Climate change
For current and future climatological eects of human
inuences, see global warming. For the study of past
climate change, see paleoclimatology. For temperatures
on the longest time scales, see geologic temperature
record.
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribu-
tion of weather patterns when that change lasts for an
extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of
years). Climate change may refer to a change in average
weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather
around longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or
fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused
by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar ra-
diation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic
eruptions. Certain human activities have also been iden-
tied as signicant causes of recent climate change, often
referred to as global warming.[1]
Scientists actively work to understand past and future
climate by using observations and theoretical models. A
climate recordextending deep into the Earths past
has been assembled, and continues to be built up, based
on geological evidence from borehole temperature pro-
les, cores removed from deep accumulations of ice,
oral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial processes,
stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and
records of past sea levels. More recent data are provided
by the instrumental record. General circulation models,
based on the physical sciences, are often used in theoret-
ical approaches to match past climate data, make future
projections, and link causes and eects in climate change.
1 Terminology
See also: Global warming Etymology
The most general denition of climate change is a change
in the statistical properties (principally its mean and
spread)[2] of the climate system when considered over
long periods of time, regardless of cause.[3] Accordingly,
uctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such
as El Nio, do not represent climate change.
The term sometimes is used to refer specically to
climate change caused by human activity, as opposed
to changes in climate that may have resulted as part
of Earths natural processes.[4] In this sense, especially
in the context of environmental policy, the term cli-
1
mate change has become synonymous with anthropogenic
global warming. Within scientic journals, global warm-
ing refers to surface temperature increases while climate
change includes global warming and everything else that
increasing greenhouse gas levels aect.[5]
2 Climatic change versus climate
change
In 1966, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
proposed the term climatic change to encompass all
forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than
10 years, whether the cause was natural or anthropogenic.
Change was a given and climatic was used as an ad-
jective to describe this kind of change (as opposed to
political or economic change). When it was realized
that human activities had a potential to drastically alter
the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic
change as the dominant term to reect an anthropogenic
cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). Climate change, used as a noun, became an
issue rather than the technical description of changing
weather.[6]
3 Causes
On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is re-
ceived from the Sun and the rate at which it is lost to
space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate
of Earth. This energy is distributed around the globe by
winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to aect
the climates of dierent regions.
Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings
or forcing mechanisms. These include processes such
as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earths
orbit, variations in the albedo or reectivity of the conti-
nents and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift
and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are
a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either am-
plify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the
climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond
more slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others
respond more quickly. There are also key threshold fac-
tors which when exceeded can produce rapid change.
2 3 CAUSES

Forcing mechanisms can be either internal or exter- and thus very high thermal inertia. For example, alter-
nal. Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes ations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circula-
within the climate system itself (e.g., the thermohaline tion play a key role in redistributing heat in the worlds
circulation). External forcing mechanisms can be either oceans. Due to the long timescales of this circulation,
natural (e.g., changes in solar output) or anthropogenic ocean temperature at depth is still adjusting to eects of
(e.g., increased emissions of greenhouse gases). the Little Ice Age[15] which occurred between the 1600
Whether the initial forcing mechanism is internal or ex- and 1800s.
ternal, the response of the climate system might be fast
(e.g., a sudden cooling due to airborne volcanic ash re-
ecting sunlight), slow (e.g. thermal expansion of warm-
ing ocean water), or a combination (e.g., sudden loss of
albedo in the arctic ocean as sea ice melts, followed by
more gradual thermal expansion of the water). There-
fore, the climate system can respond abruptly, but the full
response to forcing mechanisms might not be fully devel-
oped for centuries or even longer.

3.1 Internal forcing mechanisms

Scientists generally dene the ve components of earths
A schematic of modern thermohaline circulation. Tens of mil-
climate system to include atmosphere, hydrosphere, lions of years ago, continental-plate movement formed a land-
cryosphere, lithosphere (restricted to the surface soils, free gap around Antarctica, allowing the formation of the ACC,
rocks, and sediments), and biosphere.[7] Natural changes which keeps warm waters away from Antarctica.
in the climate system (internal forcings) result in inter-
nal climate variability.[8] Examples include the type and
distribution of species, and changes in ocean-atmosphere
circulations.
3.1.2 Life
3.1.1 Ocean-atmosphere variability
Life aects climate through its role in the carbon
Main article: Thermohaline circulation and water cycles and through such mechanisms as
See also: Climate inertia albedo, evapotranspiration, cloud formation, and
[16][17][18]
The ocean and atmosphere can work together to sponta- weathering. Examples of how life may have
aected past climate include:

glaciation 2.3 billion years ago triggered by the evo-

lution of oxygenic photosynthesis, which depleted
the atmosphere of the greenhouse gas carbon diox-
ide and introduced free oxygen.[19][20]

another glaciation 300 million years ago ushered

Pacic Decadal Oscillation 1925 to 2010
neously generate internal climate variability that can per-
sist for years to decades at a time.[9][10] Examples of this
type of variability include the El Nio-Southern Oscilla-
tion, the Pacic decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Mul-
tidecadal Oscillation. These variations can aect global
average surface temperature by redistributing heat be-
tween the deep ocean and the atmopshere[11][12] and/or by
altering the cloud/water vapor/sea ice distribution which
can aect the total energy budget of the earth.[13][14]
The oceanic aspects of these circulations can generate
variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean hav-
ing hundreds of times more mass than in the atmosphere,
in by long-term burial of decomposition-resistant
detritus of vascular land-plants (creating a carbon
sink and forming coal)[21][22]
termination of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Max-
imum 55 million years ago by ourishing marine
phytoplankton[23][24]
reversal of global warming 49 million years ago by
800,000 years of arctic azolla blooms[25][26]
global cooling over the past 40 million years driven
by the expansion of grass-grazer ecosystems[27][28]
3.2 External forcing mechanisms 3

3.2 External forcing mechanisms on such scale). Upon seawater temperature change, the
solubility of CO2 in the oceans changed, as well as other
factors impacting air-sea CO2 exchange.[33]

3.2.2 Solar output

Main article: Solar variation

The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to

Milankovitch
cycles from 800,000 years ago in the past to 800,000
years in the future.
4
Temperature variation (T)
2
0
2
C

4
6
8
10
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

300

280
Carbon Dioxide Variations in solar activity during the last several centuries based
260
on observations of sunspots and beryllium isotopes. The period
ppmv

240

220

200
of extraordinarily few sunspots in the late 17th century was the
180
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Maunder minimum.
1.8
1.6 Dust concentration
1.4
1.2
1
the Earth. Other sources include geothermal energy from
ppm

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 the Earths core, and heat from the decay of radioactive
Variations in compounds. Both long- and short-term variations in solar
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Thousands of years ago

CO2 , temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core intensity are known to aect global climate.
over the last 450,000 years
Three to four billion years ago, the Sun emitted only
70% as much power as it does today. If the atmospheric
composition had been the same as today, liquid water
should not have existed on Earth. However, there is
3.2.1 Orbital variations
evidence for the presence of water on the early Earth,
in the Hadean[34][35] and Archean[36][34] eons, leading to
Main article: Milankovitch cycles
what is known as the faint young Sun paradox.[37] Hy-
pothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly dif-
Slight variations in Earths orbit lead to changes in the ferent atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of
seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earths sur- greenhouse gases than currently exist.[38] Over the fol-
face and how it is distributed across the globe. There lowing approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of
is very little change to the area-averaged annually aver- the Sun increased and atmospheric composition changed.
aged sunshine; but there can be strong changes in the The Great Oxygenation Event oxygenation of the atmo-
geographical and seasonal distribution. The three types sphere around 2.4 billion years ago was the most notable
of orbital variations are variations in Earths eccentricity, alteration. Over the next ve billion years, the Suns ul-
changes in the tilt angle of Earths axis of rotation, and timate death as it becomes a red giant and then a white
precession of Earths axis. Combined together, these pro- dwarf will have large eects on climate, with the red gi-
duce Milankovitch cycles which have a large impact on ant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives
climate and are notable for their correlation to glacial and until that time.
interglacial periods,[29] their correlation with the advance Solar output also varies on shorter time scales, in-
and retreat of the Sahara,[29] and for their appearance in cluding the 11-year solar cycle[39] and longer-term
the stratigraphic record.[30][31] modulations.[40] Solar intensity variations possibly as a
The IPCC notes that Milankovitch cycles drove the ice result of the Wolf, Sprer and Maunder Minimum are
age cycles, CO2 followed temperature change with a lag considered to have been inuential in triggering the Lit-
of some hundreds of years, and that as a feedback am- tle Ice Age,[41] and some of the warming observed from
plied temperature change.[32] The depths of the ocean 1900 to 1950. The cyclical nature of the Suns energy
have a lag time in changing temperature (thermal inertia output is not yet fully understood; it diers from the
4 3 CAUSES

very slow change that is happening within the Sun as the climate substantially, subsequently global temper-
it ages and evolves. Research indicates that solar vari- atures decreased by about 0.5 C (0.9 F) for up to
ability has had eects including the Maunder minimum three years.[50][51] Thus, the cooling over large parts of
from 1645 to 1715 A.D., part of the Little Ice Age from the Earth reduced surface temperatures in 1991-93, the
1550 to 1850 A.D. that was marked by relative cool- equivalent to a reduction in net radiation of 4 watts per
ing and greater glacier extent than the centuries before square meter.[52] The Mount Tambora eruption in 1815
and afterward.[42][43] Some studies point toward solar ra- caused the Year Without a Summer.[53] Much larger
diation increases from cyclical sunspot activity aecting eruptions, known as large igneous provinces, occur only
global warming, and climate may be inuenced by the a few times every fty - hundred million years - through
sum of all eects (solar variation, anthropogenic radiative ood basalt, and caused in Earth past global warming and
forcings, etc.).[44][45] mass extinctions.[54]
Interestingly, a 2010 study[46] suggests, that the eects Small eruptions, with injections of less than 0.1 Mt of sul-
of solar variability on temperature throughout the atmo- fur dioxide into the stratosphere, impact the atmosphere
sphere may be contrary to current expectations. only subtly, as temperature changes are comparable with
In an Aug 2011 Press Release, CERN announced the natural variability. However, because smaller eruptions
[47]

publication in the Nature journal the initial results from occur at a much higher frequency, they too have a signif-
[48][55]
its CLOUD experiment. The results indicate that ion- icant impact on Earths atmosphere.
isation from cosmic rays signicantly enhances aerosol Seismic monitoring maps current and future trends in vol-
formation in the presence of sulfuric acid and water, but canic activities, and tries to develop early warning sys-
in the lower atmosphere where ammonia is also required, tems. In climate modelling the aim is to study the physi-
this is insucient to account for aerosol formation and cal mechanisms and feedbacks of volcanic forcing.[56]
additional trace vapours must be involved. The next
Volcanoes are also part of the extended carbon cycle.
step is to nd more about these trace vapours, including
Over very long (geological) time periods, they release
whether they are of natural or human origin.
carbon dioxide from the Earths crust and mantle, coun-
Further information: Cosmic ray Postulated role in teracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other geo-
climate change logical carbon dioxide sinks. The US Geological Survey
estimates are that volcanic emissions are at a much lower
level than the eects of current human activities, which
generate 100300 times the amount of carbon dioxide
3.2.3 Volcanism emitted by volcanoes.[57] A review of published studies
indicates that annual volcanic emissions of carbon diox-
ide, including amounts released from mid-ocean ridges,
volcanic arcs, and hot spot volcanoes, are only the equiv-
alent of 3 to 5 days of human caused output. The annual
amount put out by human activities may be greater than
the amount released by supererruptions, the most recent
of which was the Toba eruption in Indonesia 74,000 years
ago.[58]
Although volcanoes are technically part of the litho-
sphere, which itself is part of the climate system, the
In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by
IPCC explicitly denes volcanism as an external forcing
MSU NASA satellites, eects appear from aerosols released by [59]
major volcanic eruptions (El Chichn and Pinatubo). El Nio is agent.
a separate event, from ocean variability.

3.2.4 Plate tectonics

The eruptions considered to be large enough to aect
the Earths climate on a scale of more than 1 year are
the ones that inject over 100,000 tons of SO2 into the Main article: Plate tectonics
stratosphere.[48] This is due to the optical properties of
SO2 and sulfate aerosols, which strongly absorb or scat- Over the course of millions of years, the motion of
ter solar radiation, creating a global layer of sulfuric acid tectonic plates recongures global land and ocean ar-
haze.[49] On average, such eruptions occur several times eas and generates topography. This can aect both
per century, and cause cooling (by partially blocking the global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere-
transmission of solar radiation to the Earths surface) for ocean circulation.[60]
a period of a few years. The position of the continents determines the geometry
The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, the second of the oceans and therefore inuences patterns of ocean
largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century, aected circulation. The locations of the seas are important in

controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the
globe, and therefore, in determining global climate. A
recent example of tectonic control on ocean circulation
is the formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 5 mil-
lion years ago, which shut o direct mixing between the
Atlantic and Pacic Oceans. This strongly aected the
ocean dynamics of what is now the Gulf Stream and may
have led to Northern Hemisphere ice cover.[61][62] During
the Carboniferous period, about 300 to 360 million years
ago, plate tectonics may have triggered large-scale storage
of carbon and increased glaciation.[63] Geologic evidence
points to a megamonsoonal circulation pattern during
the time of the supercontinent Pangaea, and climate mod-
eling suggests that the existence of the supercontinent was
conducive to the establishment of monsoons.[64]
The size of continents is also important. Because of the
stabilizing eect of the oceans on temperature, yearly
temperature variations are generally lower in coastal areas
than they are inland. A larger supercontinent will there-
fore have more area in which climate is strongly seasonal
than will several smaller continents or islands.
3.2.5 Human inuences
Increase in atmospheric CO2 levels
Main article: Global warming
In the context of climate variation, anthropogenic fac-
tors are human activities which aect the climate. The
scientic consensus on climate change is that climate is
changing and that these changes are in large part caused Evidence for climatic change is taken from a variety of
by human activities,[65] and it is largely irreversible.[66] sources that can be used to reconstruct past climates.
Science has made enormous inroads in
understanding climate change and its causes,
and is beginning to help develop a strong
understanding of current and potential impacts
5
that will aect people today and in coming
decades. This understanding is crucial because
it allows decision makers to place climate
change in the context of other large challenges
facing the nation and the world. There are still
some uncertainties, and there always will be in
understanding a complex system like Earths
climate. Nevertheless, there is a strong,
credible body of evidence, based on multiple
lines of research, documenting that climate is
changing and that these changes are in large
part caused by human activities. While much
remains to be learned, the core phenomenon,
scientic questions, and hypotheses have been
examined thoroughly and have stood rm in
the face of serious scientic debate and careful
evaluation of alternative explanations.
United States National Research Council,
Advancing the Science of Climate Change
Of most concern in these anthropogenic factors is the in-
crease in CO2 levels due to emissions from fossil fuel
combustion, followed by aerosols (particulate matter in
the atmosphere) and the CO2 released by cement man-
ufacture. Other factors, including land use, ozone de-
pletion, animal agriculture[67] and deforestation, are also
of concern in the roles they play both separately and
in conjunction with other factors in aecting climate,
microclimate, and measures of climate variables.[68]
4 Physical evidence
2015 Warmest Global Year on Record (since 1880) Colors
indicate temperature anomalies (NASA/NOAA; 20 January
2016).[69]
Reasonably complete global records of surface temper-
ature are available beginning from the mid-late 19th
century. For earlier periods, most of the evidence is
indirectclimatic changes are inferred from changes in
proxies, indicators that reect climate, such as vegetation,
6 4 PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

historical documents can oer insights into past changes

in the climate. Climate change eects have been linked
to the collapse of various civilizations.[71]

Comparisons between Asian Monsoons from 200 AD to 2000 AD

(staying in the background on other plots), Northern Hemisphere
temperature, Alpine glacier extent (vertically inverted as marked),
and human history as noted by the U.S. NSF.

Decline in thickness of glaciers worldwide over the past half-

century

4.3 Glaciers
Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive indica-
tors of climate change.[72] Their size is determined by a
mass balance between snow input and melt output. As
temperatures warm, glaciers retreat unless snow precip-
itation increases to make up for the additional melt; the
Arctic temperature anomalies over a 100-year period as esti- converse is also true.
mated by NASA. Typical high monthly variance can be seen,
Glaciers grow and shrink due both to natural variability
while longer-term averages highlight trends. and external forcings. Variability in temperature, pre-
cipitation, and englacial and subglacial hydrology can
ice cores,[70]
dendrochronology, sea level change, and strongly determine the evolution of a glacier in a partic-
glacial geology. ular season. Therefore, one must average over a decadal
or longer time-scale and/or over many individual glaciers
to smooth out the local short-term variability and obtain
4.1 Temperature measurements and prox- a glacier history that is related to climate.
ies A world glacier inventory has been compiled since the
1970s, initially based mainly on aerial photographs and
The instrumental temperature record from surface sta- maps but now relying more on satellites. This compila-
tions was supplemented by radiosonde balloons, extensive tion tracks more than 100,000 glaciers covering a total
atmospheric monitoring by the mid-20th century, and, area of approximately 240,000 km2 , and preliminary es-
from the 1970s on, with global satellite data as well. The timates indicate that the remaining ice cover is around
18
O/16 O ratio in calcite and ice core samples used to de- 445,000 km2 . The World Glacier Monitoring Service
duce ocean temperature in the distant past is an example collects data annually on glacier retreat and glacier mass
of a temperature proxy method, as are other climate met- balance. From this data, glaciers worldwide have been
rics noted in subsequent categories. found to be shrinking signicantly, with strong glacier
retreats in the 1940s, stable or growing conditions dur-
ing the 1920s and 1970s, and again retreating from the
4.2 Historical and archaeological evidence mid-1980s to present.[73]
The most signicant climate processes since the middle
Main article: Historical impacts of climate change to late Pliocene (approximately 3 million years ago) are
the glacial and interglacial cycles. The present interglacial
Climate change in the recent past may be detected period (the Holocene) has lasted about 11,700 years.[74]
by corresponding changes in settlement and agricultural Shaped by orbital variations, responses such as the rise
patterns.[71] Archaeological evidence, oral history and and fall of continental ice sheets and signicant sea-level
4.6 Pollen analysis
changes helped create the climate. Other changes, includ-
ing Heinrich events, DansgaardOeschger events and the
Younger Dryas, however, illustrate how glacial variations
may also inuence climate without the orbital forcing.
Glaciers leave behind moraines that contain a wealth of
materialincluding organic matter, quartz, and potas-
sium that may be datedrecording the periods in
which a glacier advanced and retreated. Similarly, by
tephrochronological techniques, the lack of glacier cover
can be identied by the presence of soil or volcanic tephra
horizons whose date of deposit may also be ascertained. 4.6
4.4 Arctic sea ice loss
Main articles: Arctic sea ice decline and Climate change
in the Arctic
The decline in Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thick-
ness, over the last several decades is further evidence for
rapid climate change.[75] Sea ice is frozen seawater that
oats on the ocean surface. It covers millions of square
miles in the polar regions, varying with the seasons. In
the Arctic, some sea ice remains year after year, whereas
almost all Southern Ocean or Antarctic sea ice melts away
and reforms annually. Satellite observations show that
Arctic sea ice is now declining at a rate of 13.3 percent
per decade, relative to the 1981 to 2010 average.[76]
This video summarizes how climate change, associated with in-
creased carbon dioxide levels, has aected plant growth.
4.5 Vegetation
A change in the type, distribution and coverage of veg-
etation may occur given a change in the climate. Some
changes in climate may result in increased precipitation
and warmth, resulting in improved plant growth and the
subsequent sequestration of airborne CO2 . A gradual
increase in warmth in a region will lead to earlier ow-
ering and fruiting times, driving a change in the tim-
ing of life cycles of dependent organisms. Conversely,
cold will cause plant bio-cycles to lag.[77] Larger, faster
or more radical changes, however, may result in vegeta-
tion stress, rapid plant loss and desertication in certain
7
circumstances.[78][79] An example of this occurred dur-
ing the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (CRC), an ex-
tinction event 300 million years ago. At this time vast
rainforests covered the equatorial region of Europe and
America. Climate change devastated these tropical rain-
forests, abruptly fragmenting the habitat into isolated 'is-
lands and causing the extinction of many plant and ani-
mal species.[78]
Pollen analysis
Palynology is the study of contemporary and fossil
palynomorphs, including pollen. Palynology is used to in-
fer the geographical distribution of plant species, which
vary under dierent climate conditions. Dierent groups
of plants have pollen with distinctive shapes and sur-
face textures, and since the outer surface of pollen is
composed of a very resilient material, they resist decay.
Changes in the type of pollen found in dierent layers of
sediment in lakes, bogs, or river deltas indicate changes
in plant communities. These changes are often a sign of
a changing climate.[80][81] As an example, palynological
studies have been used to track changing vegetation pat-
terns throughout the Quaternary glaciations[82] and espe-
cially since the last glacial maximum.[83]
4.7 Cloud cover and precipitation
See also: Cloud and Precipitation
Past precipitation can be estimated in the modern era
with the global network of precipitation gauges. Sur-
face coverage over oceans and remote areas is relatively
sparse, but, reducing reliance on interpolation, satellite
clouds and precipitation data has been available since the
1970s.[85] Quantication of climatological variation of
precipitation in prior centuries and epochs is less com-
plete but approximated using proxies such as marine sed-
iments, ice cores, cave stalagmites, and tree rings.[86]
In July 2016 scientists published evidence of increased
cloud cover over polar regions,[87] as predicted by climate
models.[88]
Climatological temperatures substantially aect cloud
cover and precipitation. For instance, during the Last
Glacial Maximum of 18,000 years ago, thermal-driven
evaporation from the oceans onto continental landmasses
was low, causing large areas of extreme desert, includ-
ing polar deserts (cold but with low rates of cloud cover
and precipitation).[84] In contrast, the worlds climate was
cloudier and wetter than today near the start of the warm
Atlantic Period of 8000 years ago.[84]
Estimated global land precipitation increased by approx-
imately 2% over the course of the 20th century, though
the calculated trend varies if dierent time endpoints are
chosen, complicated by ENSO and other oscillations, in-
8 5 SEE ALSO
Top: Arid ice age climate
Middle: Atlantic Period, warm and wet
Bottom: Potential vegetation in climate now if not for human
eects like agriculture.[84]
cluding greater global land cloud cover precipitation in
the 1950s and 1970s than the later 1980s and 1990s de-
spite the positive trend over the century overall.[85][89][90]
Similar slight overall increase in global river runo and
in average soil moisture has been perceived.[89]
4.8 Dendroclimatology
Dendroclimatology is the analysis of tree ring growth pat-
terns to determine past climate variations.[91] Wide and
thick rings indicate a fertile, well-watered growing pe-
riod, whilst thin, narrow rings indicate a time of lower
rainfall and less-than-ideal growing conditions.
4.9 Ice cores
Analysis of ice in a core drilled from an ice sheet such
as the Antarctic ice sheet, can be used to show a link be-
tween temperature and global sea level variations. The air
trapped in bubbles in the ice can also reveal the CO2 vari-
ations of the atmosphere from the distant past, well before
modern environmental inuences. The study of these ice
cores has been a signicant indicator of the changes in
CO2 over many millennia, and continues to provide valu-
able information about the dierences between ancient
and modern atmospheric conditions.
4.10 Animals
Remains of beetles are common in freshwater and land
sediments. Dierent species of beetles tend to be found
under dierent climatic conditions. Given the extensive
lineage of beetles whose genetic makeup has not altered
signicantly over the millennia, knowledge of the present
climatic range of the dierent species, and the age of the
sediments in which remains are found, past climatic con-
ditions may be inferred.[92]
Similarly, the historical abundance of various sh species
has been found to have a substantial relationship with
observed climatic conditions.[93] Changes in the primary
productivity of autotrophs in the oceans can aect marine
food webs.[94]
4.11 Sea level change
Main articles: Sea level and Current sea level rise
Global sea level change for much of the last century
has generally been estimated using tide gauge measure-
ments collated over long periods of time to give a long-
term average. More recently, altimeter measurements
in combination with accurately determined satellite
orbits have provided an improved measurement of
global sea level change.[95] To measure sea levels prior
to instrumental measurements, scientists have dated coral
reefs that grow near the surface of the ocean, coastal
sediments, marine terraces, ooids in limestones, and
nearshore archaeological remains. The predominant dat-
ing methods used are uranium series and radiocarbon,
with cosmogenic radionuclides being sometimes used to
date terraces that have experienced relative sea level fall.
In the early Pliocene, global temperatures were 12C
warmer than the present temperature, yet sea level was
1525 meters higher than today.[96]
5 See also
Abrupt climate change and links therein
Blue carbon
Climate change in literature
Geologic time scale

Homogenization
Solar variation
Temperature record
Climate of recent glaciations
Bond event
Climate of the past
Ice ages
PaleoceneEocene Thermal Maximum
Permo-Carboniferous Glaciation
Snowball Earth
Recent climate
Anthropocene
CORA dataset temperature and salinity of global
oceans
Eects of global warming on oceans
Extreme weather
Land surface eects on climate
Hardiness zone
Holocene climatic optimum
Medieval Warm Period
Temperature record of the past 1000 years
6 Notes
[1] Americas Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the
Science of Climate Change; National Research Council
(2010). Advancing the Science of Climate Change. Wash-
ington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. ISBN 0-
309-14588-0. (p1) ... there is a strong, credible body of
evidence, based on multiple lines of research, document-
ing that climate is changing and that these changes are in
large part caused by human activities. While much re-
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9 External links
Climate Change at DMOZ

Climate Change Resources from SourceWatch

Climate Change from the UCB Libraries GovPubs

Climate Change from the Met Oce (UK)

Global Climate Change from NASA (US)

Global Climate Change Indicators from NOAA

Climate Change: Evidence & Causes, from the

Royal Society and the U.S. National Academy of
Sciences

Ocean Motion: Satellites Record Weakening North

Atlantic Current

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

United Nations Universitys 'Our World 2' Climate

Change Video Briefs

United Nations Universitys 'Our World 2' Indige-

nous voices on climate change lms

Climate Change on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen

now)

Climate Change Performance Index 2010

Climate Library at Center for Ocean Solutions,

Stanford University

Climate Change: Coral Reefs on the Edge An online

video presentation by Prof. Ove Hoegh-Guldberg,
University of Auckland
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