Cambridge ENDORSED BY International AS and A Level # CAMBRIDGEENDORSED BY [3 CAMBRIDGE International Examinations Cambridge International AS and A Level eta Peter Cann & Peter Hughes (> HODDER ? EDUCATION ‘ater UR Com‘Questions from Caunbrdge International AS und A Level Chemisty papers are reproduced by ‘Permission of Cambridge Inernational Examinations, ‘Cambeidge Intemational Examinations hears no responsiiay forthe example answers to ‘questions taken from is past question papers which are contained in hls beolCD. ‘Questions fom OCR past papers ate rependiced by permisslon of CCK. 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Apt fromm any use permited under UK copyright law, no pat ofthis pblcation may be repreuced or tansmited in any fon of by any means, electronic o¢ ‘mechanic, nehiding photocopying and recording, of hold within say sformaien storage ane renee system, without person in weting frm the publisher or under cence fom the Copyright Lcersing Agency Lime Frter datas ef sch Heences (or reprogaphlc reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyaght Licensing Agency Limite, Sfiron House, 6-10 Kuby Stoo, London CANT. Cover photo by © kurgaya ~ Poti. ‘Musrauons by Backing Dog An ‘Typeset in ITC Garamond Light 9/12 by Aptara In. Priced Dubal ‘tale recon fo dis eis vate fom the Bish tary ISBNOTS 1444 18133 3Contents Introduction AS Level CR us Topic 1 Chemical formulae and moles Topic 2 The structure of the atom Topic 3 Chemical bonding i Topic 4 Solids, liquids and gases simple molecules . Topic 5 Energy changes in chemistry Topic 6 Acids and bases Topic 7 Oxidation and reduction Topic 8 Rates of reaction Topic 9 Equilibria... reseed Topic 10 Periodicity Topic 11 Group 17 Topic 12 Introduction to organic chemistry Topic 13 Alkanes Topic 14 Alkenes Topic 15 Halogenoalkanes Topic 16 Alcohols... Topic 17 Aldehydes and ketones. Topic 18 Carboxylic acids and esters. rece) ee) Topic 19 Practical work 20 44 Cy 97 118 136 14 1m 186 202 209 24 251 267 281 294 305 316Contents rN ETA} DER eusi ‘Topic 20 Further energy changes. Topic 21 Quantitative kinetics Topic 22 Quantitative equilibria Topic 23 Electrochemistry Inorganic chemistry Topic 24 The 3d block. Cees Topic 25 Arenes and phenols Topic 26 Carboxylic acids ~ derivatives and further reactions Topic 27 Amines, amides and amino acids Topic 28 Addition and condensation polymers Topic 29 Techniques of analysis ‘Topic 30 Organic synthesis and analysis. Student's CD contents Answers to ‘Now try this’ questions Additional work Interactive tests Topic summaries Revision checklists Examination structure Planning your revision Examination technique Glossary of command words Mathematical background Chemical data Glossaries iv 329 349 367 381 397Acknowledgements ‘We are grateful forthe help given by Judy Potter in selecting and writing topic-oriented questions, and forthe unstntingly professional support and cooperation given by the staf at Hodder Education: Nina Konrad, Emilie Kerton, Laurice Suess, Anne ‘Trevllion and Anne Wane ‘The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Photo credits: p.1 © The Granger Collecion, NYC/TopFoto; p.2 © Jeff Blackler/Rex Features; Iv © Bicipici/Alamy; be © Niks Jorgenseny/Rex Features; br © Chis Lofty ~ Fotolia; pt © Eye OF Science/Sclence Photo Library; p14 © lowefoto/Alamy: p.21 © Rex Feauures; p.23 © RGB Ventures/Supersiock/Alamy; p.27 © Geoff Tompkinson/Science Photo Library; p.73 © Zygimancas Copaitis— Fotolia; p.81 he © De Jeremy Burgess/Sclence Photo Library; br ® Alired Pasicka/Scionce Photo Library; p.87 © David Hughes/Hemera Thinkstock; p.88 © Paul Fleer/Alamy; p.90 be © Charles D. 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Chilleaid P.6; p.9s P-12; p.16; PBL; P.8G; P.87; p.8B; p.L18; p.127: p.129, p.130, p.145: p-A4T, p.158; p.1GI: p.205; p.206; p.215; 216; p.224: p.225; p.255; P.255: p.256; p.269; p.283; p.300; p-301; P-519; p.320; P.321; P.375: PAT: PAT: PAST: P.ATT: ATS: p.529: p.530 Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to malce the ncceseary atrangements atthe Fst opportunityIntroduction Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemichy ses some of the content from Chemistry for Advanced Level, but thas been completely revised by the original authors to cater for those students and teachers involved with the Cambridge Invernational Examinations syllabus 9701 ‘The book has been fully endorsed by Cambridge Intemational Examinations, andl i listed as an endorsed textbook for scents studying ths syllabus. The syllabus ‘content has been covered comprehensively, and has been separated into AS material, which comprises Topies 1-19, ‘hilt the A Level material is dealt with in Topics 20-30 All the Learning ouitcomes specified in che syllabus are Included in the hook. Af the stat of each Topic the specific Learning outcomes relevant to that Topic are cleadly stated, sing the same wording as in the syllabus, so that students ‘can cleuly see the syllabus areas covered by the Topic. ‘The chatt on the following page summarises the syllabus ‘coverage in each Topic. ‘Throughout each Topie there are worked examples, with answer, 10 illustrate the concepts recently introduced. These are followed by a few ‘Now try this’ questions, allowing suidents ta test themselves, Answers to these questions are ‘on the accompanying Students! CD-ROM, Each Topie ends with a simmary of the key points covered, together with a ist of key reactions where relevant Finally, several past examination questions have been selected that ilustrite how the subject matter of the Topic thas been assessed in the past. Answers to these questions ‘will be Found on the Teachers! CD-ROM ‘To allow students andl teachers locate easily the various aspects of the subject, the onder of Topics is a logical one, ‘starting withthe essential basi principles of physical chemisry and then inirlucing the application of those principles fsaly to inorganic chemisty and then to organic chemistry. No teaching order is implied by this, however Tr has been found that axing principles and applications with facmial content ‘thionighout the course is often the best way to achieve a deeper and broader understanding of chemisty, Teachers are recommended to consul the schemes of work published by ‘Cambridge International Examinations on their website for some suggested methods of delivering the subject material, A feature of the new 2016 syllabus isthe intreuction of Key concepts. These are essential ideas, theories, principles ‘of mental tools that help learners o develop a deep Understanding of their subject and make links between the different topics, Although teachers are likely 1 have these in mind at all times when they ae teaching the syllabus, we have included in the text the following icons at points whece the Key concepts relate to the text. Atoms and forces ~ Matter is built from atoms intecacting and bonding through electrostatic forces. The structure of iter affects its physical and chemical propeaies, and inflvences how substances react chemically Experiments and evidence ~ Chemists use evidence sained from observations and experiments to build models ‘and theories of the structure and reactivity of materials e 8 Patierns in chemical behaviour and reactions ~ By Identifying pattems in chemical hehaviowr we can predict the propetios of substances and how they can be transformed into new substances by chemical reactions. This allows us to design new materials of use to society. (Chemical bonds — the understanding of how chemical bonds are made and broken by the movement of electrons allows us to predict patterns of reactivity. e. 8 Energy changes ~The energy changes that take place ducing chemical reactions can be used to predict both the lextent and the rate of such reactions “This hook has heen designed to he accessible to all AS and A Level students, but also attempts to go some way towards satisfying the curiosity of the able student, and to answering the questions of the inquistiv. although based firmly on the AS and A Level syllabus of Cambridge International Examinations, teachers and students will ind the subject matter and style of questions make i suitable {or several other syllabuses. The subject mater has been ‘extended in some areas where an application, oF a more Jundamental explanation, is deemed to be appropriate ‘These extensions are clearly delimited from the main ext in panels, and can be bypassed on first reading “The majonity of students starting an AS course in ‘chemistry come from 2 backgroud of IGCSE Chemisy ‘oF Combined Science, and the inkial chapters sat at a level and a pace that is sited to all such students, Some students come to AS chemistry with the belif that they wil find the mathematics dificult, although the mathematical concepts required for chemistry are simple in principle and Jew in number, We hope to demonstrate tha, as long as the processes are understood, rather than learned by roe, the mathematics in both the AS and A Level Topics is well within the grasp of those who have gained a grade C at IGcse* students also sometimes consider that chemistry isa subject fll of dificult concepts. Ths is nt tae. Most of |‘chemistry is based on the very simplest idea of electrostatics = like charges repel, unlike charges atract. When the subsle ramifications of this generalisation are studied during the AS and A Level courses, students should constantly remind themselves of the inherent simplicity ofthis relationship, Chemisty is the central science, atthe crossroads of biology and its associated disciplines on the one hand, and phiysies on the other: Chemistry relies on physics for its Uunderstanding of the fundamental building blocks oF matte, and biology relies on chemisry for an understanding of the ‘enicnares of living organisms, and the processes that go oa inside thom that we call life, Standing at this crosscoads, the chemist is uniquely positioned 10 understand, and make significant contributions to, many interdiseiplinany areas of ‘cocrent and future importance. The chemisty-based sciences of biochemisty, genetic engineering, pharmacology, andl polymer and material science will all make increasing ‘contibutions to our physical and material well-being in the future. Chemists are also playing a key role in the fight against industrial society's pollution of our envionment ‘We hope you enjoy discovering the secrets of chemistry during your A8/4 Level course, Peter Cann Peter Hughes (® IGCSE is the registered trademark of Cambeidge International Examinations sow the Cantngeoxring cts cote bythe 30 Tes eee 1 [eis 16 [rat 2 [zras wp 3 [pa saas0 is | @ isiab ies @ fauaaasamas, [19 ]- a2 630.08 = [eae 529 20a Sh, Ha, 53541010) & [isa 7a | > [@e-m) 926,83 7 [asm,61.629 | 2 [720473 20) a ab, aaa, | 2 [62.63.68 aad ofa be |b), 122, 3 BA us 1 [aasasa |B [wa isave totae, 131,122 TW [tens 25 [7d 9H) 12 | 1.5b), 14.12),b), che), 27 | 20.1, 20.2, 203 tants B [si 15308 Ea REE ve [raa.ts2 va |i. 222,723,724 bs i [ia t62 30 [a3This page intentionally left blankAS Level Physical chemistry 1 Chemical formulae and moles inthe levels emia!) (eaming outcomes ere etten eMA | by end cftstone yous babe o valencies (or combining powers) of ‘atoms and ions. We also introduce the chemists’ fundamental counting unit, the mole, and show you how ‘1.4a) define and uso the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula masses, bbasad on the "scale 4124) deline and use the term mole in terns ofthe Avogacio constant, {.a) define and use the terms empirical and molecular formula Uiconibe ales cer iree ier {Lb) calculate empircal and molecular formulae, using combustion data or composition ‘empirical formulae and the amounts yas SIRE ee) 15a) orite and construct balanced equations rari chloe) feiss ores 115b) perform calculators, including use ofthe mole concept, involving reacting open col ena eset mass (rom formulae and equations), volumes of gases (ein the burning of the worked examples, and then try hhysrocarbors), volumes and concentrations of solutions, and relate the number of the ‘Now try this’ questions that ‘igatficant figures in your answers to those given or asked for in the question follow them. 115¢) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such a those in 1.5b) 1.1 Introduction What is chemistry? [Chemistry is the study of the properties of matter. By matter, we mean the substances that we can see, feel, touch, taste and smell ~ the stuff that males up the ‘material world. Passive observation forms only a small part of a chemists interest fn the world, Chemisss are actively inquisitive scientists. We tr Co understand why matter has the properties it does, and how 10 modify these properties by changing ‘one substance into another through chemical reactions Chemistry as a modern science began a few hundred years ago, when chemists started to relate the observations they made about the substances they were investigating to theories of the structure of matter. One of the most important of these theories was the Atomic Theory. It is just over 200 years since John Dakton put forward his ides that all matter was composed of atoms. is theory stated that: @ the atoms of different clements were different from each other the atoms of a particular clement were identical to each other 4 all atoms stayed the same over time and could be neither created nor destroyed all mater was made up From a relatively small number of elements (Dalton thought, bout 50) combined in vardous ways Figure 1.1 iohn Dalion, who fist suggested Although Dalton's theory bias had to be mocified slighty, is sil a useful starting tha madein Atomic Theory point for the sul of chemistryPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Since that time chemists have uncovered and explained many of the world's mysteries, from working ont how elements are formed within stars to discovering. how our genes replicate, On the way they have discovered thousands of new methods of conveiting one substance into another, and have made millions of new substances, many of which are of great economic and medical benefit the human race (see Figure 1.2) Figure 1.2 some examples ofthe economic medical and agrcutural bereits of chemisty Classifying matter - elements, compounds and mixtures (Chemists classify matter into one of three categories. '¢ Elements contain just one sort of atom, Although the atoms of particular element may lifer slightly in mass (see Section 2.3), hey all have identical chemical seactions. Examples of elements include hydrogen gas, copper metal and diamond crystals (hich are eashon), {¢ Compounds are made up from the atoms of ro or more different elements, boncled together chemically. The ratio of elements within a particular compound is fixed, and is given by its chemical Formula (see page 7). The physical and chemical properties of a compound are akvays different from those of the elements that ‘make it up. Examples of compounds inchude sodium chloride (containing sodium and chlorine ions), water (containing hydrogea and oxygen atoms) and penicillin (containing hydrogen, carbon, aiteogen, oxygen and sulfur atoms).‘Chemical formulae and moles {¢ Mixtures consist of more than one compound or eloment, mixed but not chemi cally combined. The components can he mixed in any proportion, and the proper ties ofa mixture are often the sum of, oF the average of, the propenies of the individval components, Examples of mistuces inchide aig, sea water and alloys such as brass, 1.2 Intensive and extensive properties ‘The propenies of matter may be divided ito two groups. f¢ The extensive properties depend on how much mater-we are studying. Common examples are mass and volume —a cupful of water has less mass, and less volume, than a swimming pool (¢ The osher group are the imensive properties, which do not depend on how much matter we have. Examples inchide temperature, colour and density. A copper Using the 4: values O= 16.0, Mg = 240, S= 3200, calculate the amount of substance {in moles) in each ofthe following samples. 1 2409 of caggen 2 2409 of sulfur 3 16.09 of magnesium 1 =6,022 « 10 mot! Now try ti Calculate the amount af substance (in moles) in 1a sample of uranium that contains 1.0 10% atoms 2 a sample of fluorine that contains 5x 10" atoms Chemical formulae and moles Ie follows from the above definition thar there is a clear relationship berween the ‘mass (mi of a sample of aa element and the number of moles (n) it contains arount(n makes) =« TS co) amp What i the amount (in moles of carbon in 30g of carbon? Use the value 4,carbon) = 12.0 to wrt its molar mass, and use equation (1) above: m=30g and M=120gr0l" ee ‘Togmort 25mol er As we saw on page 5, the actual masses of atoms are vory smal. We would therefore ‘expect the muimber of stoms in & mole of an clemeat to be wea lage. This is indeed the ease. One mole of an clement contains «staggering 6.022% 10" atoms (six duunded and two thoussnd two hundred milion milion mlion atoms), This value is called the Avogadro constant, symbot L “The approximate value of = 6.0 x 10 mols often adequate, and will be used fn calewlations i this book. ‘The relationship between the number of moles in a sample of an element and the amber of atoms & contains sa follows: number of atoms = Lx number of roles of N=Ln How many hydrogen atoms ae there in 1.51mol of hydrogen ators? Answer Uso equation (2), and the value of Lgivan abow: 1=60x 102mor? and n=1.5mol $2 N=60x 102mor x 1.8mol = 9.0% 102 1.6 Atomic symbols and formulae ach clement has a unique Symbol. Symbols consist of either one or two letters. The fictis always a capital letter and the second, if present, is always a lower-case letter, ‘This rule avoids confusions an ambiguities when the symbols are combined to make the formulae of compounds. For example: {the symbol for hydrogen is H {the symbol for helium is He (aot HE or bE) {the symbol for cobalt is Co (not CO — this is the formula of carbon monoxide ‘which contains two atoms in its molecule, one of carbon and one of oxygen).PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY How many atoms in total are present in ‘one formula unit ofeach ofthe following compounds? NHN} 2 NoxCriO> 3 KCHSOd2 4 Calin06 5 NasFetC20.), Symbols are combined to make np the formulae of compotnds. f more than ane atom ‘of a panicilar clement is present, ts symbol & followed by a subscript giving the numer of atoms ofthat clement contained in one formula unit of the compound, For example 1 the formula of copper oxide is CuO (one atom of copper combined with one atom of oxygen) the formula of water is HO («wo atoms of hydrogen combined with one atom of oxygen) {the formula of phosphori(V) acd is H,PO, (Uhree atoms of hydrogen combined ‘with one of phosphorus and four of oxygen). Sometimes, especially when the compound consists of ons rather than molecules Gee Tapie 4, groups of atoms ina formula ate kept together by the use of brackets, TF more than one of a particular group is presen, the closing bucket i followed hy a subscript giving the mimher of groups preseat. This practice males the connections berween similar compounds clearee. For example: 6 te formula of sodium nate is NaNO (one sodium on, a combined wil ene rate Jon, NO}, which consbis cf one mitogen atom combined wilh uee cxygen atoms) the formula of calcium nivate is CatNO,); (one calcium fon, Ca, combined wih two nite ions [Note that in caleium niteate, the formula unit consists of one calcium, wo nitrogens and shx oxygens, bur its not writen as CaN,Os. This Formula would not make cleat the connection berween Cx(NO.)s and NaNOs, Both compounds are nates, and both undergo similar reactions of the aitate ions ‘The formulae of many fonic compounds can be predicted if the valencies of the fons are known. (The valency of an ion is the electrical charge on the ion.) Similac, the formulae of several of the simpler covalent (molecular) compounds can be predicted if the covalencies of the constituent atoms ate kaown. (The covalency of fan atom is the number of covalent boads that the atom can form with adjacent atoms in a molecule.) Lists of covalencies and fonic valencies, and examples of how to use them, are given on pages 49 and 79. How mary atoms of each element are presentin one formula unit of each of the folowing ‘compounds? a AKOH)s b (NHhS0, Answer 4 The subscript aftar the dosing bracket multiplies all the contans ofthe brackat by threo, ‘There are therefore three OH (hycrexide) oroups, each containing one oxygen and one lnydrogen atom, making a total of three oxygen atoms and three hyrogen ators, ‘togethor with one aluminium atom. Here there are two ammonium groups, each containing one nitrogen atom and four lnydrogen atoms, and one sulfate group, containing one sulfur atom and four oxygen atoms. In total, therefore, there are: two nitrogen ators * eight hydrogen atoms one afar atom = four oxygen atoms. 1.7 Moles and compounds Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass Just as we can weigh out a mole of eazbon (12.0), so we can weigh out a mole ‘of a compound such as ethanol (alcohol), We Fist ced to calculate its relative ‘molecular mass,Figure 1.6 one-tenth of amole of each ofthe compoures wate, potassium dichromate (kx en sullate--water (CUS0y 5420) Chemical formulae and moles To calculate the relative molecular mass (4) of a compound, we add together the relative atomic masses (4,) of all the elements present in one molecule of the compouind (remembering to snultiply the -, values by the correct mumber if more than one atom of a particular element is present). So for ethanol, C3H;0, swe have: B= 24LO) + GAD + ALO) 2x 120+6% 10+ 160 = 460 Just as with relative atomic mass, values of relative molecular mass are ratios of ‘masses, and have no units. The molar mass of ethanol is 460gmoF". For ionic and giant covalent compounds (see Topic 4), we cannot, strictly, refer to thelr relative molecular masses, as they da nce consist of individual molecules, For these compounds, we add together the relative atomic masses of all the cclements present in the simplest (empirical) formula, The result is ealled the relative Formula mass, but is givea the same symbol as relative molecular mass, My Just as swith molecules, the mass of one forma unit is called the molar mass, symbol A For example, the relative formula mass of sodium chloride, NaCl, is calculated as follows: Bie= ANA) + ACD 204355 = 585 “The molar mass of sodhum chloride is $8 Sgmor We can apply equation (1) (page 7) to compounds as well as fo elements, Once the: ‘molar mass has been calculated, we can relate the mass of a sample of a compound! to the number af moles it contin, € Cusd,5H,0 2503 7m Calculate the relative molecular mass of glucose, CeH1z0e. Answer M,= 6A{C)+ 124,(H)+ 640) =6x 120+ 12x 1046x160 720+ 120+ 96.0 180.0 = urPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 1 Coleulote the relative formula mass of ‘ch ofthe fllowing compounds. (Use thelist of Ayvaluesin the data section fon the CD) «Iron sulfate, FeSO b calcium hydregencartaonate, CaQCOnle « ethanoie acd, CoHs02 4 ammonium silat, (NH4) SOx «© the complex withthe formula NasfelCa0a)s 2 How many moles of substance are ‘therein each of the folowing samples? 4 209 of magnesium oxide, MgO bb 0g of methane, CH «609 of calaum carbonate, CacOs 1d 809 of cydopropene, CoH {© 1009 of sodium dichromate, NazCrO7 3 What isthe mass af aach of the following samples? 43 1'S males of magnesium sulfate, NigSO bb 0.333 mote of aluminium chloride, alc Calculate the empirical formula of each of the following compounes 1 asullide of copper containing 3.979 of copper and 1.00g of sulfur 2 ahydrocatbon containing 81.8% catbon and 182% hydrogen 3 a mixed oxide of on and calelum \which contains 51.9% iron and 18.59% calcium by mass (the rest being caygen) How mary moles are there in 609 of glucose? Answer CConert he relative molecular mass calculated in Worked example 1 to the moar mass, M, ‘and use the fomula in equation (1: 09 M= 180 gmol A mole of what? ‘When dealing with compounds, we aced to dafine clearly what the word ‘mole’ refers to. A mole of water contains 6 108 molecules of H,0. But because each ‘molecule contains two hydrogen stoms, a mole of 140 molecules will contain rwo moles of hydrogen atoms, that is 12 x 10 hydrogen atoms, Likewise, a mole of sulfuric acid, H,50,, will contain two moles of hydrogen atoms, one mole of sulfur atoms and four moles of oxygen atoms. A mole of calcium chloride, CaCh, contains twice the number of ehloride ions as does a mole of sodium chloride, NaCl. Sometimes this also applies to elements. The phrase ‘one mole of chlorine! s ambignous. One mole of chlorine molecules contains 6 10" Ch unis, but it contains 12 x 10® chlorine atoms (2mol of CD. 1.8 Empirical formulae and molecular formulae ‘The empirical formula is the smolest formula that shows the relative numberof atoms of ‘each element present in @ compound If we know the percentage compasition by mass of a compound, or the masses of the various elements thar make itp, we can work out the ratios of atoms ‘The steps in the calculation are as follows, 1 Divide the percentage Cor mass) of each element by the elements relative atomic 2 Divide each of the figures obtained in step 1 by the smallest of those figuees 3 Ifthe results of the calcultions do nat approximate to whole numbers, auliply them all by 2 to obtain whole numbers (In rare cases we might have to muhiply by 3.06 410 obzain whole aumbers) rk CCaleuate the empirical formula of an oxide of ito that contains 70% Fa by mass. ample Answer ‘The axide contains ron and oxygen only, so the percentage of oxygen is 100~ 70. Following the stops above: 70 vrege=125 o:B1a75 128, 1875 2 Fe 128, L878, TB-100 0: 5B 1.50 23 Multiply both numnbors by 2: Fo=2, O= 3, Therefore the empirical formula is FeaOs 5Chemical formulae and moles ‘The molecular formula is either the same as, ora simple multiple of, the empirical formula. For example, the molecule of hydrogea peroxide contains ewo hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms Its molecular Formula is HO, but ts empicical Formula is HO. ‘The molecular formula tells us the actual number of atoms of each element present in a ‘molecule ofthe compound, 1.9 Equations Mass is conserved {A chemical equation represents what happens dusing a chemical eeaction. A key feature of chemical reactions is that they proceed with no measirable change in mass atall. Many obvious events can often be seen taking place — the evolution of heat, flashes of light, chaages of colour, noise and evolution of gases, But despite these “sometimes dramatic signs that a reaction is happening, the sum of the masses of all, the various produets i always found to be equal tothe sum of the masses of the ‘This was one of the fist quantitative laws of chemistiy, and is known as the Law of ‘Conservation of Mass. I cin be illustrated simply bur effectively by the Following experiment. Figure 1.7 During the formation of lel The conservation of mass A small test tube has a length of cotton thread tied round its neck, an is half filled ‘with lead) nitrate solution. Ie is carefully lowered into a conical flask containing potassium iodide solution, taking care not to spl ts contents, A bung is placed In the neck of the conical flask, so that the cotton thread is trapped by is side, as, shown in Figure 1.7, The whole apparatus is then weighed “The conical flask is now shalcen vigorously to mix the contents, A action takes place, and the bright yellow solid lesa) iodide is formed. On re-weighing the conical Nask with its contents, the mass is found to be identical tothe inital aes lead riteate solution potasium yellow precipitate Todide Bf lend) ouide mmassbefore= 286.7469 *NNOP ass after = 246.746 3 Balanced equations ‘The reason why the mass does not change during a chemical reaction is because no atoms aze ever created or destroyed. The number of atoms of exch element is the same at the end as at the heginning, All that has happened is that they have changed WPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY their chemical eaviconment. In the example in the experiment above, the change can be represented in words as: lead) nitmte_, potessiam iodide _, solid lead) potassium oikate = - te = | \ 4 i x \ “x4 ( sy z 4 4 “There are several steps we must cany out to convert this Word equation into 2 balanced chemical equation, 1 Work out and write dowa the formula of each of the compounds in turn, and describe ts physical state using the correct one of the following four state symbols, @=ms M=liquid G)=s0lid Gq): For the above reaction: lead) nitrate solution is PhNO»)aq) ‘potassium iodide solution is KTGaq) solid lead) iodide is PIs) potassium nitrate solution is KNO,(aq) yueous solution (dissolved in wates) “The equation nowr becomes PHINO,),(aq) + Klleq) > PHI,G) + KNO(sq) 2 The next step fs 1 balance the equation, That is, We must ensene that we have the same number of atoms of each element an the right-hand side as on the lefhand side, Looking atthe equation ia stop 1 above, we notice that there are two iodine atoms of the right, in Pb, but only one on the lef, in KI Also, there are two nitrate groups on the left, in Pb(NO})>, but only one on the sight, in KNOs, We can balance the iodine atoms by having two formula units of KI oa the let, that is 2K1. (Note that we cannot change the formula to Kl ~ that would not ccorrecly represent potassium iodide, which always comtains equal numbers of potassium and iodide ions.) «We can balance the nates by having two formula units of KNO, on the sgh chat is 2KNO,, This also balances up the pocusiom atoms, which, although originally the same on both sides, became unbalanced when we changed KI 10 2KT in step b. ‘The fully balanced equation is now: PHINO, saa) + 2KIlaq) — PbI,) + 2KNO,(0a) leis clear that we have neither lost nor gained any atoms, but that they have swapped pattness ~ the iodine was criginally combined with potassium, but has cended up being combined with lead; the nitrate groups have changed their partner from lead to potassium, 121 Copy the following equations and balance them, 4 Halg) + 0x9) + 2010 b 1x5)+ Chia) Chas) © NaOH(aq) + AKOHIR) NaAlOaq) + H201) HeSlq) + SOxe) + Sis) + HOD © NHi4q) + Oalg) > Nala) + #200) 2 Write balanced symbol equations for the following reactions. ‘2: magnesium carbonate + magnesium oxide + catbon dioxide b lead +slvor nitrate solution —» load ritrata solution + svee « sodium oxide + water ~» sodium yori solution «4 iron(l) chide + chlorine (Cla) iron chloride « iron sulle + sodium hydroxide —+ iron hydeoxide-+ sodium sulfate Chemical formulae and moles White the balanced cherica equation forthe folowing rection: Zinc metal + hydrochloric aid -» zine chlo solution + hydrogen gas Answer Folowing the stops gven above: 1 Zincmatal is Zn. Hydrochloric aide Hctfag) Zinc chloride solution i rca. Hydrogen gasis Hi) hydrogen, lke many non-metalicelemen, eds in molecules mad up of two atom) The equation now becomes 2nis-+HCkaq) > Zag) + HG) 2 There aro two hydrogen atoms and two chlrin ators on the right, but only one of each ofthese onthe lf 'b We can balance both of them by just one change —having two formula units of HCLon thelett The fly balanced equation is now: Zn\s) +2HCKaq) > ZnCh(eq) + Halo) 1.10 Using the mole in mass calculations {We are now in a postion to loolk at how the masses of the indiicual substances in 2 chomical equation are related. As-an example, take the reaction berweon marble chips (calctum carbonate) and hydeochloric ace: (CaCO) + 2HCMag) + CaChGeq) + H,000 + CO) ‘When this reaction is caied out in an open conical Mask on a top-pan balance, the mass is observed to decrease, (Note that this is not due to the destruction of matter ~ as was mentioned on page 1 the overall number of atoms does not change dusing a chemical reaction. Rather, it due to the fact thatthe gaseous Gabon dioxide produced escapes into the ait.) We can use the knowledge gained in this topic 1 calculate the answer tothe following question: '¢ By how much would the mass decrease if 50g of marble chips were completely reacted with an excess of hydrochloric acid? ‘We use the following steps! 1 We can use equation (1) (page 7) to calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate in 50g of macble chips: = 0.50mol of CaCO, 2 From the balanced equation above, we see that one mole of calcium carbonate produces one mole of carbon dioxide, Therefore the number of moles of carbon dioxide produced isthe sime as the number of moles of calcium carbonate we started ovth, namely 0.50mol of carbon dioxide, 3 Lastly, we can use a rearranged form of equation (1) to caleulate what mass of cathon dionide this comresponds to, BPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY n= wo m=nxt — -MCO)= M : 2.042% 160-440 4.ogmor! 50mal also m= 050ml x 44.0 gmor" 0g ‘The loss in mass (due tothe cathon dioxide being evolved) Is 22.08. ‘The three steps can be summarised as shown in Figure 19. Figure 1.9 Finding the mass of 2 ps from the mass of reactant, of vice versa ‘ass of first reactant or product sk moles of fst reactant or product |___, [ati rem balanced eguation| i moles of second reactant or product| | [pan xm | ‘mass of second reactant or product ‘The highly exothermic thermit reaction (sae Figure 1.10) is used to weld together the steel rails of ralway tacks. lt involves the reduction of ron(l) oxide to ron by alia, 2s) +Fep03S) > Alz046)-+ 2Fls) Figure 1.10 weld together the Use the char in Figure 1.9 to calculate what mass of aluminium is needed to react completely with 10.09 of iron) oxide1 What mass of silver wal be precipitated \when 5.09 of copper are reacted with an excess of silver nitrate solution? CuG)-+2AgNO4aq) + CulNOs)e9) + 2Aa(s) 2. What mass of ammonia wil be formed when 50.09 of nitrogen are passed ‘through the Haber process? (Assume 100% comeson) xa) + 3Hy(Q) + 2NHYa) 1 What volume of carbon dioxde (measured at room temperature and pressure) wil be produced when 5.09 of calaum carbonate are decomposed by heating according to the folowing equation? acd; + €a0+ 0, 2 Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulnde 9280s react according to the equation: 2H,S + $0; 24,0 + 35 What volume of aufurdloide will be needed to react completely ‘with 10Dcm? of hydrogen sulfide (both volumes measured at room ‘temperature and pressure), end what ‘mass of sulfur will be formed? Chemical formulae and moles 11.6 +480 1596 5584316! 159.6amot" ‘number of moles of Koni) one (9) = 109. m6 627d 2 Fro tho blanca uation one mol of ron oxide eats with wo ok of alumina. therefore Tui of moles ein 7) = 0.06272 3 A(AI)=27.0 so M- 128mal 125melx27.0gmor 389 1.11 Moles of gases “The molar masses of most compouinds are different. The molar volumes of most solid and liquid compounds are also diferent. But the molar volumes of gases (when measured at the same temperature and pressure) are all the same. This strange coincidence results from the fact that most of a gas is in fact empty space — the molecules take up less than a thousandth of its volume at normal temperatures (ase section 4.13). The volume of the molecules is negligible compared with the total volume, and so any variation in their indivial size will not affect the overall volume, AE oom temperature (25°C, 298K) and normal presse (Lata, 1.01 % 10°Pa 4.0m? mor the molar volume of any gas So-we ean say that volume Gin dr) molar volume av mo ‘oF volume of gas in din? = molar volume x moles of gas v=240x0 amount of gas (in moles) irked = \What volume of hydrogen (measured at room tamperature and pressure) wil be produced ‘when 7.0g of iron are reacted with an excess of sulfuric acid? Answer ‘Tho equation forthe raactions as follows: Fels) + ,50,(aq) + FeSO4(aq)+ Hale) 1 Alfe)=55.8 so M=55.89mor! amount Gn moles) of on = 700 Barer = 0.125 nol 2 From the balanced equation, one mole cf iron produces one mole of hysrogen molecules, ‘therefore: ‘number of moles of Hy= 0.125 mol 3 volume of Hy dn dm®)= molar volume x moles of Hy 4. Odir# mot" x 0.1250 Odin? CS 5