Indian Journal of Mathematics Teaching

Vol. XXXXII, No. 1 & 2

LABORATORY BASED MATHEMATICS TEACHING

Narayan Ch Ghosh
E.K.T.P. Phase IV, No. C-34/4, Kolkata-700107
Email : ghosnarayan@gmail.com, Mobile : 91 9433870760, 9804223949,

ABSTRACT

Mathematical Concepts started to build in the early stage of mankind and it has been developed,
refined continuously with the change of society. Mathematics of Folk life, body of
traditional mathematic, originally transmitted orally and even now almost same procedure are
continuing. Folk mathematics may be regarded as an undercurrent to the mainstream of
mathematics; it nourishes the mainstream, and at the same time, is nurtured by it. Being extremely
practical in nature it serves the daily need of the people of every walk of life. Common people with
elementary education can apply it at ease to the solution of various problems arising out of
everyday life, seek recreation in it, and are encouraged to devise new problems or puzzles orally,
whether those are significant or trifling. But in present developed society, people are using
mathematics multifarious ways mathematics learning is associated with fears, tears, trauma and
even conscious people used say, learning of mathematics is a tuff job. For folk people nature is
their laboratory. Commensuration with nature based laboratory here author tried build an idea for
Laboratory based mathematics teaching in present globalised thinking of education.

INTRODUCTION : Modern age has made the world a global village, where mobility of men is a
prime phenomena. So mobility of person having technical knowledge throughout the globe
emerged the question of competence that motivates for standardisation of education. Emphasise on
standardisation of engineering education has been considered more important as it is straight way
professional course. Consequence of which the concept of an international body was floated.
Washington Accord was the outcome of that, which was initiated in U.K. by the Engineering
Council and the agreement took place on October 29, 1989. The Washington Accord is the parent
agreement among engineering accrediting bodies in the signatory countries. It pertains to
undergraduate engineering programs. Sydney Accord commenced in 2001, recognises substantial
equivalence in accreditation of qualifications in engineering technology, normally of three years
duration and Dublin Accord is an agreement for a substantial equivalence in the accreditation of
tertiary qualifications in technician engineering, normally of two years duration. It commenced in
2002. All these are essentially a quality assurance process based on world best practice.

Washington Accord, signed in 1989, is an international agreement among bodies responsible for
accrediting engineering degree programs. It recognizes the substantial equivalency of programs
accredited by those bodies and recommends that graduates of programs accredited by any of the
signatory bodies be recognised by the other bodies as having met the academic requirements for
entry to the practice of engineering.

In nut shell the following are the basic terms of agreements of Washington Accord.
Accept that Accreditation procedures are comparable.
Accept one anothers accredited degrees from the date of admission as a full member.
Agree to identify and encourage implementation of best practise.
Accept mutual monitoring.
Accept that it applies to Accreditations in home jurisdictions only.
Accept the need to encourage licensing and registration authorities to apply the Agreement.

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The original signatories of Washington Accord were Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Republic of
Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, United Kingdom and United States. In 2005 Japan was
admitted as a full signatory, with Singapore admitted in 2006, Korea and Taiwan admitted in
2007 and Malaysia in 2009. Representatives from Australia and United States continue as
Chairman and Secretariat of the Washington Accord. Now the signatories of Washington Accord
are : Australian Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), Accreditation
Board for Engineering Education of Korea (ABEEK), Canadian Engineering Accreditation
Board for Engineers Canada (CEAB-EC), Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA), ),
Engineering Council UK (ECUK), Engineers Australia, Engineers Ireland (EI), Hong Kong
Institution of Engineers (HKIE), Institute of Engineering Education Taiwan (IEET), Institution of
Engineers Singapore (IES), Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand (IPENZ), Japan
Accreditation Board for Engineering Education (JABEE), Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM),
and such bodies of Germany (ASIIN), India (AICTE), Russia (RAEE) and Sri Lanka (Engineers
Sri Lanka) are the provisional members. In the year 1987 All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) was set up in the year 1945 and statutory status was given on 1987 by an Act
of Parliament to coordinate development of technical education, promotion of quality
improvement in relation to quantitative growth and maintenance of norms and standards. As a
part of its programmes and activities, the National Board of Accreditation (NBA) was set up by
the AICTE in September 1994, for the purpose of assessment of Quality and Accreditation of
Technical Education programmes in India. In the mean time AICTE has become the member of
the International Network of Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) and
the year 2003 2004 was declared as the Quality Education Year by MHRD - Government of
India. AICTE has also constituted a Review Committee to review undergraduate education in
engineering and technology in the country.

National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) is an autonomous body established by

University Grants Commission of India to assess and accredit institutions of higher education in
India in the year 1992 and in 1994 it is been given autonomous status. After taking into
consideration the existing control of quality assessment and quality control and accreditation of
higher education in USA, UK, Canada, Australia in India NAAC document was prepared to
assesses and accredits institutions of higher learning and help them continuously upgrade quality.

Mission, Goals and Achievements :

The Washington Accord set the criteria, policies and procedures for accrediting engineering
academic programs. Signatories of Washington Accord agreed to accept each others
accreditation decisions and to publish statements certifying their intent to do so. Also they agreed
to recognise substantial equivalence of their respective programs in terms of meeting academic
requirements for engineering programs. They pledged to exchange information and conduct
mutual monitoring, to observe each others accreditation visits, and to encourage best practices.
Thus this accord promotes the effective mutual recognition of accredited engineering degree
courses in each of the signatory countries. It means any engineering graduate from accredited
programs in of signatory countries is automatically considered an engineering graduate in all
other signatory countries. Conversely, graduates from non-accredited programs or graduates
from non-member countries are not recognised by the Accord members.

The other three agreements cover recognition of equivalence at the practising engineer level is
seen to meet the benchmark standard. The oldest such agreement is the APEC Engineer
agreement commenced in 1999. The Engineers Mobility Forum agreement commenced in 2001
and Engineering Technologist Mobility Forum agreement was signed in the year 2003.

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Philippine engineering graduates, therefore, are not considered engineers in the signatory
countries of Washington Accord. Here it is essential to note that the Accord applies only to
accredited programs, not to all programs within a member country. The Washington Accord
provides admission of new members from its biennial general meeting. But if one becomes a
member, he still have to accredit undergraduate engineering programs for their graduates to be
considered equal to those in other countries. Also it is important to distinguish equivalence in
undergraduate education from licensing or passing professional examinations. A licensed
engineer from any of these countries may or may not be automatically recognised as licensed in
another country. A separate examination requires before one can license in another country,
however, one has to have recognised degree. Now, it is clear India being in the Accord, it is a
prerequisite for Indian engineers getting licensed in another country.

Job opportunity for skill forces are been increased in internal sphere in India. On the other hand
India is one of best human resource suppliers with high level skilled manpower. Increased skilled
manpower utilisation in internal market due to inflow of jobs are been increased tremendously, at
the same time supply chain of high level skilled manpower creating pressure on generation of
skilled workforce.

To face tremendous pressure for taking measures against out sourcing George W. Bush openly
asked American youths to learn mathematics like Indians. Later Barak Hussain Obama repeated
same utterance in a meeting with American senators.

Here, question arises : why Indian sectors are been chosen for out sourcing ? Is it only for low
labour value ? Has standard of output been compromised ? Not discussing in detail, one may
conclude saying it is fact that though value of labour may be one factor; but no compromise is
done in respect of quality. If so, is Indian may be pleased for their standard of teaching and
training programs ? Particularly, is mathematics teaching in India good; if not high ? Here lies
the fallacy.

For strengthening ones logical concepts knowledge of mathematical reasoning is most essential,
and historic outcome of Indian logical concepts, mostly based on mathematical culture, either it
is formal or non formal; are the fundamental aspects of present level for which Indian may feel
proud. Emphasised was given on logic in all culture of ancient India; so concepts of reasoning
were been nurtured in the society with a special care. People of modern India are inheriting it.
Now the question is : in globalised village how long Indian will be in frontline with its traditions
only, if not continuously improving its level of knowledge, procedure for transferring knowledge
they posses and quickly acquiring most developed knowledge from others in scientific manner.
This question is very much important when concept of standardisation of education has been
considered most important through out the globe.

India entered into the Washington Accord on 31 October 2007. The accredited engineering
degrees of India approved by the AICTE accredited by the National Board of Accreditation now
treated as per with the U.S. degrees as well as other engineering degrees from the countries that
are a party to the Washington Accord.

Present scenario of Mathematics Teaching

Mathematics teaching in todays school is text book dominated, concerned primarily with the
manipulation of symbols and, all too often, largely no connection with real world of learner.
Endless repetition, meaningless memorisation, a never-ending series of worksheets or practice

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exercises and general lack of interest and understanding causing mathematics a reputation of
fear, tear and trauma. Consequence of which children slowly are dissociating themselves with
practice of mathematics, instead of associating with it like their toys, games etc. When folk
mathematics was part of daily life in folk society, mathematics becomes a specialised one of
formalised life. Thus instead of coping up dynamic changes in mathematics learning Indian
children are becoming backbencher. Students of non-engineering subjects are pleased to give up
mathematics. But nowadays higher studies in biological sciences need good mathematical
knowledge. For studying Microbiology, Genetics mathematical knowledge is essential. Modern
Medical Science rapidly becoming technology based, for which physician will feel necessity to
have certain mathematical knowledge. With out having mathematical knowledge now learning
the subjects like economics, geography is unimaginable. Mathematical based is necessary to
learn linguistics. In stead of learning history as His Story D.D. Kowsambis contribution was to
make study of history to Analytical Study of History. His mathematics based background helped
him. Presently history becoming Mathematical History (one should not confuse the term
Mathematical History with the term History of Mathematics).

In view of the above stated facts for forward jumping immediate task of Indian educator and
education planner is to look in to the issues related to not only joyful mathematics teaching and
learning; but also scientific mathematics teaching methodology. If in scientific mathematics
teaching methodology, learners mathematics exercise have sound relation with his other subjects
or topics then mathematics learning also will be joyful. In existing global scenario development
and adoption of appropriate techniques for mathematics teaching and learning in India is an
urgent task.

Cave men used to select caves for their use. Perhaps those were the measuring concepts of
human being of no vocal language; except body languages. Such measurement techniques i.e.
concepts of form, magnitude and number are parts of life from early period of men kind and with
the progress of civilisation said knowledge has been diversified and concepts of quantifications
have taken manifold character creating foundation of formal mathematics and now a days no
man can think of with out use of mathematics. Modern studies of animal cognition have shown
that these concepts are not unique to humans. Such concepts are parts of everyday life in hunter-
gather societies. The oldest known mathematical object is the Lebombo bone, discovered in the
Lebombo mountains of Swaziland on approximately 35,000 BC. Ishango bone, found near the
Headwaters of the Nile river (north-eastern Congo) may be as much as 20,000 years old and
consists of a series of tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the bone.
Common interpretations are that the Ishango bone shows either the earliest known demonstration
of sequences of prime numbers or a six month lunar calendar. There is evidence that woman used
counting to keep track of their menstrual cycles : 28 to 30 scratches on bone or stone, followed
by a distinctive marker. Also prehistoric artefacts discovered in Africa and France, dated between
35,000 and 20,000 years old, suggest early attempts to quantify time. Linguists now count 6,909
languages worldwide, around half those are endangered, the victims of cultural change, ethnic
shame, government repression and other factors. Speakers of any of those languages express
their quantification concepts, area, volume etc. mathematical ideas in their own language. The
staggering pace of life and the sweeping progress of science under the scientific and
technological revolution compel shop-floor workers, experts and managerial personnel to keep
abreast of contemporary scientific achievements; those fail will fall catastrophically behind and
become a hindrance for further economic progress. Also it is common feature due to rapid
technical progress many generations of technology succeed one another within the lifespan of
one generation of people influencing speed of social changes and knowledge.

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Mathematics of Folk body is traditional MATHEMATICS, originally transmitted orally. Folk
mathematics may be considered as an undercurrent to the mainstream of mathematics; it
nourishes the mainstream, and at the same time, is nurtured by it. Being extremely practical in
nature it serves the daily need of the people of every walk of life. Common people with no
formal education can apply it with ease to the solution of various problems arising out of
everyday life, seek recreation in it, and are encouraged to devise new problems or puzzles orally,
whether those are significant or trifling. Shubhangkar (300 BC) literally means a book on
arithmetic, which can benefit mass education. It is uncertain whether the arithmetical system was
introduced by Shubhangkar during the reign of the Mallas in the first half of the 17th century.
But there was certainly a mathematician, Shubhangkar by name, in medieval Bengal, who had
written several rules (aryas) pertaining to mathematics in the form of folk rhymes. The language
in which the rules were composed is mainly the Bengali prevalent in medieval Bengal with lots
of words taken from Prakrt, Apabhrangsha, and from Austro-Asiatic languages. There were
many Arya authors in Bengal and Assam in medieval time whose names were mentioned at the
end of several aryas. To find the area of a plot of land in bighas, the following aryas is
recommended:

Kurba kurba kurba lijje

kathay kurba kathay lijje
kathay kathay dhul pariman
bish ganda hay kathar praman
ganda baki thake yadi katha nile par
sholo diye pure tare sara ganda dhar
Translation: kudba multiplied by kudba, take it, as (square) kudba, katha by kudba as (square)
katha; katha by katha as dhul, it being divided by 20 yields (square) katha; the remainder (if there
be) when multiplied by 16 gives forth (square) ganda. Interestingly, ganda and pana are Austro-
Asiatic words and had been in use since 300 BC as is evident from the excavation
at MAHASTHANGARH in the district of BOGORA in Bangladesh.

In the way of naming mathematics of peoples life it was termed as i. Indigenous Mathematics,
ii. Socio-mathematics, iii. Informal Mathematics, iv. Mathematics in the socio-cultural
Environment, v. Spontaneous Mathematics, vi. Oral Mathematics, vii. Oppressed Mathematics,
viii. Non-standard Mathematics, ix. Hidden or Frozen Mathematics, x. Mathematics codtified in
know-hows, xi. Anthropological Mathematics, xii. Sociology of Mathematics, xiii. Self-
generated Mathematics, xiv. Practical Mathematics.

Music until the 17th century was one of the four mathematical disciplines of the quadrivium beside
arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. The cause of consonance, in terms of Aristotelian analysis,
was stated to be numerous sonorous, or harmonic number. That the ratio 2:1 produces the octave,
and 3:2 produces the fifth, was known since the time of Pythagoras. Numerologists of the Middle
Ages speculated on the mythical significanceof numbers in music. Vincenzo Galilei, father of
Galileo, was the first to make an attempt to demystify the numerology of music (1). He pointed out
that the octave can be obtained through different ratios of 2":1. It is 2:1 in terms of string length,
4:1 in terms of weights attached to the strings, which is inversely related to the cross-section of
the string, and 8:1 in terms of volume of sound-producing bodies, such as organ pipes.

Scientific experiments have revealed the relation between note-interval and vibrational frequency
produced by an instrument. We obtain an octave-higher note by doubling the sound frequency,
which can be achieved by halving the length of a string. There are 12 notes in an octave in our
diatonic music. Indian musicians, folk or classical, are using sequence in their routine

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practices, not in the name of mathematics, but common affairs for senqunising their
instruments and vocal sounds.

In modern society, though mathematics is used in daily life; fears, tears trauma are parts of
common phenomena of mathematics teaching. On the other hand, important and uses of
mathematics are continuously increasing day to day. So it is urgent to search mathematics
teaching methodology without fears, tears trauma or at least minimising those with joyful
mathematics teaching to build mathematical concepts based on sound logic and simple solution
techniques, if possible, with visualising effects. This task is to be tackled carefully as it is a
complex system with many constituents and cause as well as effect interconnected. It, in one
hand, takes form and operates under the influence of external conditions and needs for
intensifications of social production; on the other hand, the results of its operation exert a
substantial effect on the development of related spheres of social activities, such as the economy,
culture and science. Also no one can ignore that scientific and technological revolution (STR) is
not only drastically changing science and technology, but also affecting very form and content of
human life activities. As a result the mastering of new technology and innovations takes much
less time. This confronts men with the main problem : how to correlate the intrinsically inert
process of training with rapidly changing external conditions and correlation needs emphasised
introduction of new techniques in mathematics teaching methodology.

Need and multidimensional changing scenario concepts of Laboratory Based Mathematics

Teaching has gaining ground and people are anxious for searching ways, modern concepts,
technologies to develop education technology for mathematics teaching. In advance civilised
society people are very much depending on technology and Society accustomed with the rate of
advancement of science, engineering and technology is exponentially depending on mathematics
as it is part of all those advancement. This growth rate of use and dependence creating
momentum for searching better mathematics teaching methodology that leads to the ways for
essentially stronger ground for Laboratory Based Mathematics Teaching. Nature was laboratory
for cognition animal and cave men, but in changed society natural resources has been
transformed to its new shapes and forms. Accordingly for mathematics teaching laboratory need
be restructured accordingly.

Problem Solving Technique for Mathematics Teaching :

The following diagram may be used to discuss representing and solving applied math problems
at the K-12 level. This diagram is especially useful in discussions of the current K-12
mathematics curriculum.

The six steps illustrated are 1) Problem posing; 2) Mathematical modelling; 3) Using a
computational or algorithmic procedure to solve a computational or algorithmic math problem;
4) Mathematical "unmodeling"; 5) Thinking about the results to see if the Clearly-defined
Problem has been solved; and 6) Thinking about whether the original Problem Situation has been

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resolved. Steps 5 and 6 also involve thinking about related problems and problem situations that
one might want to address or that are created by the process or attempting to solve the original
Clearly-defined Problem or resolve the original Problem Situation.

Fundamental needs of to-days learners :

Need are not same of all section of learners. These can be categorised as follows :
i. Need of babies or pre-primary entrants, ii. Need of primary school goers, iii. Need of
secondary and higher secondary level students, iv. Need of under-graduates level students in
general, v. Need of specialised under-graduates level students, vi. Need of post-graduates level
students in general, vi. Need of specialised post-graduates level students, vii. Need of
engineering students, viii. Need of commerce students, ix. Need of adult education planners in
general, x. Need of illiterate workers in organised sectors.

More such division may be considered according to the choice of educators. For laboratory based
mathematics teaching laboratory need be set up according to the need of learners.

What is mathematics laboratory ?

Concept of mathematics laboratory need be cleared fast as there are two different ideas. One is,
concept of mathematics laboratory is vac. According to them, besides pen and paper nothing is
necessary for mathematics leaner and teacher. They say, mathematics is an exercise of brain with
pen and paper only, any other aid for learning mathematics over rule importance of brain
functioning mostly essential for mathematics learning. Opinion of second group is in favour of
mathematics laboratory; but their concept of mathematics laboratory is sophisticated. They
forget, nature was the laboratory for cognition animal and cave men. Till now animal learns from
nature, human in some of the societies in Andaman, in Brazil and in Australia counts with their
natural language of limited numerals.

The mathematics laboratory is a place, rich in manipulative materials, to which learner have
ready access to handle them, perform mathematical experiments, play mathematical games, solve
mathematical puzzles and become involved in other activities.

An integral part of the mathematics laboratory is the manipulation of objects. Through

manipulating concrete material, the learner is better able to bridge the gap between the real and
the abstract world.

The mathematics laboratory approach allows pupils to set up mathematical experiments for the
purpose of discovering some mathematical principle, pattern or process. Even teachers can be a
part of the process, group discussions and individual projects.

Mathematics laboratory is activity-centred where learner is placed in problem solving situation

and through self exploration and discovery, he or she provides a solution based on his or her
experience, need and interests.

Mathematics laboratory may be set up with easily available improvises from natural resources.
Undoubtedly for standard mathematics laboratory improved sophisticated improvises are
necessary. Standardisation mathematics laboratory for an institution depends on the purpose of
mathematics laboratory.

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What is the purpose of mathematics laboratory ?

Identification of category of learner to be covered by mathematics laboratory is first step for

setting up a mathematics laboratory. Thereafter purposes of mathematics laboratory are : i. To
provide readily accessible rich manipulative materials, ii. To develop physical involvement in
order to add new ideas to learners their cognitive structure, iii. To make learners experience
with real-world embodiments of mathematical ideas, iv. To emphasis learning by doing, v. To
provide learner with opportunities to discover and understand mathematical concepts through
their active involvement in solving problems, vi. To inspire learner, especially children, for
thinking, for looking to patterns and asking questions, vii. To develop an attitude of enquiry.

For an engineering student mathematics laboratory is most essential to visualised mathematics

everywhere in his experiments. Instead of doing mathematical jugglery contribution of
visualisation effects directly act for strengthening engineers confidence, necessary to take
challenge in engineers profession. Todays medical practitioners are using medical technology
not going into detail of its logic upgrade their concepts. If they could use those having certain
mathematical knowledge, that mathematics laboratory can provide, their analysis for diagnosing
cause of the problems of patient might be easier and more perfect. Fractal analysis is the
modelling of data by fractals. It consists of methods to assign a fractal dimension and other
fractal characteristics to a signal, dataset or object which may be sound, images, molecules,
networks or other data. Fractal analysis is now widely used in all areas of science. Similarly
Wavelet analysis is another modern mathematical tool helping modern technology in
multidimensional ways to cop up real life problem. Engineers, Medical experts, and in some
cases business house are using those tools. Most of to days washing machines are Fuzzy logic
based programmed and women, not knowing Fuzzy logic at all, are using those. If users could
learn about these concepts in Mathematics Laboratory it might be helpful for proper use of tools.
Using Mathematics Laboratory mathematics student can build their conception on strong ground
and in pleasant way. For joyful mathematics teaching there is no alternative of mathematics
laboratory.

Conclusion :

For retaining Indias present position in global perspective up-gradation of existing mathematics
teaching practice is most essential. Considering need of present society to compete upcoming
nations with enhance mathematical knowledge such up-gradation is not only essential, but also
urgent. To be front liner Indian, enriching themselves from the past, should set up their mind to
use technology, models etc.; either in indigenous or modern form and/or combination of the both,
for todays mathematics teaching. For up-gradation diversification of teaching methodology,
adoption of modern techniques as well as technology is to be prime object, therefore Laboratory
Based Mathematics Teaching is now should be considered as important as things necessary for
our livelihood. Now, in some Indian universities/colleges numerical lab has been introduced for
general graduate, post- graduate and engineering graduate level courses. But there is limitation
for introduction O.R. practical for general graduate and engineering graduate level courses. This
should be removed immediately to start laboratory based mathematics teaching in all level.
Laboratory with models, charts (both in upgraded and indigenous form) even in school level
need be introduced immediately. Basic Laboratory Mathematics with Self-Instructional Material
need be established for joyful mathematics learning in primary level schools without delay.

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 References
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Higher Education, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
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4. Ghosh, N.C. (2009) : Folk Mathematics : Concepts & Definition - An Out Line, Rabindra Bharati
Patrika Vol. XII, No. 2.
5. Ghosh, N.C. (2007) : Folklore Study. LOKDARPAN - Journal of the Dept. of Folklore,
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7. Richard Courant, Herbert Robbins, Ian Stewart (1996) : What Is Mathematics? Oxford
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through http://www.ime.usp.br/~vwsetzer.
10. Venda, V.F. (1986) : On Transformation Learning Theory. Behavioral Science. Vol. 31, No.1.
11. V.W. Setzer (1988) : O computador no ensino: nova vida ou destruio? in E.O.Chaves e
V.W. Setzer, O uso de Comutadores em Escolas - Fundamentos e Crticas., Editora Scipione,
S.Paulo 1988. See also the consecutively enlarged versions V.W.Setzer, Computers in
Education, Floris Books, Edinburgh 1989 and V.W.Setzer, Computer in der Schule? - Thesen
und Argumente, Verlag Freies Geistesleben, Stuttgart 1992.

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