform faults lie parallel to the spreading direction.

Velocity of transform fault is twice the spreading velocity. This velocity causes
earthquakes on transform fault between the adjacent ridges sections.

A transform fault that connects two ridge segments is ridge-ridge transform. A

transform fault also can connect two segments of an ocean trench. A transform
fault can be in a triple junction of three surface plates. Ex. San Andreas fault in
California.

Fracture Zones

The extensions of the transform faults into the adjacent plates are known as
fracture zones.
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Hotspot

They are anomalous areas of surface volcanism that cannot be associated with
plate tectonic process. Many of Hotspots are located in the interior of the earth for
example Hawaiian Island. Others are at or near an ocean ridge for example
volcanism that forms Island.

Continents

The continents rocks have more silicic composition rather than basaltic for ocean
crust. The area for the continents including margins is about 37% of the surface of
the Earth.

The rocks that make up of continental crust are more silicic and less dense than the
basaltic rocks of the oceanic crust. Also the thickness of continents crust about
35km is more than the oceanic crust. These make the continental crust and
lithosphere gravitationally stable and prevent it from being subducted.

Erosion and sedimentation play an important role in shaping the surface of the
continents.

Types of plate boundaries

Ocean ridge, ocean trenches and transform faults

Triple junction

A plate boundary can end only by intersecting another plate boundary. This
intersection is a triple junction. When the three velocities defining relative motions
between plate pairs at a triple junction form a closed triangle, triple junction is
formed.

Wilson Cycle (Wilson, 1966)

(Wilson, 1966) proposed that continental drift is cyclic. He proposed that ocean
open and close cyclically. This concept was based on opening and closing Atlantic
ocean.

Continental collision

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The collision of two continents when an ocean closes is a major cause of mountain
building. For example, southern Eurasian plate. The region where mountain
building is occurring is orogenic zone.

This create large amount of horizontal strain. Strain in the crust is accommodated
by both brittle and ductile mechanism. The brittle upper crust can be compressed
and thickened by displacements on a series of thrust faults that form a thrust belt.

Volcanism

Volcanism is associated with both accretionary plate margins and subduction

zones. Although a large fraction of the Earths volcanism can be directly attributed
to plate boundaries. There are many exceptions like volcanism of Hawaiian Island.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur at plate boundaries like subduction zones and plate collisions
have large frequency but large earthquakes also occur in plate interiors but with
much lower frequency.

Earthquakes are associated with displacements on pre-existing faults.

How and earthquake occur on a fault?

When regional stress level becomes large enough, the fault ruptures and an
earthquake occurs.

Displacement on faults

The displacements on faults are parallel to the fault surface.

The displacement during many earthquakes, the horizontal associated with strike-
slip faulting and the vertical associated with normal or thrust faulting.

Where the intraplate earthquake occur

It is likely to occur where the elastic properties of the plate change and stress
accumulates.

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The basic mechanism for plate tectonic

Heat from the interior of the Earth as the result of decay radioactive is the basic
mechanism for plate tectonic.

Chapter 2 (Stress and Strain in Solid)

Strain

Stresses in an elastic solid cause strain or deformation of the solid and it is divided
into normal strain and shear strain.

Normal strain

The ratio of the change in length of a solid to its original length is called normal
strain.

Shear strain

One-half the decrease in a right angle in a solid when it is deformed is called

shear strain.

The surface of the Earth is continually being strained by tectonic processes. These
changes in strain can be measured directly by geodetic techniques.

Types of forces on an element of a solid

Body forces

Body forces act throughout the volume of the solid and it is directly proportional to
its volume or mass for example, downward gravitational force.

Gravitational body force=

= density

=volume

So, gravitational body force is per unit mass and per volume.

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Surface forces

Surface forces act on the surface area bounding an element of volume. They arise
from interatomic forces exerted by material on one side of the surface onto
material on the opposite side. The magnitude of the surface force is directly
proportional to the area of the surface on which it acts. It also depends on the
orientation of the surface.

For example, the force that must act at the base of the column of rock at a depth
beneath the surface to support the weight of the column so the weight of the
column of cross-sectional area is . This weight must be balanced by an
upward surface force distributed on the horizontal surface of area at
depth . The surface force per unit area acting perpendicular to a horizontal surface
that is stress.

Since the forces on the column of rock must be equal if the column is in
equilibrium, we find = .

Normal force

The normal force per unit area on horizontal planes increases linearly with depth.
The normal stress due to the weight of the overlaying rock is known as lithospheric
stress or pressure.

At the base of a continent = , where is the density of the continent and

is its thickness. At this depth in the mantle, is , where is the mantle
density and is the depth of mantle to which the continent sinks. According to
hydrostatic equilibrium, these stresses are equal.

The application of hydrostatic equilibrium to the continental crust is known as

isostasy.

The depth of an ocean basin relative to the continent is obtained by

= + + ( )

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Just as there are normal surface forces per unit area on horizontal planes in the
earth, there are also normal surface forces per unit area on vertical planes. The
balance between pressure and weight of the overlaying rock (overburden) is known
as lithostatic state of stress.

Surface forces can act parallel as well as perpendicular to a surface. For example,
forces acting on the area element in the plane of a strike-slip fault. The normal
compressive force (consequences of weight of the overburden and tectonic forces)
tending to press the two sides of the fault together and the shear force (the result of
frictional resistance to the motion on the fault) oppose the tectonic forces driving
the left-lateral motion on the fault.

In many cases it is appropriate to relate the shear stress ( ) resisting the sliding
of one surface over another to the normal force ( ) pressing the surfaces
together. This can be stated as

is the coefficient of friction.

Sedimentary basin

Subsidence of a continental crust causes formation of sedimentary basin. One

cause of the subsidence is the thinning of the continental crust. As the continent
thinned, isostasy requires that the surface subside.

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 Chapter 3 (Elasticity and Flexure)

Law of Elasticity

In many solids it is appropriate to relate stress to strain through law of elasticity.

Elastic material

Elastic materials deform when the force is applied and they return to their original
shape when the force is removed.

Solids Rock behaviour

The solids rock behaviour is depending on conditions of temperature and

pressure.

1. Almost all solid materials (all rocks) at low temperature and pressures when
the applied forces are not too large, behave as elastic.
2. At low temperature and confining pressure, rocks are brittle solids and large
deviation from elastic cause fracture.
3. Rocks in the deep of the earth are subjected to increasingly large confining
pressure due to the increasing weight of the overburden, they deform
plastically.

The reason to study the elastic behaviour of the lithosphere is to determine the state
of stress in the lithosphere because this distribution of stress is responsible for the
occurrence of earthquake.

Elastic strain

Elastic strain of many rocks is linearly proportional to the applied elastic stress.

The simplifies equation of linear elasticity

The equation of linear elasticity is simplified if the elastic properties are

independent of direction. That is if the material is isotropic. For example; earths
crust and mantle.

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Plastic deformation

Plastic deformation is a continuous and irreversible deformation without fracture.

If the applied force causing plastic deformation is removed, some fraction of the
deformation remains. For example; hot mantle solid rocks behave as fluid on
geological time scale that is they continuously deform under an applied force.

Postulate of plate tectonics

Is that the surface of plates constituting the lithosphere do not deform significantly
on geological time scales. Observations to confirm postulate of surface plates are
as follows:

- The transform faults connecting offset segments of the oceanic ridge system
are responsible for the major linear fracture zones in the ocean. These
fracture zones remain linear and at constant separation is direct evidence that
the oceanic lithosphere do not deform on a time scale of 10 yr.
- The linearity of the magnetic lineament of the seafloors.
- Although erosion destroys mountain ranges on time scale 10 to 10 yr,
many geological structures in the continental crust have ages greater than
10 yr.

What causes the fluid to flow?

Gravitational body force to minimize the gravitational potential energy.

Bending lithosphere

The lithosphere bends under surface loads. For example Hawaiian Island and many
Island chains, individual Island and seamounts.

Evidence for bending of lithosphere

Direct evidence from the bending of oceanic lithosphere at ocean trenches and of
the continental lithosphere at sedimentary basins for example; Michigan basin are
the evidence for bending of lithosphere.

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Earthquake

Earthquakes are direct evidence for the high stress level in the lithosphere and
relieve accumulated strain in the lithosphere.

Mountain

Mountain is also evidence of high stress levels. Elastic stresses must balance the
gravitational body forces on mountains. Because of elastic behaviour, surface
plates can transmit stresses over large horizontal distances.

Axes of stress and strain

The principal axes of stress and strain coincide in such a medium and the
connection between stress and strain can be written as:

=( +2 ) + +

= +( +2 ) +

= + +( +2 )

and G are material properties (Lama parameter)

G modulus of rigidity

The material properties are such that the principal strain component produces a
stress ( + 2 ) in the same direction and in mutually perpendicular direction.

Inverse form of the equation

= - -

= + -

= - +

E and are material properties

E is Youngs modulus

is poissions ratio
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A principal stress component produces a strain in the same direction and strain
in mutually orthogonal directions.

Parameters for characterizing elastic behaviour

, , E, G

10<E<100 Gpa

0.1< <0.4

G=0 indicates absence of shear wave and liquid material for example outer core
which =0.5

Uniaxial stress

In a state of uniaxial stress only one of the principal stresses is nonzero say and
= =0 so the respective strain would be:

= =
2( + )

This formula confirms that not only the stress produces a strain but it changes
the linear dimensions of elements aligned perpendicular to the axis of stress.

Compressive uniaxial stress

If is a compression, is a decrease in length (volume) and both and are

increase in length (volume) due to expansion.

The relation between stress and strain in uniaxial compression or tension (Hooks
Law)

=E

If the horizontal tectonic stress are compressive, vertical columns of lithosphere of

initial thickness , horizontal area A, and density will undergo a decrease in
area and an increase in thickness. The mass in a column will remain constant so

( )

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Hookean behaviour

A linear elastic solid is said to exhibit Hookean behaviour.

Failure in a rock

The rock deforms elastically until the applied stress exceeds the compressive
strength of the rock the failure occur. The compressive strengths of rocks are
hundreds to thousands of mega Pascal.

Typical stress and strain of tectonics

A typical tectonic stress is 10 Mpa with E=70 Gpa and a typical tectonic strain in
uniaxial stress of 1.4 10 according to = .

Equation of uniaxial strain

The equation of uniaxial strain is to determine the changes in stress due to

sedimentation or erosion.

= =
1
Plane Stress

The state of plane stress exists when there is only one zero component of principal
stress. That is = 0, 0, 0

Plane Strain

The state of plane strain exists when = 0 and and are nonzero. A long bar
cannot expand or contract parallel to its length. An example is plate bending.

Pure Shear

Pure shear is a special case of plane stress.

= 0, =

Shear Stress

=2

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Simple Shear

Simple shear is associated with displacements on a strike-slip fault such as the San
Andreas in California.

Isotropic Stress

If = = (Pressure), the state of stress is isotropic and the principal

stresses are equal to the pressure. And

= = =

Dilatation () is a functional volume change in uniaxial compression and it is

equal:

= + + = (1 2 )

Theory of plate bending in response to applied forces and torques

Assuming a plate of thickness h and width L is pinned at its ends and bends under
the load of a line force ( ) applied at its center. The plate is infinitely long
in the z direction. A vertical, static force balance and the symmetry of the situation
require that equal vertical line forces /2 be applied at the support.

The plate is assumed to be thin compared with its width, h , and the vertical
deflection of the plate is taken to be small, and this is necessary to justify
the use of linear elastic theory.

The two-dimensional bending of plates is also referred to as cylindrical bending

because the plate takes the form of a segment of cylindrical. The deflection of a
plate can be determined by requiring it to be in equilibrium under the action of all
forces and torques exerted on it. A downward force per unit area q(x) is exerted on
the plate by whatever distributed load the plate is required to support. Thus the
downward load, per unit length in the z direction, between x and x+dx is q(x) dx.
At the location x along the plate the shear force is V.

The net bending moment M, per unit length in the z direction, acting on a cross
section of the plate is the integrated effect of the moments exerted by the normal
stresses , also known as fiber stresses, on the cross section.

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The force balance in the vertical direction on the element between x and x+dx is
q(x) dx + dV=0 or =

A balance of all the torques gives:

= or = +

By differentiating this equation with respect to x and substituting from the force
balance equation, this will be obtained:

= -q + P

How M is related to the curvature of the plate

M (bending moment) is inversely proportional to the local radius of curvature of

the plate R and that is . This is also called the flexural rigidity.

If the plate is deflected downward, the upper half of the plate is contracted and
(longitudinal stress) is positive; the lower part of the plate is extended and is
negative. The fiber stress is zero on the mid-plane y=0.

The net effect of these stresses is to exert a counter-clockwise bending moment on

the cross section of the plate.

M= ; h is the thickness of the plate

The bending stress is accompanied by longitudinal strain that is positive

(contraction) in the upper half of the plate and negative (extension) in the lower
half. There is no strain in the Z direction (perpendicular to the xy plane) because
the plate is infinite in this direction and the bending is two-dimensional or
cylindrical so = 0.

Because the plate is thin, = = 0 that is the zero stress normal to the surface
of the plate.

20
Relation of stress and strain in plane stress

= ( ) and = ( )

By substituting =0, then

=
(1 )

Bending of plate under Applied Moment and vertical loads

Consider, a plate embedded at one end and subjected to an applied torque at the
other. Assume for simplicity that the plate is weightless. With q=0 and according
to = , V=0 and there is no applied force acting on the plate.

The bent plate has the shape of a parabola. is negative according to the
convention considered above. If M is positive; that is, the plate is deflected
upward.

=
2

= =

The general equation for the deflection of the plate is:

= ( )

Buckling of a plate under a Horizontal load

When an elastic plate is subjected to a horizontal force P, the plate can buckle if
the applied force is sufficiently large. For example, fold trains in mountain belts
are believed to result from the warping of strata under horizontal compression.

21
The minimum force required for buckling to occur and the form, that is wavelength
of the resulting deflection.

In the general equation for bending plate, if q=0 then:

+ =0

is obtained.

The minimum buckling load for the plate is

P=

If P is smaller that this critical value, eigenvalue, the plate will not deflect under
the applied load; that = 0. When P has the value , the plate buckles or
deflects under the horizontal load. At the onset of deflection the plate assumes the
shape of a half sin curve:

The amplitude of deflection cannot be determined by the linear analysis.

Laccolith

Laccolith is a sill-like igneous intrusion in the form of a round lens-shaped body

much wider than it is thick. It is formed by magma that is intruded along bedding
planes of flat, layered rocks at pressures so high that the magma raises the
overburden and deforms it into a domelike shape. If the flow of magma is along a
crack, a two-dimensional laccolith can be formed.

The overburden or elastic plate of thickness h is bent upward by the pressure p of

the magma that will form the laccolith upon solidification. The loading of the plate
q(x) is the part of the upward pressure force p in excess of the lithostatic
pressure :

= +

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The maximum deflection at the center of the laccolith, x=0, is

( )
=
384
So, the deflection in terms of its maximum value is given as follow:

= (1 8 + 16 )

Determining the deflection caused by an applied force

To determine the downward deflection of the earths lithosphere due to an applied

load, the important thing is to include in q(x) the hydrostatic force caused by
replacement of mantle rocks in a vertical column by material of smaller density.

What is the filling material in the space vacated in oceanic lithosphere and
continental lithosphere?

In the oceanic lithosphere, water fills in the space vacated by mantle rocks
moved out of the way by the deflected lithosphere.

In the case of continental lithosphere, the rocks of thick continental crust serve as
the fill.

Deflection equation for an oceanic lithosphere

The weight per unit area of a vertical column extending from the base of the
deflected lithosphere to the surface is:

( + ) +

: The density of water

: The thickness of water overlies the oceanic lithosphere

: The density of oceanic lithosphere also of density of mantle

: Thickness of lithosphere

23
The pressure at a depth + + in the surrounding mantle where there is no
plate deflection is

+ ( + )

The upward hydrostatic force, tending to restore the deflected lithosphere to its
original configuration, per unit area equal to

+ ( + ) ( + ) + =( )

And the net force per unit area acting on the lithosphere plate is

= ( )

is the applied load at the upper surface of the lithosphere

is replaced in the general equation for deflection of the earths lithosphere.

+ +( ) = ( )

Deflection equation for a continental lithosphere

The weight per unit area of a vertical column extending from the base of the
deflected plate to the surface:

( + ) +

: The density of continental crust

: Thickness of continental crust

The continental crust is deflected downward a distance by an applied load such

as excess topography.

The pressure at the depth + + in the surrounding mantle far from the
deflected plate is

+ ( + )

24
The difference between these two quantities is the upward hydrostatic restoring
force per unit area

+ ( + ) ( + ) + =( )

The net force per unit area acting on the elastic continental lithosphere is

= ( )

Therefore, the deflection of the plate becomes:

+ +( ) = ( )

How does the positive load of a mountain or the negative load of a valley
deflect the lithosphere?

To answer this question, there is a need to determine the response of the

lithosphere to a periodic load.

In this case, we assume that is the elevation of the topography (positive

corresponds to ridges and negative height to valleys) is given as follow:

= sin 2

is the wavelength

Therefore the load on the lithosphere corresponding to the topography is:

( )= 2

Since the amplitude of topography is small compared with the thickness of the
elastic lithosphere, the influence of the topography on this thickness can be
neglected.

: The density of crustral rocks associated with height variation

To obtain the equation for the deflection of the lithosphere is obtained by

substituting ( ) in the general equation and P=0:
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 +( ) = 2

The deflection of the lithosphere

Because the loading, q(x), is periodic in x, the response or deflection will vary
sinusoidally in x with the same wavelength as the topography.

Then by substituting the following equation for

= 2

Into the above equation, the amplitude of deflection of the lithosphere is

determined as:

=
2
1+ ( )

Short-wavelength topography causes no deformation of the lithosphere. The

lithosphere is infinitely rigid for loads of this scale. If the wavelength of the
topography is sufficiently long, , the lithosphere has no rigidity and the
topography is fully compensated that is, it is in hydrostatic equilibrium.

Buckling of an infinitely long plate under an applied horizontal load

The lithosphere that pinned at its ends can buckle if an applied horizontal force (P)
exceeds a critical value.

When P exceeds a critical value, an infinitely long plate ( ) will become

unstable and deflect into the sinusoidal shape.

The equation for the deflection of the plate is obtained by setting = 0 in

equation

+ +( ) =0

So by substituting = 2 , the above equation will be

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 2 2
( ) +( ) =0

This equation is a quadratic equation for the square of the wavelength of the
sinusoidal .

Bending of the elastic lithosphere under the loads of Island chains

Volcanic Islands provide loads that cause the lithosphere to bend. The Hawaiian
ridge is a line of volcanic Island and seamounts that extends thousands of
kilometers across the Pacific.

These volcanic rocks provide a linear load that has the width of about 150km and
average amplitude of 100MPa.

To study the deflection of the lithosphere under linear loading, let consider the
behaviour of a plate under a line load applied at = 0 and zero everywhere
except at = 0, we can take ( ) and = 0 and solving:

+( ) =0

The deflection of the plate in terms of is:

= ( + )

Flexural parameter ( )
/
4
=
( )

Bending of the elastic lithosphere at an ocean trench

Prior the subduction of oceanic lithosphere, considerable bending occurs. The bent
lithosphere defines the ocean ward side of the trench.

To model this behaviour, let consider an elastic plate acted upon by an end load
and a bending moment .

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The elastic deflection of the oceanic lithosphere in terms of the vertical force and
bending moment at the ocean trench axis is given as follows:

= +( + )
2
The vertical force and bending moment are the result of the gravitational body
force acting on the descending plate. and cannot be determined directly.

Flexure and Structural of sedimentary basin

Lithosphere flexure is associated with the formation of many sedimentary basins.

A sedimentary basin is a region where the earths surface has been depressed and
the resulting depression has been filled by sediments.

Type of sedimentary

Typical sedimentary basins have depths up to 5km, although some are as deep as
15km. the horizontal dimensions of these sedimentary basins, about 400 to
1000km, reflect the magnitude of the flexural parameter based on sediments of
/
density replacing mantle rock of density , = ( )
.

Because sedimentary basins contain reservoirs of petroleum their structures are

studied using seismic reflection profiling and well logs.

- Some sedimentary basins are bounded by near vertical faults along which
the subsidence has occurred.
- Other sedimentary basins have a smooth basement and the subsidence is
associated with the flexure of the elastic lithosphere.
- Some sedimentary basins have a nearly two dimensional structure. These are
caused by the loading of a linear mountain belt and are known as foreland
basins. For example; the series of sedimentary basins lying east of the Andes
in South America and the Appalachian basin in the Eastern United States in
west of the Appalachian mountains.

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